KLASIKH HLEKTRODUNAMIKH II

FULLADIO SHMEIWSEWN 6

1
SQETIKISTIKH DIATUPWSH THS HLEKTRODUNAMIKHS

1. To Tetrˆnusma thc Puknìthtac HlektrikoÔ ReÔmatoc.

SÔmfwna me ìsa anaptÔqjhkan sta prohgoÔmena, kˆje fusik  posìthta

ja prèpei na èqei sugkekrimènh tautìthta wc proc ton trìpo metasqhmatismoÔ

thc katˆ Lorentz . H tetrˆda twn posot twn ρ kai J~ den mporeÐ parˆ na

entˆssetai se èna tetrˆnusma. Pollaplasiˆzontac thn puknìthta fortÐou me

c ¸ste na èqei tic Ðdiec diastˆseic me thn puknìthta reÔmatoc, orÐzoume to

antalloÐwto tetrˆnusma

J0 = ρc





  
 
Jµ = ρ c, J~ =  1
 J = Jx . (1)

Ji = J 2 = Jy





  J3 = J

z

O eidikìc metasqhmatismìc Lorentz pou sundèei ta tetranÔsmata thc puknì-

thtac reÔmatoc Jµ kai J 0µ sta adraneiakˆ sust mata anaforˆc Σ kai Σ0 , ek

twn opoÐwn to deÔtero kineÐtai me taqÔthta

~ = x̂V
V wc proc to pr¸to, eÐnai

V
 
0
ρ = γ ρ − 2 Jx
c
V
 
Jx0 = γ Jx − ρ
c
Jy0 = Jy , Jz0 = Jz , (2)

ìpou γ = (1 − V 2 /c2 )−1/2 .

PARATHRHSH.MporoÔme na epalhjeÔsoume thn isqÔ autoÔ tou metasqhmatismoÔ sthn perÐptwsh enìc

shmeiakoÔ fortÐou. Prˆgmati, tìte èqoume apì thn pr¸th exÐswsh

 
0 0 0 V
r −~
δ(~ r −~
r0 (t ) ) = γ δ(~ r0 (t) ) 1 − vx .
c2

H sunˆrthsh dèlta sto aristerì mèloc metasqhmatÐzetai wc ex c:

Z Z
3 0 0 3 0
d r δ(~
r . . .) = r − . . .) =⇒ J δ(~
d r δ(~ r − . . .) = δ(~
r − . . .) ,

ìpou J eÐnai h Iakwbian 

 0
− x00i (t0 ))

J =
 ∂(xi .
∂xj
 

2
Prèpei epomènwc na apodeiqjeÐ ìti
 
V vx
1 = J γ 1 − .
c2

H Iakwbian  upologÐzetai wc ex c

 0
∂x00i (t0 )
 0
∂x00i ∂t0
 0
∂t0
  
J =
 ∂xi −
 =
 ∂xi −
 =
 ∂xi − vi
0 .
∂t0
 ∂xj ∂xj
  ∂xj ∂xj
  ∂xj ∂xj


Sugkekrimèna, dedomènou ìti t0 (t, x), èqoume

 
∂x0 0 ∂t
− vx
0 ∂x0 ∂x0
0
γ V2
 ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
  γ + vx 0 0

c
   
0
 

∂y 0 ∂y 0 ∂y 0
   vx V
J =   =  0 1 0  = γ 1 + .
 ∂x ∂y ∂z    c2
   
 ∂z 0 ∂z 0 ∂z 0  0 0 1
∂x ∂y ∂z

Epistrèfontac sthn apodeiktèa sqèsh èqoume

0
   
vx V V vx
1 = γ 1 + γ 1 −
c2 c2

 
!
V2
   
2 (vx − V ) V V vx 2
1 = γ 1 +
c2 1 − = γ 1 − = 1.
1−
vx V c2 c2
c2

Anˆloga apodeiknÔontai kai oi upìloipec sqèseic metasqhmatismoÔ.

H exÐswsh sunèqeiac mporeÐ na graftei se sunalloÐwth morf  sunart sei tou

tetranÔsmatoc Jµ . 'Eqoume

∂ρ ∂Ji
+ = 0
∂t ∂xi
 

∂(cρ) ∂Ji ∂J 0 ∂J i
+ = + = 0
∂(ct) ∂xi ∂x0 ∂xi
 

∂J µ
= 0. (3)

∂xµ
To hlektrikì fortÐo eÐnai posìthta anexˆrthth apì to sÔsthma anaforˆc.

Autì mporoÔme na to apodeÐxoume wc ex c:

'Estw Q to fortÐo miac katanom c sto sÔsthma hremÐac J~ = 0 ( ). 'Estw

kai èna sÔsthma anaforˆc to opoÐo kineÐtai me taqÔthta

~
V = x̂V . 'Eqoume

 
V  ∂x 
Z Z   Z Z
3 3 3 0 −1 −1  i 0
3 0
Q = d rρ = d r ρ − 2 Jx = d rρ γ = γ d r  0ρ .
c  ∂xj 

3
H emfanizìmenh Iakwbian  eÐnai

∂x ∂x ∂x
 
 
 ∂x0 ∂y 0 ∂z 0   



  γ 0 0 
 
 ∂y ∂y ∂y 
=  0 1 0  = γ.
 
∂x0 ∂y 0 ∂z 0 

  



  0 0 1 
 ∂z ∂z ∂z 
∂x0 ∂y 0 ∂z 0


Sunep¸c, èqoume

Z Z
−1 3 0 0
Q = γ d r γρ = d3 r0 ρ0 = Q0 .

2. To Tetrˆnusma tou DunamikoÔ kai o Hlektromagnhti-

kìc Tanust c.
H tetrˆda twn dunamik¸n φ kai
~
A , efìson autˆ apoteloÔn fusikèc posì-

thtec, ja prèpei na èqei sugkekrimènh tautìthta wc proc touc metasqhmati-

smoÔc Lorentz , dhlad  na metasqhmatÐzetai me sugkekrimèno trìpo apì èna

adraneiakì sÔsthma anaforˆc se èna ˆllo. Xekin¸ntac me thn eÔlogh upì-

jesh ìti ta dunamikˆ antistoiqoÔn se èna antalloÐwto tetrˆnusma tou q¸rou

Minkowski , grˆfoume

A0 ≡ φ






 
Aµ = 1
 A ≡ c Ax
 (4)

Ai = A2 ≡ c Ay





  A3 ≡ c A

z
 
To antÐstoiqo sunalloÐwto tetrˆnusma ja eÐnai
~
Aµ = φ, −cA .

