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Social Thought
Introduction:
Social thought is the product of the mind of a philosopher and a thinker. In the broadest sense
a concept, an idea or a set of concepts relating to social problems and their conceivable
solution lie in the domain of social thought. What the people do and what they think about
their life is included in social environment. The environment gives thought to the thinker
about their problems and conditions of life.

Definition:
1) Bogardsus: “Social thought is thinking about social problems by one or a few persons
here and there in human history or at the present.”
2) H.E. Jonson: Social thought is “the totality of man’s thought about his relationship and
obligations to his fellowmen.”

Nature of Social Thought:

Aristotle has well said that man is a social animal and as a logical corollary he affects as well
as is affected by the activities of other members of society. Each individual has his own
attitudes, aspirations and outlook towards society. Moreover, he is also aware of the views
and ideologies prevalent in the society. This necessitates a scientific and systematic study of
social thought with all its implications for the society at large. In order to fulfil this need a
thorough study of history of social thought is made in sociology.

The importance of the Social Thought:

Individuals and groups are confronted with problems many of which are social, born out of
their social and cultural milieu. The concern of the individual or group is generally the cause
behind the desire to run the society and the daily life of the individual in smooth and
undisturbed manner and to avoid the mal functioning which such problems may generate.

Sociological Theory
Introduction:
With the advent of science and technology, the belief in social thoughts became weak and the
people believed in experimentation and testing. The philosophers and thinkers faced hard
times and lost their position in the modern science era. The people took belief in the new
facts of science and the faith in social thought became weak.

Definition:
1) J.H. Turner: “Theory is a mental activity. It is a process of developing ideas that can
allow us why events should occur.
2) M. Francis Abraham: “A theory is an explanation of the relationships between
phenomena which is not as solidly established as a law, but is more than a mere
hypothesis.”
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 Application of Sociological Theory:
There are two major inconsistencies in sociological theory. One is the tendency to separate
qualitative insight and quantitative technique. The other is to separate theory and application
a corollary of this separation has been a neglect of applied aspects. Yet many sociological
concepts have been incorporated in the therapeutic work of psychiatrists and psychologists as
well as educationists. Sociologists are collaborating with anthropologists in solving problems
of community organization. They have also been found taking interest in the filed of
rehabilitation. The main consideration of sociologists is to assess the usefulness and
applicability of current sociological theory and research.

Characteristics of Theory:
Francis Abraham gives the following are the chief characteristics of a theory:

 A theory is couched in terms of well defined concepts and logically inter-connected

propositions.
 A theory is a systematized symbolic construction and does not share the ineluctability of
fact. Theory building is a creative achievement and involves a qualitative jump beyond
evidence.

Recent trends in Sociological Theory:

Systematic sociological theory represents the highly selective accumulation of highly small
parts of earlier theory which have thus far survived the test of empirical research. But the
history of theory includes also a mass of concepts which fell into bits when confronted with
empirical tests such as the archaic doctrines.

Complete sociological systems today must give way to less imposing and better grounded
theories of the middle range. One major task today is therefore to develop special theories
applicable to limited range of data. Eg. Theories of class dynamics

Difference between Social Thought and Sociological Theory

i. A social thought is limited to a specific area and specific people of the world while
sociological theory is equally important for all the people of the world.
ii. Social thought does not solve the problems of all the humanity and remains behind this
position while sociological theory is in a position to be called as a principle of society.
iii. Social thought is a composition of ideas, customs and ceremonies produced by deep
thinking while sociological theory is a set of facts and concepts organized and inter-related
together.
iv. The social thought is not a part of scientific knowledge but helps in understanding the
conditions while sociological theory is a part of science and gives scientific knowledge
which leads to further research.

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Childhood & Early Life
Auguste Comte was born on January 19, 1798, Montpellier, France. Auguste Comte was the
son of Louis and Rosalie Comte. He studied at the Lycee Joffre and later attended the
University of Montpellier.
With the rise of the French Revolution, the idea of republicanism deeply influenced him. He
took admission at the EcolePolytechnique in 1814. When the Ecole closed for reorganization in
1816, he pursued his study at the medical school at Montpellier.
Without finishing his graduation study, he settled in Paris. There, he used to earn money by
teaching mathematics and journalism. Simultaneously, he remained busy in the study of
economics, history and philosophy. In 1817, he met Henri de Saint-Simon, a social theorist,
and became his secretary and collaborator. Owing to a dispute of the authorship of their
writings, this partnership ended in 1824.

