Mitmw Research Final

Republic of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Piccio Garden, Pasay City, 1630 Metro Manila
MATHEMATICS IN THE
MODERN WORLD
Custodio, Aron Mickael C.

AAET 1-5
Problem Solving and Reasoning Core Idea
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

 Deductive Reasoning
o Deductive reasoning is a basic form of valid reasoning. Deductive reasoning,
or deduction, starts out with a general statement, or hypothesis, and examines
the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion, according to California
State University (Bradford, 2017).
o Deductive reasoning usually follows steps. First, there is a premise, then a
second premise, and finally an inference. A common form of deductive
reasoning is the syllogism, in which two statements — a major premise and a
minor premise — reach a logical conclusion. For example, the premise "Every
A is B" could be followed by another premise, "This C is A." Those
statements would lead to the conclusion "This C is B." Syllogisms are
considered a good way to test deductive reasoning to make sure the argument
is valid (Bradford, 2017).
o Example:
 "All men are mortal. Harold is a man. Therefore, Harold is mortal."
For deductive reasoning to be sound, the hypothesis must be correct. It
is assumed that the premises, "All men are mortal" and "Harold is a
man" are true. Therefore, the conclusion is logical and true. In
deductive reasoning, if something is true of a class of things in general,
it is also true for all members of that class (Bradford, 2017).
 Inductive Reasoning
o Inductive reasoning is the opposite of deductive reasoning. Inductive
reasoning makes broad generalizations from specific observations. Basically,
there is data, then conclusions are drawn from the data. This is called
inductive logic, according to Utah State University (Bradford, 2017).
o Inductive reasoning is an example of an analytical soft skill. Unlike hard skills
- which are job-specific and generally require technical training - soft skills
relate
to how you interact with people, social situations, and ideas (The Balance
Careers, n.d).
o In inductive inference, we go from the specific to the general. We make many
observations, discern a pattern, make a generalization, and infer an
explanation or a theory," Wassertheil-Smoller told Live Science. "In science,
there is a constant interplay between inductive inference (based on
observations) and deductive inference (based on theory), until we get closer
and closer to the 'truth,' which we can only approach but not ascertain with
complete certainty (Bradford, 2017).
o Example:
 “The coin I pulled from the bag is a penny. That coin is a penny. A
third coin from the bag is a penny. Therefore, all the coins in the bag
are pennies”. Even if all of the premises are true in a statement,
inductive reasoning allows for the conclusion to be false. Here's an
example: "Harold is a grandfather. Harold is bald. Therefore, all
grandfathers are bald." The conclusion does not follow logically from
the statements (Bradford, 2017).
Intuition, Proof and Certainty

Intuition (Hersh, n.d)
 If we look at mathematical practice, the intuitive is everywhere. We consider
intuition in the mathematical literature and in mathematical discovery.
 The word intuition, as mathematicians use it, carries a heavy load of mystery and
ambiguity. Sometimes it's a dangerous, illegitimate substitute for rigorous proof.
Sometimes it's a flash of insight that tells the happy few what others learn with great
effort. As a first step to explore this slippery concept, consider this list of the
meanings and uses we give this word.
 It is also considered as a thing that one knows or considers likely from instinctive
feeling rather than conscious reasoning.
Proof (Hersh, n.d)

 The old, colloquial meaning of "prove" is: Test, try out, determine the true state of
affairs (as in Aberdeen Proving Ground, galley proof "the proof of the pudding,"
"the exception.
 It is an evidence or argument establishing or helping to establish a fact or the truth of
a statement.
 That proves therule," and so forth.) How the mathematical is "prove" related to the
old, colloquial "prove"?
 Proof is complete explanation. Give it when complete explanation is appropriate,
rather than incomplete explanation or no explanation.
Certainty (Hersh, n.d)