Ac jewr soume tic exis¸seic pou ikanopoioÔn ta dunamikˆ φ kai

~
A kai ac ta

antikatast soume me tic antÐstoiqec tetranusmatikèc sunist¸sec. PaÐrnoume

2 0 2 k 0
~˙ = ρ/0 =⇒ − ∂ A − ∂ A = J
~ ·A
−∇2 φ − ∇
∂xk ∂xk ∂x0 ∂xk c0

~ + ∇(
−∇2 A ~ ∇ ~ + 1A
~ · A) ¨~ ~ φ̇ = µ0 J~
+∇
c2
| {z }
⇓
∂ 2 Ai ∂ 2 Ak ∂ 2 Ai ∂ 2 A0
− + + + = µ0 cJ i .
∂xk ∂xk ∂xk ∂xi ∂x0 ∂x0 ∂xi ∂x0

4
SuneqÐzontac, mporoÔme na fèroume thn pr¸th exÐswsh sthn morf 

∂ 2 A0 ∂ 2 Aν J0
− = . (5)

∂xν ∂xν ∂xν ∂x0 c0

H deÔterh exÐswsh gÐnetai

∂ 2 Ai ∂ 2 Aν
− = µ0 cJ i . (6)

∂xν ∂xν ∂xν ∂xi

O emfanizìmenoc diaforikìc telest c

∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∂2 ≡ = − (7)

∂xµ ∂xµ ∂x0 ∂x0 ∂xk ∂xk

onomˆzetai telest c D’Alembert kai eÐnai ènac bajmwtìc telest c, dhlad , a-

nalloÐwtoc se metasqhmatismoÔc Lorentz . EÐnai fanerì ìti oi exis¸seic (5, 6)

apoteloÔn to qronoeidèc kai qwroeidèc mèroc miac tetranusmatik c exÐswshc

∂ 2 Aµ ∂ 2 Aν Jµ
− = . (8)

∂xν ∂xν ∂xν ∂xµ c0

'Eqei anaferjeÐ se prohgoÔmeno kefˆlaio ìti h sunj kh thc bajmÐdac

Lorentz eÐnai analloÐwth katˆ Lorentz . Prˆgmati, èqoume

~ + 1 ∂φ = 0
~ ·A ∂Ai ∂A0
∇ =⇒ + = 0
c2 ∂t ∂xi ∂x0
 

∂Aµ
= 0. (9)

∂xµ
Aut  eÐnai h sunj kh thc bajmÐdac Lorentz se sunalloÐwth morf . Epibˆl-

lontac thn sunj kh Lorentz , h exÐswsh tou dunamikoÔ aplousteÔetai wc ex c

∂ 2 Aµ Jµ
= (10)

∂xν ∂xν c0

 , pio suntomografikˆ,

Jµ
∂ 2 Aµ = . (11)

c0
O eidikìc metasqhmatismìc Lorentz pou sundèei ta dunamikˆ metaxÔ dÔo

adraneiak¸n susthmˆtwn me sqetik  taqÔthta

~ = x̂V
V eÐnai

φ0 = γ (φ − V Ax )







  
A0x = γ Ax − V
c2
φ (12)





A0y = Ay , A0z = Az



5
  se morf  pÐnaka A0 µ = Λµν Aν

φ0
    
γ −γ V /c 0 0 φ
 cA0x   −γ V /c γ 0 0  cAx 
 =  .
    
(13)
cA0y 0 0 1 0 cAy
 
    
cA0z 0 0 0 1 cAz

Ac epistrèyoume stic sqèseic dunamik¸n kai pedÐwn kai ac tic grˆyoume

sunart sei tou tetrasnusmatikoÔ dunamikoÔ


∂Ai ∂A0 ∂Ai ∂Ai ∂A0
 Ei = −∇i φ − ∂t = − ∂xi − ∂x0 = ∂x0 − ∂xi


(14)
   

 Bi = ∇
 ~ ×A~ = 1 ijk ∂Ajk = − 1 ijk ∂Ajk − ∂Akj
i c ∂x 2c ∂x ∂x

ParathroÔme ìti kai stic dÔo ekfrˆseic emfanÐzontai oi sunist¸sec tou Ðdiou

tanust  deÔterhc tˆxhc

∂Aν ∂Aµ
Fµν ≡ µ
− . (15)

∂x ∂xν
O tanust c autìc onomˆzetai Hlektromagnhtikìc Tanust c kai eÐnai ek ka-

taskeu c antisummetrikìc, dhld  isqÔei

Fµν = −Fνµ . (16)

Oi sqèseic twn pedÐwn me tic sunist¸sec tou eÐnai

1
Ei = F0i , Bi = − ijk Fjk . (17)

2c
H teleutaÐa sqèsh antistrèfetai wc ex c

Fij = −cijk Bk . (18)

O hlektromagnhtikìc tanust c grˆfetai se morf  pÐnaka wc ex c

 
0 Ex Ey Ez
 
 
 −Ex 0 −cBz cBy 
 
 
Fµν = 

.
 (19)

 −E cBz 0 −cBx 
 y 
 
 
−Ez −cBy cBx 0

6
O antÐstoiqoc pl rwc antalloÐwtoc tanust c F µν eÐnai

 
0 −Ex −Ey −Ez
 
 
 Ex 0 −cBz cBy 
 
µν
 
F = 

.
 (20)

 E
 y cBz 0 −cBx 

 
 
Ez −cBy cBx 0

3. SunalloÐwth DiatÔpwsh twn Exis¸sewn Maxwell.

'Opwc eÐdame sta prohgoÔmena edˆfia oi dÔo mh-omogeneÐc exis¸seic Ma-
xwell grˆfontai sunart sei tou tetranusmatikoÔ dunamikoÔ wc