Career
In April 1826, he started delivering lectures as a part of a course of positive philosophy and his
audience included well known scientists like Fourier and Poinsot. On account of his poor
health, this course was interrupted and he could resume this only in 1829. Later, he published
six volumes of this course titled, “Course of Positive Philosophy”, from 1830 to 1842.
Starting 1832, he taught analysis and mechanics at the EcolePolytechnique but he lost this job
in 1842 due to a clash with administrators of the institute. In the following year, his book on
mathematics titled “Elementary Treatise on Analytic Geometry” appeared.
Besides finishing work on his books “Philosophical Treatise on Popular Astronomy” and
“Discourse on the Positive Spirit” in 1844, he remained busy in writing the “System of Positive
Polity”.
Taking inspiration from the Club of the Jacobians, Comte set up the Positive Society. His book
“General View of Positivism” too appeared almost at the same time.
From 1851 to 1854, he was occupied with work on four volumes of “System of Positive
Polity”. For a few months in 1852, he remained busy with “Catechism of Positive Religion”.
After publishing “Appeal to Conservatives” in 1855, he published the first volume of
“Subjective Synthesis” or “Universal System of the Conceptions Adapted to the Normal State
of Humanity”, which is his book on the philosophy of mathematics.

Major Works
He published six volumes of “Course in Positive Philosophy” between 1830 and 1842. In this
series, he presented an interesting review of mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry and
biology. He also showed the historical and theoretical link among them.

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From 1851 to 1854, he published four volumes of “System of Positive Polity - A Treatise of
Sociology, Instituting the Religion of Humanity”. Through this work he expressed his unique
view on democracy.

Personal Life
He married his live-in partner Caroline Massin in 1824. They did not lead a happy married life
on account of financial problems and he divorced his wife in 1842. From 1844, he developed a
platonic relationship with Clotilde de Vaux.

Death
He passed away due to stomach cancer. He was buried in the Pere Lachaise Cemetry, Paris. His
apartment, where he lived from 1841 to 1857, has been preserved as the Maisond’Auguste
Comte which is a private museum.

Law of Three Stages

The three stages theory of Auguste Comte defines that human thinking has passed through the
following three stages and each succeeding stage is superior to the preceding stage.

1) Theological Stage
The first stage of human thinking is theological stage. This type of thinking is found among the
primitive races and sometimes the thinking of children is also at this level. At this level of
thinking, there is marked lack of logical and orderly thinking. The primitive man and children
do not have the scientific outlook. Therefore, theological thinking is characterized by non-
scientific outlook. The theological thinking implies belief in another world wherein reside in
the divine forces which control the events in this world. Comte has classified the theological
stage further into three stages. These are given below:

i. Fetishism:
The primary stage in theological thinking is that of fetishism. Fetishism is a belief that there is
some living spirit in the non-living objects. This is also known as animism.

ii. Polytheism:
The more developed form than that of fetishism is known as polytheism. At this stage, man has
classified gods as well as natural and human forces. Each god had some definite function and
his area of action was determined.

iii. Monotheism:
The most developed form of theological thinking is manifested in monotheism. It implies a
belief in one God as compared to earlier belief in many gods. In monotheism, it is believed that
one God is supreme and that He is responsible for the maintenance of order in the world.

2) Metaphysical Stage:
The metaphysical or abstract thinking marks the second stage in the evolution of human
thinking. According to Comte, each successive stage is an improvement upon the earlier stage.
With the gradual improvement in human thinking the human problems also become more
complex. The theological thinking was not adequate to tackle these problems efficiently. The
appearance of conflicting and opposite forces in the world presented problems which could not
be successfully tackled by monotheism. It was difficult to believe that the same God was
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 responsible for primordial creation as well as destruction. In order to resolve this intellectual
puzzle, metaphysical thinking was evolved. Under Metaphysical thinking, belief is an abstract
transcendental entity or absolute replaces the belief in personal concrete God. Under
metaphysical thinking, it is believed that an abstract power guides and determined the events in
the world. Metaphysical thinking discards belief in concrete God.

3) Positive or Scientific Stage:

After theological and metaphysical thinking comes the next stage known as scientific or
positive stage. All metaphysical knowledge is based upon speculation and is a best inferential
knowledge. In the last analysis, it is a matter of belief. The positive or scientific knowledge is
based upon facts and these facts are gathered by observation and experience.
The observation and classification of facts are the beginning of the scientific knowledge. From
the facts, we generalize and draw conclusions. These conclusions once verified become
established laws. The scientific thinking is thoroughly rational and hence there is no place for
any belief of superstition.