 It is perceived as the quality or state of being certain especially on the basis of
evidence.
 Certainty is perfect knowledge that has total security from error, or the mental state
of being without doubt. Objectively defined, certainty is total continuity and validity
of all foundational inquiry, to the highest degree of precision. Something is certain
only if no skepticism can occur.
Polya’s 4-steps in Problem Solving

 George Polya, known as the father of modern problem solving, did extensive studies
and wrote numerous mathematical papers and three books about problem solving. I'm
going to show you his method of problem solving to help step you through these
problems (Steward, 2011).
 In 1945 George Polya published the book “How to Solve It” which quickly became his
most prized publication. It sold over one million copies and has been translated into 17
languages. In this book he identifies four basic principles of problem solving
(Berkeley, n.d).
Polya’s First Principle: Understand the Problem (Berkeley, n.d)

 This seems so obvious that it is often not even mentioned, yet students are often
stymied in their efforts to solve problems simply because they don’t understand it
fully, or even in part.
 Sometimes the problem lies in understanding the problem. If you are unclear as to
what needs to be solved, then you are probably going to get the wrong results. In
order to show an understanding of the problem, you, of course, need to read the
problem carefully. Sounds simple enough, but some people jump the gun and try to
start solving.
 The problem before they have read the whole problem. Once the problem is read, you
need to list all the components and data that are involved. This is where you will be
assigning your variable (Steward, 2011).
 Polya taught teachers to ask students questions such as:
 Do you understand all the words used in stating the problem?
 What are you asked to find or show?
 Can you restate the problem in your own words?
 Can you think of a picture or diagram that might help you understand the
problem?
 Is there enough information to enable you to find a solution?
Polya’s Second Principle: Devise a Plan (Berkeley, n.d)

 Polya mentions that there are many reasonable ways to solve problems. The skill at
choosing an appropriate strategy is best learned by solving many problems. You will
find choosing a strategy increasingly easy.
 When you devise a plan (translate), you come up with a way to solve the problem.
Setting up an equation, drawing a diagram, and making a chart are all ways that you
can go about solving your problem (Steward, 2011).
A partial list of strategies:
Polya’s Third Principle: Carry out the Plan (Berkeley, n.d)

 This step is usually easier than devising the plan. In general, all you need is care and
patience, given that you have the necessary skills. Persist with the plan that you have
chosen. If it continues not to work discard it and choose another. Don’t be misled, this
is how mathematics is done, even by professionals.
 This is where you solve the equation you came up with in your 'devise a plan' step
(Steward, 2011).
Polya’s Fourth Principle: Look Back (Berkeley, n.d)

 Polya mentions that much can be gained by taking the time to reflect and look back at
what you have done, what worked, and what didn’t. Doing this will enable you to
predict what strategy to use to solve future problems.
 You may be familiar with the expression 'don't look back'. In problem solving it is
good to look back (check and interpret). Basically, check to see if you used all your
information and that the answer makes sense. If your answer does check out, make
sure that you write your final answer with the correct labeling (Steward, 2011).
Problem Solving Strategies

Strategies are things that Pólya would have us choose in his second stage of problem solving
and use in his third stage (What is Problem Solving?). In actual fact he called them heuristics.
To Pólya they were things to try that he couldn’t guarantee would solve the problem but, of
course, he sincerely hoped they would. So they are some sort of general ideas that might
work for a number of problems, and then again they might not (Te Kete Ipurangi, n.d).
Additional Problem Solving Strategies: (Online Math Learning, n.d)
 What do you know?
 What do you need to know?
 Draw a diagram/picture
Other Solution Strategies:

 Label Variables
 Verbal Model or Logical Reasoning
 Algebraic Model - Translate Verbal Model to Algebraic Model
 Solve and Check.
Mathematical Problems Involving Patterns

 According to (Vogstad, 2015) patterns provide a sense of order in what might otherwise
appear chaotic. Researchers have found that understanding and being able to identify
recurring patterns allow us to make educated guesses, assumptions, and hypothesis; it
helps us develop important skills of critical thinking and logic.
An Example of a Mathematic Problem Involving Patterns

SKELETON TOWER
(Shell Centre for Mathematical Education, n.d)
(i) How many cubes are needed to build this tower?