∂ 2 Aµ ∂ 2 Aν Jµ
ν
− µ
=
∂x ∂xν ∂xν ∂x c0
 

∂ ∂Aµ ∂Aν Jµ
 
ν
− = .
∂xν ∂x ∂xµ c0
Autì grˆfetai sunart sei tou hlektromagnhtikoÔ tanust  wc

∂Fνµ Jµ
= . (21)

∂xν c0
Oi omogeneÐc exis¸seic Maxwell mporoÔn epÐshc na graftoÔn sunart sei

tou hlektromagnhtikoÔ tanust . Ac arqÐsoume apì thn posìthta


0nrs ∂Frs =  ∂Frs
∂Fρσ  
 ∂xn nrs ∂xn
µνρσ =
∂xν ∂Fρσ ∂Fρσ
iνρσ = i0rs ∂F + inρσ = −irs ∂F + ins ∂F ∂Fr0

∂xn − inr ∂xn
 rs rs 0s
∂xν ∂x0 ∂xn ∂x0

~ ·B
 2c∇
 ~
=
2 ∂B ~ ~

∂t + 2(∇ × E)i
 i

Qrhsimopoi same to gegonìc ìti 0ijk = ijk . Epomènwc, èqoume

~ ·B
~ = 0

 ∇
 ∂Fρσ
=⇒ µνρσ = 0 (22)

 ~

~ + ∂ B~ = 0 ∂xν
∇×E ∂t

7
 To zeÔgoc twn tetranusmatik¸n exis¸sewn

∂Fνµ Jµ ∂Fρσ
= , µνρσ = 0 (23)

∂xν c0 ∂xν

apoteloÔn kai thn sunalloÐwth diatÔpwsh twn exis¸sewn tou Maxwell . EÐnai

fanerì ìti h omogen c exÐswsh ikanopoieÐtai tautotikˆ eˆn qrhsimopoi soume

thn èkfrash pou orÐzei to hlektromagnhtikì tanust  sunart sei tou tetra-

nusmatikoÔ dunamikoÔ. H exÐswsh aut , qrhsimopoi¸ntac tic idiìthtec tou

pl rwc antisummetrikoÔ sumbìlou kai to gegonìc ìti o hlektromagnhtikìc

tanust c eÐnai antisummetrikìc, grˆfetai wc

∂Fνρ ∂Fµν ∂Fρµ

µ
+ ρ
+ = 0 (24)

∂x ∂x ∂xν
kai onomˆzetai Tautìthta Jacobi .

O tanust c

1 µνρσ
F̃ µν =  Fρσ (25)

2
o opoÐoc emfanÐzetai stic exis¸seic Maxwell , onomˆzetai Duïkìc Hlektroma-

gnhtikìc Tanust c. Oi sunist¸sec tou tanust  autoÔ eÐnai

1

1 1 c
F̃0i = − 0ijk Fjk = − ijk ( −cjk` B` ) = 2δi` B` = c Bi
2 2 2
kai

1 ijµν
F̃ij =  Fµν = ij0k F0k = ijk Ek .
2
Sunep¸c, èqoume

 
0 cBx cBy cBz
 
 
 −cBx 0 Ez −Ey 
 
 
F̃µν = 

.
 (26)

 −cB −Ez 0 Ex 
 y 
 
 
−cBx Ey −Ex 0

Ac shmeiwjeÐ ìti


~ → cB
 E
 ~
Fµν → F̃µν ⇐⇒ (27)

~ → −E
~


cB
1
IsqÔoun oi tautìthtec ijk `mk = δi` δjm − δjm δi` kai ijk `jk = 2δi` .

8
 Sqèseic SunalloÐwtwn Posot twn

J 0 = c ρ, J i = Ji ,

A0 = φ, Ai = c Ai

F0i = Ei , Fij = −c ijk Bk ,

1
Bi = − 2c ijk Fjk

SHMEIWSH: SunalloÐwth Morf  twn Kajusterhmènwn Dunamik¸n.

Oi dÔo ekfrˆseic twn kajusterhmènwn dunamik¸n grˆfontai se enopoihmènh morf  wc

Z
µ 1 3 0 r 0 , tK )
J µ (~
A (x) = d r .
4π0 c r 0 −~
|~ r|

Gia na proqwr soume proc mia pl rwc sunalloÐwth èkfrash grˆfoume to anwtèrw dunamikì wc ex c:

Z Z
µ 1 3 0 1 0 0 0 µ 0
A (x) = d r dx0 δ(x0 − x0 + |~
r −~
r |) J (x )
4π0 c r 0 −~
|~ r|

 
Z
µ 1 4 0 δ(x00 − x0 + |~
r 0 −~
r |) µ 0
A (x) = d x J (x ) .
4π0 c r 0 −~
|~ r|

AkoloÔjwc anatrèqoume sthn idiìthta thc dèlta sunˆrthshc

X δ(x − a)
δ(f (x)) = ,
|f 0 (a)|
a

ìpou f (a) = 0. 'Eqoume

0 2 0 2 0 2 δ(x00 − x0 + |~
r 0 −~
r |) δ(x00 − x0 − |~
r 0 −~
r |)
δ((x − x) ) = δ((x0 − x0 ) − (~
r −~
r) ) = +
|2(x00 − x0 )| |2(x00 − x0 )|

9
 1 0 0 0 0


= δ(x0 − x0 + |~
r −~
r |) + δ(x0 − x0 − |~
r −~
r |)
r 0 −~
2|~ r|
kai

0 0 2 r 0 −~
δ(x00 − x0 + |~ r |)
2 Θ(x0 − x0 ) δ((x − x) ) = .
r 0 −~
|~ r|

Telikˆ, èqoume
Z
µ 1 4 0 0 0 2 µ 0
A (x) = d x Θ(x0 − x0 ) δ((x − x) ) J (x ) .
2π0 c

H èkfrash aut  eÐnai pl rwc sunalloÐwth.