Emile Durkheim
Biography
Durkheim was a French philosopher. He was professor of Physics. He invented a new science
which he called Social Physics. He was follower of Comte. His studies encircle group solidarity
and social facts. Some of his prominent theories are given below:

1) Theory of Social Facts:

Durkheim gives social facts a central place in his methodology. He defines sociology as a
science of social facts. Social facts and events are the fundamental bases of his sociological
thought. It is on the strength of these social facts that Durkheim has tried to show that sociology
is not merely a theoretical discipline but is intimately connected with the practical facts of life.
Durkheim has described two fundamental features of social facts, namely, exteriority and
constant. These features are not the product of human mind but are objective things. These are
born in the communal consciousness which is apart from the individual thinking. We cannot
observe them but we can feel their impact. We are all circumscribed by these social facts, they
are more effective than the facts of individual consciousness.
By this explanation, Durkheim means that individual is a part of society, group and the
organization. He is influenced by the cultural norms and morals, conduct and principles which
are internalized by him from society. He is directed by the social facts in his thoughts, works,
actions and other professional techniques. This pressure forces the individual to follow these
patterns in life and not to deviate from them.

2) Theory of Social Solidarity:

On the basis of “division of labour” social events occur in society. Durkheim said that a
traditional society is Mechanical and an advanced or modern society is organic in nature.
Traditional Society has Mechanical solidarity where there is similarity and sharing of common
values, cultures and homogeneity in their social life. There is organic solidarity in the society,
where there is social differentiation in its principles. Mechanical is the solidarity where similar

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 traits are found in society. The society having mechanical solidarity can have traits like those of
our rural society. Similarity in our social life is mostly found in such society, where professions
of most of the people are similar. The standard of living is similar and people follow similar
traditional customs and rituals.
The society with organic solidarity can be compared with our urban society. Here new customs
and fashions are popular. The pace of social change is fast. The patterns of social interaction
differ from group to group. Here the groups are formed on give and take and high level of
division of labour and specialization of profession is found. Brotherhood on the basis of mutual
help is the main soul of solidarity. Organic solidarity is found like our urban society. The forces
of collective conscience are weak in such society.

3) Theory of Suicide:
The theory of suicide is very famous in which Durkheim describes its three types. This theory
circulates round social solidarity. Durkheim explained suicide as “ any deliberate act which
caused death and actors knows the consequence of his act before committing is called suicide.”
According to Durkheim, the social circumstances and the influence of the collective
consciousness are mainly responsible for the phenomenon of suicide. Durkheim rejected all the
other theories of suicide and said that the psychological and personal factors are the resultant of
social conditions and not otherwise.

Types of Suicide
Durkheim has classified different types of suicide on the basis of different types of personalities
of men. He has recognized the following three as the fundamental types:

1. Egoistic Suicide
When the group solidarity grows weak in society, this type of suicide occurs. The bonds of
society get loose. Such events happen in unmarried persons and protestant followers of the
Church. These conditions happen when the individual stops taking interest in his family affairs.
He does not care for the primary and secondary group. The other people of the society also do
not take interest in his matters. The individual feels himself loneliness and isolated. He feels
that life for him is without charm. He feels that life and death are equal for him. Life become
useless for him. Then he commits suicide which is called Egoistic Suicide.
In this suicide the individual leaves his social group in which he was trained and socialized. He
leaves the group norms and does not participate in group behaviours. The marriage, death or
birth in his relations or neighbours has no effect upon him. Moreover he does not participate in
functions of this nature. Neither he neither helps others nor wants any help from them. He feels
himself self-centred and secluded.
This type of suicide is found more in organic society than in mechanical society.

2. Altruistic Suicide
This is the type of suicide in which group solidarity is at the highest in the society. The people
do not think beyond group. The individual’s life and ideas do not hold importance. Those
societies which hold such traditions get into such type of suicide. Phenomenon of suicide attack
by the terrorist is an act of altruistic suicide.

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 According to Durkheim, the persons committing altruistic suicide are those who attach great
value and importance to the need and imperative of social control. Compared to the value of
society and its cause they consider their own personal life of no worth.

3. Anomic/Anomique Suicide
This is the type of suicide occurs when the norms and the manners in the people are suddenly
broken. There are sudden changes which are unexpected. The individual cannot adjust himself
in the new condition which leads to normative gap. For him the social laws become weak
which fail to control his behaviour. The unexpected failure of laws makes the individual unable
to think for the future. He fails to control his actions. In this situation he commits suicide which
is called Anomic Suicide.
The anomic suicide happens in such condition when the response for the norms has vanished.
The laws of the government are not respected by the people and state of lawlessness is
prevailed. The people are worried for the future to say what will happen tomorrow? The social
norms are shattered. The life of the people ends in despair. The marriages are postponed. The
projects of the future are rejected or postponed. The weak hearted people get heart attack and
some loose balance of their mind. These are the conditions which lead to suicide called Anomic
by Durkheim. At this stage, conditions of social disorganization prevail in society.