(ii) How many cubes are needed to build a towerlike this, but 12 cubes high?
(iii)Explain how you worked out your answer to part (ii).
(iv) How would you calculate the number of cubes needed for a tower n cubes high?
Recreational Problems using Mathematics

 Recreational mathematics is mathematics done for recreation or as a hobby and intended
to be fun. Typically it involves games or puzzles that relate to mathematics, although the
term can cover other material. Typically, recreational mathematics involves general
logical and lateral thinking skills, as opposed to advanced mathematical concepts, so that
the average person is at least able to understand and appreciate a recreational problem
and its solution. Recreational puzzles can also increase people's appreciation of
mathematics as a whole (Math Lair, 2015).
Example of Recreational Problems using Mathematics (Math CMU, n.d)

Problem: “How many children do you have, and what are their ages?” asks the census taker.
The mother answers, “I have three children. The product of their ages is 36, and the sum of
their ages is the same as my house number.”
The census taker looks at the house number, thinks for a moment, and responds, “I’m sorry,
but I need more information.”
“My oldest child likes chocolate ice cream,” says the mother.
“Thank you,” replies the census taker. “I have all the information I require.”
How old are the children?
Solution:
There are eight possible ways for three children to have ages whose product is 36
We don’t know the sum of the ages, but we do know that

the census taker knows the sum (she looked at the house
number) and yet she is still unable to determine the three
ages. This must be because the house number is 13;
otherwise, knowing the sum would be enough
information. So the ages of the children are either 1, 6,
and 6 or 2, 2, and 9. The mother’s statement that her
oldest child likes chocolate ice cream rules out the
possibility that the ages are 1, 6, and 6, because in that
case there would not be a single oldest child. Hence we
conclude that the ages of the children are 2, 2, and 9.
Mathematics as a Tool
 Throughout our lives Mathematics is used for various purposes. One purpose is to use it
as a tool for managing and understanding our surrounding through the use of probability
and statistics (Kramer, 2016).
Data Management
 Data management is an administrative process that includes acquiring, validating,
storing, protecting, and processing required data to ensure the accessibility, reliability,
and timeliness of the data for its users (Galetto, 2016).
 Data Management comprises all the disciplines related to managing data as a valuable
resource. Data does not have meaning unless we are able to use it, make decisions and
sound judgment based on it. We do this by using tools (Statistical Tools) for managing
the data. In this course we will be using spreadsheets and graphing software to perform
complex calculations and link, search, sort and graph data (Virtual High School,
2013).
¯
Statistical Tools derived from Mathematics

 Statistical methods involved in carrying out a study include planning, designing,
collecting data, analyzing, drawing meaningful interpretation and reporting of the
research findings. The statistical analysis gives meaning to the meaningless numbers,
thereby breathing life into a lifeless data (Nature Research, n.d)
Most Commonly used Types of Statistical Tools
(FAO Org, n.d)
 Mean
o The average of a set of n data xi:
 Standard Deviation
o This is the most commonly used measure of the spread or dispersion of data
around the mean. The standard deviation is defined as the square root of the
variance (V). The variance is defined as the sum of the squared deviations from
the mean, divided by n-1. Operationally, there are several ways of calculation:
 Variance (Science Buddies, n.d)