4. MetasqhmatismoÐ Lorentz HM PedÐwn.

Wc tanust c deÔterhc tˆxhc, o hlektromagnhtikìc tanust c metasqhmatÐ-

zetai katˆ Lorentz wc ex c

µν
F0 = Λµρ Λνσ F ρσ (28)

 , se morf  pinˆkwn,

F 0 = Λ F Λ⊥ . (29)

Gia thn perÐptwsh tou eidikoÔ metasqhmatismoÔ Lorentz h anwtèrw sqèsh

eÐnai

 0 0 0 
0 −Ex −Ey −Ez

0 0 0
 Ex 0 −cBz cBy 
  =
0 0 0
 
 Ey cBz 0 −cBx 
0 0 0
Ez −cBy cBx 0

−γ V /c −Ex −Ey −Ez −γ V /c

 γ 0 0
 0
 γ 0 0

 −γ V /c γ 0 0  Ex 0 −cBz cBy  −γ V /c γ 0 0 
   
 0 0 1 0  Ey cBz 0 −cBx  0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 1 Ez −cBy cBx 0 0 0 0 1




0 −Ex −γ Ey − V B z −γ Ez + V By



 Ex 0 −cγ Bz − V2 Ey cγ By + V2 Ez 
 c c .
= 


 γ Ey − V Bz cγ Bz − V2 Ey 0 −cBx 
 c 



γ Ez + V By −cγ By + V2 Ez cBx 0
c

Apì ta anwtèrw sumperaÐnoume tic sqèseic metasqhmatismoÔ

10
 Ex0 = Ex , Ey0 = γ (Ey − V Bz ) , Ez0 = γ (Ez + V By )

   
Bx0 = Bx , By0 = γ By + V
E
c2 z
, Bz0 = γ Bz − V
E
c2 y

 
~ 0 = E
E ~ || , E
~ 0 = γ E
~⊥ − V
~ ×B
~
|| ⊥

~ ×E ~
 
~ 0 = B
B ~ || , B ~⊥ +
~ 0 = γ B V
|| ⊥ c2

MetasqhmatismoÐ Lorentz

EÐnai endiafèron ìti, ìpwc problèpoun oi parapˆnw sqèseic, eˆn se èna a-

draneiakì sÔsthma èqoume mhdenikì magnhtikì pedÐo (

~ = 0
B ), se èna ˆllo

sÔsthma, kinoÔmeno me taqÔthta

~
V wc proc autì, ja emfanisjeÐ magnhtikì

pedÐo

~ 0 γ~ ~.
B = V ×E (30)

c2
EpÐ plèon, gia to hlektrikì pedÐo sto kinoÔmeno sÔsthma èqoume

~ 0 ~ ~ 0 ~.
V̂ · E = V̂ · E, V̂ × E = γ V̂ × E (31)

AntÐstrofa, eˆn se èna sÔsthma upˆrqei mìno magnhtikì pedÐo, sto kinoÔmeno

sÔsthma ja emfanisjeÐ kai hlektrikì pedÐo

~ 0 = −γ V
E ~ ×B
~. (32)

PARADEIGMA: Ta pedÐa enìc omalˆ kinoumènou fortÐou. Ac jewr soume èna shmeiakì fortÐo Q,
~ = V x̂ wc proc èna {akÐnhto} adraneiakì sÔsthma Σ. EpÐshc, èstw Σ0
to opoÐo kineÐtai me stajer  taqÔthta V

to sÔsthma {hremÐac} tou swmatidÐou. Wc proc to sÔsthma autì èqoume aplˆ mìno to pedÐo Coulomb

Q r 0
~
~ 0 =
E
4π0 r 0 3

11
kai mhdenikì magnhtikì pedÐo
~ 0 = 0.
B Ta pedÐa sto akÐnhto sÔsthma ja eÐnai

~ = E 0 , Ey = γ E 0 , Ez = γ E 0
E x y z

V 0 0 V 0
Bx = 0, By = −γ Ez , Bz = γ Ey .
c2 c2
Sugkekrimèna, èqoume

Q 0 0 0


~ =
E x x̂ + γy ŷ + γz ẑ
4π0 r 0 3

Q γV 0 0


~ =
B y ẑ − z ŷ .
4π0 r 0 3 c2

Ekfrˆzontac ta pedÐa wc proc tic suntetagmènec tou akÐnhtou sust matoc paÐrnoume

Q (~ ~ t)
r−V
~ =
E
4π0 γ 2
 3/2
(x − V t)2 + γ −2 (y 2 + z 2 )

1
~ =
B ~ ×E
V ~.
c2
To hlektrikì pedÐo mporeÐ na grafteÐ kai wc ex c:

2


Q ~
R 1 − V2
~ = c
E
4π0 R3
h
R̂×V~

2 i3/2 , (33)

1 −
c2

ìpou

~ = ~
R ~t.
r −V

12
 5. H DÔnamh Lorentz.
Poiˆ eÐnai h Drˆsh enìc fortismènou swmatidÐou? IsodÔnama mporoÔme na

rwt soume, poiˆ eÐnai h exÐswsh kÐnhshc enìc swmatidÐou upì thn epÐdrash

enìc hlektromagnhtikoÔ pedÐou? O aploÔsteroc ìroc pou mporoÔme na pro-

R
sjèsoume sthn Drˆsh tou eleujèrou swmatidÐou ( S0 = ds ) eÐnai ènac ìroc

grammikìc wc proc to hlektromagnhtikì dunamikì Aµ . Dedomènou ìmwc ìti

ènac tètoioc ìroc ja prèpei na eÐnai èna bajmwtì katˆLorentz , ja prèpei to

antalloÐwto tetrˆnusma tou dunamikoÔ na pollaplasiasteÐ me èna sunalloÐw-

to tetrˆnusma. To mìno tètoio pou diajètoume eÐnai to tetrˆnusma thc jèshc

dxµ . 'Ara, h aploÔsterh Drˆsh, me grammik  allhlepÐdrash metaxÔ dxµ kai

Aµ , eÐnai h

q
Z Z
S = −mc ds − dxµ Aµ (x) , (34)

c
ìpou ds = (dxµ dxµ )1/2 eÐnai to diaforikì tou analloÐwtou m kouc. q eÐnai

to hlektrikì fortÐo kai h stajerˆ c èqei emfanisjeÐ ¸ste na èqei o ìroc

allhlepÐdrashc tic swstèc diastˆseic.