Herbert Spencer
Biography:
Herbert Spencer was a prominent British social thinker of the 19th century. He is often called
“the second founding father of Sociology”. He is known to the world as a great social
philosopher, a famous evolutionist, a strong defender of individualism and a prolific writer. It is
said that Spencer undertook to create what Comte envisaged to do. He made Sociology an all
encompassing science.
Spencer was born on April 27, 1820, in Durby in England in a middle class family. Due to his
ill health, he could not go to any conventional school. He received some education from his
father. At the age of 13, he went to the home of his uncle from who he received his further
education. He died on December 8, 1903 at the age of 83.
Spencer belonged to English family. He explained the problems of social order and change.
The main aim of his theories was to trace the process of social evolution in order of maximum
social harmony.

Theories of Spencer
1) Spencer’s Theory of Evolution:
Evolutionary theory or “the laws of evolution” is often regarded as the greatest contribution of
the British sociologist Herbert Spencer to the realm of social thought. Spencer’s ideals have left
an indelible impression on the succeeding writers.
Evolution was one of the most exciting ideas of the 19th century. Its most influential sponsor
was the naturalist Charles Darwin. Darwin developed the concept of “Evolution” in his “Origin
of Species”. Spencer, the Sociological giant of the second half of the 19th century, was
enamoured by the idea of evolution. He applied the principle of evolution to the social world
and called it “social evolution”. He saw social evolution as “a set of stages through which all
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 the societies moved from simple to the complex and from the homogenous to the
heterogenous.”

Meaning of the Concept of Evolution:

The term “Evolution” comes from the Latin word “evolvere” which means “to develop” or to
“unfold”. It is closely corresponds to the Sansikrat word “Vikas”. Evolution literally means
gradual “unfolding” or unrolling”. It indicates changes from within and not from “without”.

Meaning of Social Evolution:

The term “evolution is borrowed from biological science to sociology. Whereas the term
“organic evolution” is used to denote the evolution of organism, the expression “social
evolution” is used to explain the evolution of human society. Here the term implies the
evolution of man’s social relation.

2) Social Evolution Theory:

Two of the main books written by Spencer namely, (i) “the study of sociology” (ii) the
principles of sociology”, provide us more details about his “theory of social evolution”.
Spencer was of the opinion that the evolutionary principle could be appliaed to the human
society for he treated human society as an organism. Both the organism and society grow from
simple to complex and from homogenous to heterogenous.
As Abraham and Morgan have pointed out “Spencer’s theory of evolution” involves two
essential but inter-related trends or strains of thought; (i) Change from simplicity to complexity
or movement from simple society to various levels of compound societies; and (ii) Change
from military society to industrial society.

A. Change from simplicity to complexity or movement from simple society

to various levels of compound society
As Spencer repeatedly argued all phenomena in all fields proceed from simplicity to
complexity. Societies also undergo evolutionary stages of development. Spencer identified four
types of societies in terms of stages of their evolutionary development- simple, compound,
doubly compound and trebly compound.

i. Simply Society:
This is the most primitive society without any complexities and consisting of several families.

ii. Compound Society:

A large number of above mentioned simple societies make a compound society. This is clan
society.

iii. Doubly Compound Society:

These consist of several clans compounded into tribes or tribal society.

iv. Trebly Compound Society:

Here the tribes are organized into nation states. This is the present form of the world.
Spencer applied this theory of evolution to human society. He said the base of primitive
societies is found in the industrial societies of modern world. With Spencer evolution means

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progress. He opposed the attempts of social reforms because the evolutions process is disturb.
Evolution is natural process of change.

B. Change from military society to industrial society

According to Spencer, evolution proceeds from military society to industrial society. The type
of social structure depends on the relation of a society to other societies in its significant
characteristics.
i. Thus while the military society is characterized by compulsory co-operation, industrial
society is based on voluntary co-operation.
ii. While the military society has a centralized government, the industrial society has a
decentralized government.
iii. Military society has economic autonomy whereas it is not found in industrial society.

The Principle of Non-interference (Laissez-faire)

Spencer became a very strong advocate of individualism and laissez-faire politics. Spencer
opposed almost all forms of state interference with private property. “He insisted that the state
had no business in education, health and sanitation, postal service, money and banking,
regulation of housing conditions or the elimination of poverty. According to Spencer state was
just like a joint stock company, whose primary business was protection of the rights of
individuals and defending the interests of its citizens against external aggression.
Views of Comte were different in this regard. He was of the opinion that the sociologist-priests
should be actively involved in the social world – “to reform and to change it.” Spencer on the
other hand, argued – “sociologists should convince the state and the citizens not to intervene in
the natural process of selection operative in society.
Nature is more intelligent than man, he argued, and “once you begin to interfere with the order
of nature there is no knowing where the result will end. The good society, according to
Spencer, is thus, based completely upon contracts between individuals pursuing their respective
interests unhindered by the state interference.

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