o The variance (σ2) is a measure of how far each value in the data set is from the
mean. Here is how it is defined:
 Subtract the mean from each value in the data. This gives you a
measure of the distance of each value from the mean.
 Square each of these distances (so that they are all positive values), and
add all of the squares together.
 Divide the sum of the squares by the number of values in the data set.
 T-Test
o A one sample t-test allows us to test whether a sample mean (of a normally
distributed interval variable) significantly differs from a hypothesized value.
 One-Way ANOVA
o A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used when you have a categorical
independent variable (with two or more categories) and a normally distributed
interval dependent variable and you wish to test for differences in the means of
the dependent variable broken down by the levels of the independent variable.
References
Berkeley (n.d). Polya’s problem solving techniques. Retrieved from
https://math.berkeley.edu/~gmelvin/polya.pdf
Bradford (2017). Deductive reasoning vs. inductive reasoning. Retrieved from
https://www.livescience.com/21569-deduction-vs-induction.html
FAO Org (n.d). 6 basic statistical tools. Retrieved from
http://www.fao.org/3/W7295E/w7295e08.htm
Galetto (2016). What is data management?. Retrieved from https://www.ngdata.com/what-is
data-management/
Hersh (n.d).Intuition/proof/certainty. Retrieved from https://www.uni
siegen.de/fb6/phima/lehre/phima13/quellentexte/seminar_-_hersh/hersh-chapter4.pdf
Kramer (2016). Math is a tool to understand our world. Retrieved from
https://www.huffpost.com/entry/math-is-a-tool-to-underst_b_7355210
Math CMU (n.d). Problem solving in recreational mathematics. Retrieved from
http://www.math.cmu.edu/~bkell/21110-2010s/homework-1-sol.pdf
Math Lair (2015). Recreational mathematics. Retrieved from
https://mathlair.allfunandgames.ca/recreational.php
Nature Research (n.d). Statistical methods. Retrieved from
https://www.nature.com/subjects/statistical-methods
Online Math Learning (n.d). Math problem solving strategies. Retrieved from
https://www.onlinemathlearning.com/math-problem-solving-strategies.html
Science Buddies (n.d). Variance and Standard Deviation. Retrieved from
https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/science-fair/variance-and-standard
deviation
Shell Centre for Mathematical Education (n.d). Problems with patterns and numbers. Retrieved
from https://www.mathshell.com/publications/tss/ppn/ppn_teacher.pdf
Steward (2011). Intermediate algebra tutorial 8: introduction to problem solving. Retrieved from
https://www.wtamu.edu/academic/anns/mps/math/mathlab/int_algebra/int_alg_tut8_pro
sol.htm
Te Kete Ipurangi (n.d). Problem solving strategies. Retrieved from
https://nzmaths.co.nz/problem-solving-strategies
The Balance Careers (n.d). Inductive reasoning definitions and examples. Retrieved from
https://www.thebalancecareers.com/inductive-reasoning-definition-with-examples
2059683
Vogstad (2015). The importance of patterning. Retrieved from
https://kellivogstad.com/2015/10/04/why-is-my-kid-building-patterns-again-the
importance-of-patterning/
Virtual High School (2013). Mathematics of data management. Retrieved from
https://www.virtualhighschool.com/courses/outlines/mdm4u.asp

Mitmw Research Final

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mitmw Research Final

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Republic of the Philippines

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

Custodio, Aron Mickael C.

Problem Solving and Reasoning Core Idea

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Intuition, Proof and Certainty

Proof (Hersh, n.d)

Certainty (Hersh, n.d)

Polya’s 4-steps in Problem Solving

Polya’s First Principle: Understand the Problem (Berkeley, n.d)

Polya’s Second Principle: Devise a Plan (Berkeley, n.d)

A partial list of strategies:

Polya’s Third Principle: Carry out the Plan (Berkeley, n.d)

Polya’s Fourth Principle: Look Back (Berkeley, n.d)

Problem Solving Strategies

Other Solution Strategies:

Mathematical Problems Involving Patterns

An Example of a Mathematic Problem Involving Patterns

(i) How many cubes are needed to build this tower?

Recreational Problems using Mathematics

Example of Recreational Problems using Mathematics (Math CMU, n.d)

We don’t know the sum of the ages, but we do know that

Statistical Tools derived from Mathematics

 Variance (Science Buddies, n.d)

You might also like