Ac jewr soume t¸ra dunatèc metabolèc δxµ , oi opoÐec na mhdenÐzontai sta ˆkra. Gia tètoiec, kajarˆ sunar-

thsiakèc, dunatèc metabolèc isqÔei δ(dxµ ) = d(δxµ ). H metabol  tou diaforikoÔ ds eÐnai

p 1 2δ(dxµ )dxµ d(δxµ )dxµ µ dxµ 1 µ dxµ 1 µ

δ(ds) = δ( dxµ dxµ ) = p = = δ(dx ) = δ(dx ) = δ(dx ) uµ .
2 ds ds c dτ c
dxν dxν

H metabol  thc allhlepÐdrashc eÐnai

µ µ µ µ ν ∂Aµ
δ(dxµ A ) = δ(dxµ )A + dxµ δA = δ(dxµ )A + dxµ (δx ) .
∂xν

H antÐstoiqh metabol  thc Drˆshc eÐnai

Z Z 
∂Aµ

µ q µ ν
δS = −m δ(dx )uµ − δ(dxµ )A − dxµ (δx )
c ∂xν

 
Z Z 
∂Aµ

µ q µ ν
δS = −m d(δx )uµ − d(δxµ )A − dxµ (δx )
c ∂xν
Z Z Z Z Z
µ µ q µ q µ q ∂Aµ ν
= −m d(δx uµ ) + m δx duµ − d(δxµ A ) + δxµ dA − dxµ δx .
c c c ∂xν

O pr¸toc kai o trÐtoc ìroc mhdenÐzontai, dedomènou ìti h metabol  δxµ mhdenÐzetai sta ˆkra thc olokl rwshc.

SuneqÐzontac, èqoume
Z  
µ duµ q dAµ q dxν ∂Aν
δS = dτ δx m + −
dτ c dτ c dτ ∂xµ

 
Z    
µ duµ q ∂Aµ ∂Aν ν
δS = dτ δx m + − u (35)
dτ c ∂xν ∂xµ

13
 
Z  
µ duµ q ν
δS = dτ δx m + Fνµ u . (36)
dτ c

H Arq  thc Elˆqisthc Drˆshc upagoreÔei

duµ q ν
δS = 0 =⇒ m = Fµν u . (37)
dτ c

Oi exis¸seic kÐnhshc eÐnai

d2 xµ q dxν
m = Fµν . (38)

dτ 2 c dτ
To dexiì mèloc thc anwtèrw exÐswshc apoteleÐ thn sqetikistik  genÐkeush

thc dÔnamhc

q ν
fµ = u Fµν . (39)

c
H qwrik  sunist¸sa thc dÔnamhc eÐnai

q  
~
 
fi = ( γc F0i + γvj Fji ) = γ q Ei + ~v × B . (40)

c i

Me exaÐresh to parˆgonta γ , o opoÐoc, gia v << c , eÐnai praktikˆ Ðsoc me thn

monˆda, h anwtèrw èkfrash sumpÐptei me thn gnwst  èkfrash gia thn DÔnamh

Lorentz . H qwroeid c sunist¸sa thc exÐswshc kÐnhshc eÐnai

dui d(γ vi )  
~
 
m = f i =⇒ m = γ q Ei + ~v × B . (41)

dτ dτ i

Sto ìrio v << c h anwtèrw exÐswsh kÐnhshc sumpÐptei me thn gnwst  exÐswsh

tou NeÔtwna gia to swmatÐdio upì thn epÐdrash thc DÔnamhc Lorentz

d2 xi  
~
 
m = q Ei + ~v × B . (42)

dt2 i

H qronoeid c sunist¸sa thc exÐswshc kÐnhshc eÐnai

2

du0 q d(mc2 γ)  
~ .
m = uj F0j =⇒ = q ~v · E (43)

dτ c dt
2
Shmei¸ste ìti
q q
1 v2 2 dt
dτ = (dt)2 − x)2 = dt
(d~ 1 − = .
c2 c γ

14
Ac shmeiwjeÐ ìti h posìthta Ekin = mc2 γ tautÐzetai me thn qronik  sunist¸-

sa thc tetraorm c diairemènh diˆ c , gia èna eleÔjero swmatÐdio. MporoÔme na

thn onomˆsoume {kinhtik  enèrgeia}.

H Drˆsh gia èna fortismèno swmatÐdio, thn opoÐa qrhsimopoi same sta

amèswc prohgoÔmena

q
Z Z
2
S = −mc dτ − dτ uµ Aµ
c
grˆfetai kai wc

dt q q
Z  
S = 2
−mc − u0 A0 − ui Ai . (44)

γ c c
Apì thn teleutaÐa èkfrash sumperaÐnoume ìti h sunˆrthsh Lagrange tou

sust matoc eÐnai

s
v2 ~ .
L = −mc2 1− − qφ + q(~v · A) (45)

c2
Apì thn sunˆrthsh Lagrange mporoÔme na paragˆgoume kateujeÐan tic exi-

s¸seic kÐnhshc wc

d ∂L ∂L
 
= .
dt ∂ ẋi ∂xi
MporeÐ na deiqjeÐ ìti h exÐswsh kÐnhshc èqei thn morf 

d~v ~v  ~ 
 
m = q ~ ~
E + ~v × B − 2 E · ~v . (46)

dt c
Apì ton orismì thc kanonik c orm c pou isqÔei sta plaÐsia thc Klassik c

Mhqanik c, èqoume

∂L mvi
pi ≡ = q + q Ai = m ui + qAi . (47)

∂vi v2
1 − c2

ParathroÔme ìti h sqèsh taqÔthtac kai orm c perilambˆnei kai ton ìro
~
qA ,

o opoÐoc ofeÐletai sto hlektromagnhtikì pedÐo. H sqèsh aut  dÐnei tic qw-

roeideÐc sunist¸sec thc orm c gia to tetrˆnusma

pµ = m uµ + q Aµ . (48)

To qronoeidèc mèroc tou tetranÔsmatoc thc orm c dÐnei thn enèrgeia tou sw-

matidÐou diairemènh me c
E φ
p0 = = mcγ + q . (49)

c c

15
 H sunˆrthsh Hamilton tou swmatidÐou upologÐzetai apì ton genikì thc

orismì sunart sei thc sunˆrthshc Lagrange

H(pi , xj ) = pi vi − L .

Dedomènou ìmwc ìti h sunˆrthsh Hamilton ja prèpei na ekfrasjeÐ sunart sei

thc orm c, mac qreiˆzetai kai h antÐstrofh sqèsh taqÔthtac/orm c. Aut 

exˆgetai wc ex c:


~ 2
 v 2 = c2 2 (~2p−qA) ~ 2
[ −q A) ]


 m c +(~
p ~
p − q A)
c(~
~ =⇒
m γ(v) ~v = p~ + q A =⇒ ~v = q .
 1 √ mc m2 c2 + (~ ~ 2
p − q A)
=


 γ m2 c2 +(~ ~ 2
p−q A)

H sunˆrthsh Hamilton eÐnai

q
H = c (~ ~ 2 + m2 c2 + q φ .
p − q A) (50)

Ac shmeiwjeÐ ìti sto mh-sqetikistikì ìrio, mporoÔme na anaptÔxoume thn èk-

frash aut  se dunˆmeic tou 1/c kai na pˆroume thn gn¸rimh sunˆrthsh Ha-
milton
1  2
~ + qφ.
H ≈ mc2 + p~ − q A (51)

2m
Tèloc, Exis¸seic Hamilton eÐnai

∂H ∂H
ẋi = , ṗi = − .
∂pi ∂xi

H pr¸th dÐnai apl¸c thn sqèsh taqÔtrhtac/orm c pou br kame pio pˆnw. H

deÔterh eÐnai

qc(pk − qAk ) ∂Ak ∂φ

ṗi = q i
−q i (52)

m2 c2 + (~ ~ 2 ∂x
p − q A) ∂x

kai mporeÐ eÔkola na deiqjeÐ ìti tautÐzetai me thn exÐswsh kÐnhshcsthn opoÐa

katal xame prohgoumènwc.

PARADEIGMA: Stajerì Hlektrikì PedÐo. H perÐptwsh stajeroÔ kai omogenoÔc hlektrikoÔ pedÐou
~ = στ αθ. eÐnai idiaÐtera eÔkolh kai analÔsimh. Sthn perÐptwsh aut  èqoume mìno to bajmwtì dunamikì
E

φ = −~ ~ =⇒ −∇φ
r·E ~ ~.
= E

H sunˆrthsh Hamilton eÐnai

p
H = c m2 c 2 + p 2 − q ~ ~
r·E

16
kai dÐnei tic exis¸seic Hamilton
∂H c~
p
~ r˙ =
v ≡ ~ = p
∂~
p
m2 c2 + p2

kai
∂H
˙ = −
p
~ ~.
= qE
∂~
r

Epilègontac to sÔsthma suntetagmènwn ètsi ¸ste

~ = E x̂
E paÐrnoume

ṗx = q E, ṗy = ṗz = 0 .

QwrÐc blˆbh thc genikìthtac mporoÔme na epilèxoume tic arqikèc sunj kec

px (0) = pz (0) = 0, py (0) = p0 .

Tìte èqoume

px (t) = q E t, py (t) = p0 , pz (t) = 0 .

Apì thn ˆllh exÐswsh Hamilton èqoume

cqEt c p0
ẋ = vx (t) = p , ẏ = vy (t) = p .
m2 c2 + p2
0
+ (qEt)2 m2 c2 + p2
0
+ (qEt)2

H kÐnhsh gÐnetai apokleistikˆ sto epÐpedo x, y mia kai vz (t) = vz (0) = 0 → z(t) = z(0). Proqwrˆme

epilègontac arqikèc sunj kec x(0) = y(0) = 0. Apì thn pr¸th paÐrnoume

Z t Z m2 c2 +p2 +(Eqt)2
qEt c 0 dξ
x(t) = c dt p = p
m2 c 2 + p2 + (qEt)2 2qE
0 0 m2 c2 +p2 ξ
0

 
p 
c p
x(t) = m2 c2 + p2
0
+ (qEt)2 − m2 c2 + p2
0
.
qE

Apì thn ˆllh èqoume

p !
m2 c2 +p2
Z qEt/
r
p0 c 0 dξ p0 c qEt (qEt)2
y(t) = = ln + 1+ .
m2 c2 + p2
qE
p qE
p
0 1 + ξ2 m2 c2 + p2
0
0

Den eÐnai dÔskolo na antistrèyoume aut  thn sqèsh, opìte èqoume

  r
qE (qEt)2
cosh y = 1+ .
p0 c m2 c 2 + p 2
0

Sunduˆzontac aut  thn sqèsh me thn èkfrash gia to x(t) kai apaleÐfontac to qrìno, paÐrnoume thn troqiˆ

(Alussoeid c)
p
c p2 + m2 c2 
0

qE
 
x = cosh y −1 .
qE p0 c

Sto mh-sqetikistikì ìrio mporoÔme na anaptÔxoume se dunˆmeic tou 1/c, opìte èqoume

qE qE 2
y2
    
qE 1 y − y qE
cosh y = e p0 c + e p0 c ≈ 1 + + ....
p0 c 2 2c2 p0

kai
 
qEm 2
x ≈ y ,
2p2
0

pou eÐnai mia parabol .

17
 PARADEIGMA: Stajerì Magnhtikì PedÐo. Sthn perÐptwsh pou to swmatÐdio kineÐtai upì thn

epÐdrash enìc stajeroÔ kai omogenoÔc magnhtikoÔ pedÐou

~
B h kÐnhs  tou eÐnai idiaÐtera apl  kai epilÔsimh.

Mia epilog  gia to dianusmatikì dunamikì pou odhgeÐ se stajerì kai omogenèc magnhtikì pedÐo eÐnai h

1

~ =
A ~ ×~
B r ~ ×A
=⇒ ∇ ~ = B
~.
2

H sunˆrthsh Lagrange tou sust matoc eÐnai

q
2 v2 q

L = −mc 1− + v·
~ ~ ×~
B r
c2 2

kai odhgeÐ sthn exÐswsh kÐnhshc

d (γ ~
v)

m = q ~ ~
v×B .
dt
Pollaplasiˆzontac eswterikˆ me thn taqÔthta paÐrnoume

d (γ ~
v) dv 2 1
v·
~ = 0 =⇒ = 0 =⇒ γ = γ0 ≡ q .
dt dt
v 2 (0)
1−
c2

Epilègontac to sÔsthma anaforˆc ¸ste

~ = B ẑ
B paÐrnoume tic exis¸seic

v̇z = 0 → z(t) = z(0) + vz (0) t

v̇x = ω vy

v̇y − ω vx ,

ìpou
qB
ω ≡ .
mγ0

ParagwgÐzontac ˆllh mia forˆ tic exis¸seic autèc paÐrnoume

2 2
v̈x = −ω vx , v̈y = −ω vy

me profaneÐc lÔseic tic

v̇x (0)
vx (t) = vx (0) cos(ωt) + sin(ωt) = vx (0) cos(ωt) + vy (0) sin(ωt)
ω

v̇y (0)
vy (t) = vy (0) cos(ωt) + sin(ωt) = vy (0) cos(ωt) − vx (0) sin(ωt) .
ω
Oloklhr¸nontac, paÐrnoume

vx (0) vy (0)
x(t) = x(0) + sin(ωt) − (cos(ωt) − 1)
ω ω

vy (0) vx (0)
y(t) = y(0) + sin(ωt) + (cos(ωt) − 1) .
ω ω
Apì tic sqèseic autèc sumperaÐnoume thn troqiˆ

(
2 2 (0)+v 2 (0)
vy (0) vx (0)

2 vx y
x(t) − x(0) − + y(t) − y(0) + =
ω ω ω2

z(t) = z(0) + vz (0) t

pou eÐnai mia èlika.

PARADEIGMA: Orjog¸nia omogen  kai qronikˆ stajerˆ hlektrikˆ kai magnhtikˆ pe-
dÐa. Ja jewr soume thn perÐptwsh enìc omogenoÔc kai qronikˆ stajeroÔ hlektrikoÔ pedÐou E ~ , to opoÐo eÐnai
~
kˆjeto proc èna omogenèc kai qronikˆ stajerì magnhtikì pedÐo B , kai ja melet soume thn kÐnhsh enìc for-

tismènou swmatidÐou mˆzac m kai hlektrikoÔ fortÐou q . 'Estw Σ to {akÐnhto} sÔsthma anaforˆc wc proc to

18
opoÐo to swmatÐdio èqei taqÔthta ~
v kai ta pedÐa eÐnai
~
E kai
~.
B Ex upojèsewc
~ ·B
E ~ = 0. Ac shmeiwjeÐ ìti

eswterikì autì ginìmeno eÐnai analloÐwto se metasqhmatismoÔc Lorentz kai, epomènwc, ta pedÐa exakoloujoÔn

na eÐnai orjog¸nia se kˆje sÔsthma anaforˆc. èstw èna tètoio sÔsthma anaforˆc Σ0 , to opoÐo kineÐtai me

taqÔthta
~
V wc proc to Σ. Ta pedÐa wc proc autì to sÔsthma ja eÐnai

~ 0 = E
E ~ , ~ 0 = B
B ~ ,
|| || || ||

~ ×E
~
 

V
~ 0 = γ(V )
E ~⊥ − V
E ~ ×B
~ , ~ 0 = γ(V )
B ~⊥ +
B .
⊥ ⊥
c2

EÐnai dunatìn h taqÔthta ~

V na epilegeÐ ètsi ¸ste sto sÔsthma Σ0 na mhdenÐzetai to hlektrikì pedÐo? Prˆgmati,

eˆn èqoume E < Bc, h epilog 

~ ×B
E ~
~ = −
V
B2
dÐnei, ek kataskeu c,

~ 0 = 0
E ⊥

kai

~ ·V
E ~ = 0 =⇒ E ~ 0 = 0.
~ = 0 =⇒ E
|| ||

Dedomènou ìti ta
~
E kai
~
B eÐnai kˆjeta, èqoume

 
E E
V = = c < c.
B Bc

Ac shmeiwjeÐ epÐshc ìti, lìgw thc orjogwniìthtac

~ ·B
V ~ = 0, èqoume
~ =0
B kai
~ 0 = 0.
B Telikˆ, sto Σ0 ja
|| ||
èqoume
 
1

~ 0 = B
E ~ 0 = 0, ~ 0 = γ(V )
B ~⊥ −
B ~ ×B
E ~⊥ ~
×E
|| ⊥
c2 B 2

E2 ~⊥
 
1 B
= ~⊥ −
B ~⊥
B = .
c2 B 2
p γ(V )
1− E2
c2 B 2

H exÐswsh thc kÐnhshc sto Σ0 eÐnai

v 0
d~ q 0 0


m = ~
v ~
×B .
⊥
dt0 γ(v 0 )

EÐnai amèswc fanerì ìti

dv 0 2 0 1
= 0 =⇒ γ(v ) = γ0 ≡ .
dt0
q
v 0 2 (0)
1−
c2

Epilègontac to sÔsthma anaforˆc ¸ste

~ = B ẑ ,
B èqoume

0 0 0 0 0 0 0
v̇z (t ) = 0 =⇒ z (t ) = z (0) + v̇z (0) t

0 0 0 0
v̇x (t ) = ω vy (t )

0 0 0 0
v̇y (t ) = −ω vx (t ) ,

ìpou
q
qB E2
ω ≡ 1 − .
mγ0 c2 B 2

H troqiˆ sto Σ0 eÐnai

0 0
0 0 0 vx (0) 0
vy (0) 0


x (t ) = x (0) + sin(ωt ) − cos(ωt ) − 1
ω ω
0 0
0 0 0
vy (0) 0 vx (0) 0


y (t ) = y (0) + sin(ωt ) + cos(ωt ) − 1 .
ω ω

19
Oi lÔsh aut  eÐnai mia èlika me kuklik  probol  sto epÐpedo x0 , y 0 . Sto akÐnhto sÔsthma Σ ektìc apì thn

anwtèrw elikoeid  kÐnhsh gÔrw apì ton ˆxona B̂ , to swmatÐdio metèqei kai se omal  metaforik  kÐnhsh proc

thn die;ujunsh Ê × B̂ .
TÐ sumbaÐnei ìtan E > cB ? Sthn perÐptwsh aut  eÐnai dunatìn na broÔme èna adraneiakì sÔsthma Σ0 , to
opoÐo na kineÐtai wc proc to
~ 0 . H taqÔthta
Σ me katˆllhlh taqÔthta ¸ste na mhdenÐzetai to magnhtikì pedÐo B
aut  eÐnai

~ ×B
E ~
~ = c
V .
E2

Sto sÔsthma Σ0 ta pedÐa eÐnai

~ 0 = 0,
E ~ 0 = 0
B
|| ||

~⊥
E

~ 0 =
E , ~ 0 = γ(V )
B ~ −V
B ~ ×E
~ ,
⊥ ⊥
γ(V )

ìpou
1
γ(V ) = p .
2 2
1− c B
E2

H exÐswsh kÐnhshc tou swmatidÐou sthn perÐptwsh aut  eÐnai

v 0 v 0


d~ q ~
m = ~ 0 −
E ~
v
0 ~ 0
·E
dt0 γ(v 0 ) c2

v 0 v 0


d~ q ~ 0
m = ~ −
E ~
v ~
·E .
dt0 γ(v 0 )γ(V ) c2

Aut  h exÐswsh eÐnai tautìsimh me thn exÐswsh kÐnhshc parousÐa mìno hlektrikoÔ pedÐou me mình diaforˆ

ton stajerì parˆgonta γ −1 (V ). Sunep¸c h kÐnhsh sto Σ0 eÐnai mia epitaqunìmenh kÐnhsh me alussoeid 

(katˆ prosèggish parabolik ) troqiˆ. H kÐnhsh tou swmatidÐou sto Σ prokÔptei apì thn sÔnjesh aut c thc

epitaqunìmenhc kÐnhshc me mia omal  kÐnhsh katˆ thn dieÔjunsh Ê × B̂ .

20
 6. SunalloÐwth Morf  twn Jewrhmˆtwn Diat rhshc.
JewreÐste thn tetrˆda twn exis¸sewn diat rhshc twn prohgoumènwn e-

dafÐwn

∂U ~ ·S
~ + J~ · E
~ = 0
+∇ (53)

∂t
~ · ~σ (i) − 1 ∂Si = ρ Ei + J~ × B
 
∇ ~ (54)

c2 ∂t i

Qrhsimopoi¸ntac touc orismoÔc

~ Ei = F0i
J µ = (ρc, J) , kai ijk Bk = − 1c Fij ,

h pr¸th apì autèc thc exis¸seic Je¸rma Poynting

( ) grˆfetai

∂T µ0 1
= J µ Fµ0 , (55)

∂xµ c
ìpou

~
!
µ S
T 0 = U, . (56)

c
H deÔterh exÐswsh grˆfetai

∂σij ∂ Si 1 0
  
− 0 = J F0i + J j Fji
∂xj ∂x c c
 

∂T µi 1
µ
= J µ Fµi , (57)

∂x c
ìpou 
0 Si
 T i = −c

T µi = . (58)

T ji = σij



Oi exis¸seic autèc sumptÔssontai se èna eniaÐo {Je¸rhma Poynting } sthn

morf  miac tetranusmatik c exÐswshc

∂T µν 1
= J µ Fµν , (59)

∂xµ c
ìpou  
U −Sx /c −Sy /c −Sz /c
 
 
 −Sx /c σxx σxy σxz
 

µ
 
Tν = 

.
 (60)

 −S /c σyx σyy σyz 

 y 
 
 
−Sz /c σzx σzy σzz

21
To tanustikì mègejoc (60) onomˆzetai Hlektromagnhtikìc Tanust c Orm c-

Enèrgeiac. EÔkola faÐnetai ìti o summetrikìc tanust c T µν eÐnai kai ˆïqnoc,

dhlad 

T µµ = 0 . (61)

'Etsi ìpwc eÐnai grammènoc o pÐnakac T µν , sunart sei mh-summetablht¸n

posot twn, den èqei mia ekpefrasmènh tautìthta katˆ Lorentz . Ja proqwr -

soume grˆfontˆc ton sunart sei sunalloÐwtwn megej¸n ¸ste na eÐnai faner 

h tautìthtˆ tou wc antalloÐwtou tanust  deÔterhc tˆxhc. H pio genik  èk-

frash pou mporeÐ na grafteÐ, h opoÐa efenìc na eÐnai digrammik  wc proc ta

pedÐa kai afetèrou na èqei dÔo eleÔjerouc summetrikoÔc deÐktec eÐnai h

T µν = C F µρ F ρν + D g µν F ρσ Fρσ ,

ìpou C kai D prosdioristaÐoi suntelestèc. Efarmìzontac autì to ansatz

sthn perÐptwsh µ=ν=0 , èqoume

0 2 B2  
T 00 = U = E + = C F 0j F j0 + D 2F 0j F0j + F ij Fij
2 2µ0
 
= −CE 2 + D −2E 2 + c2 ijk ij` Bk B` = −E 2 (C + 2D) + 2c2 D B 2

pou, an sugkrÐnoume, afenìc me thn {00} sunist¸sa thc (60) kai afetèrou me

thn gnwst  èkfrash thc puknìthtac enèrgeiac, sunepˆgetai

0
C = −0 , D = .
4
Epomènwc, o tanust c orm c-enèrgeiac èqei thn akìloujh sunalloÐwth èk-

frash

g µν ρσ
T µν = −0 F µρ F ρν + 0 F Fρσ . (62)

4
Kai saut  thn morf  eÐnai ˆmesa diapist¸simo ìti o tanust c autìc eÐnai

ˆïqnoc. Prˆgmati

T µµ = −0 F µρ F ρµ + 0 F ρσ Fρσ = 0 .

22