Chapter 31: Current & Resistance

& Simple Circuits

Simple Single Loop Circuits

J E V = IR
What makes
the wires
Glow?
 Electrical Power
• As the charge moves through the resistor the
system loses this electric potential energy during
collisions of the electrons with the atoms of the
resistor
• This energy is transformed into internal energy in
the resistor as increased vibrational motion of the
atoms in the resistor
• The resistor emits thermal radiation which can
make it glow.

U  qV
dU dqV dq
P   V  I V
dt dt dt
P  I V
POWER P  I V
Energy J
 P    Watt
time s

P  I V  I ( IR)  I R 2

 V  V 2
P  I V   V 
 R  R

• You pay for ENERGY not for ELECTRONS!

• Kilowatt-hour is the energy consumed in one
hour: [kWh]=J NOT TIME! Power x Time
 QUESTION
The voltage and power on a light bulb read
“120 V, 60 W” How much current will flow
through the bulb?
USE: P = I V

I = P/V = 60 W/120 V = 1/2 Amp

 QUESTION
The power and voltage on a light bulb read
“120 V, 60 W” What is the resistance of the
filament? (I = .5 A)
Hint: USE OHMS LAW: V = IR

R = V/I = 120 V/ .5 A = 240 

 QUESTION

The power rating for two light bulbs read

30W and 60W. Which bulb has the greatest
resistance at 120V?
P V / R  R V / P
2 2

R  (120V ) / 30W  480

2

R  (120V ) / 60W  240

2

RULE: THE MORE POWER DISSIPATED IN A BULB, THE

BRIGHTER IT IS, the LESS Resistance and greater current! P= IV!
 Quick Quiz

For the two lightbulbs shown in this figure,

WHICH BULB BURNS BRIGTHEST?
rank the current values at the points, from
greatest to least.

I a = I b > I c = I d > I e = I f.

The 60 W bulb has the lowest

resistance and therefore draws the
most current and burns brightest!
 Series Circuits
• The current is the same in each device.
• The equivalent resistance of the circuit is the sum
of the individual resistances.
Rtotal  R1  R2

Parallel Circuits
• The voltage of each device is the full
voltage of the EMF source (the battery)
• The total current is divided between
each path:
1 1 1
 
Rtotal R1 R2
Series Circuits
• The current is the same in each device.
• The equivalent resistance of the circuit is the sum
of the individual resistances. R=R1+R2

V  V1 +V2 , I  I1  I 2

Vtotal  IRtotal
 I ( R1 +R2 )  IR1 +IR2  V1 +V2

RS  R1  R2
Series Circuits
• The current is the same in each device.
• The equivalent resistance of the circuit is the sum
of the individual resistances. R=R1+R2

V  V1 +V2 , RS  R1  R2  R3  ...
To find the current, use the total voltage and equivalent resistance:
V
I
RS
 Circuits Problem:3 Bulbs in Series
If one more bulb is added to each circuit
(3 bulbs total), how does the brightness
of the bulbs change? Or not?
In the series circuit, the bulbs DIM. WHY?

V  V1  V2  V3
In series, each of the three equal bulbs gets one third of the Voltage
(V/3) that a single bulb would get.

V / 3
2 2
V 1 V 2 Psinglebulb
P   
R R 9 R 9
Note: P=VI but I is due to the equivalent Resistance: I = V/Rs =V/3R
So the Current through each is 1/3 the current through a single bulb and
P=VI=V/3 x I/3 = VI/9 = P/9. The bulbs burn 1/9 as bright!
 Parallel Circuits
• The voltage of each device is the
full voltage of the EMF source
(the battery)
• The total current is divided
between each path:
V V 1 1 V
I  I1  I 2   V(  ) 
R1 R2 R1 R2 RP
Equivalent Resistance:

1 1 1 1
    ....
RP R1 R2 R3
 Circuits Problem:3 Bulbs in Parallel
If one more bulb is added to each circuit
(3 bulbs total), how does the brightness
of the bulbs change? Or not?
In the parallel circuit, the bulbs DO NOT DIM.
WHY?

In parallel, each of the three equal

bulbs gets the full voltage of the battery source.

V2
P  Psinglebulb
R
Is this getting something for nothing?

NO! Parallel circuits drain the battery faster!

Parallel Circuits
•As the number of branches is increased, the
overall resistance of the circuit is DECREASED.

•Overall resistance is lowered with each added

path between any two points of the circuit.

•This means the overall resistance of the circuit is

less than the resistance of any one of the
branches!!!! (Weird?)

•As overall resistance is lowered, more current is

drawn. This is how you blow fuses!
Circuits Problem:Bulbs in Series vs Parallel
A circuit contains a 48-V battery and two 240 light bulbs.
In which circuit does each bulb burn brighter?
RULE: THE MORE POWER DISSIPATED IN A BULB, THE
BRIGHTER IT IS.
P  IV
Find the power in each bulb when in series and in parallel.
Circuits Problem:Bulbs in Series vs Parallel
In Series:
The Voltage is divided in series: each bulb gets half: V = 24V.

V V 2 (24V )2
P  IV  V    2.4W
R R 240
In Parallel:
Voltage is the same in each bulb: 48V.

V 2 (48V )2
P   9.6W
R 240

Parallel Bulbs Burn Brighter!

 Circuits Problem:Bulbs in Series vs Parallel
If a bulb burns out - what happens to the other bulb in
each circuit? Does it go out? Is it brighter? Dimmer? Or?

In the series circuit, the burned out bulb will short the circuit and
the other bulb will go out.

In the parallel circuit the other bulb will have the same brightness.
QuickCheck 31.13

The three bulbs are identical and the two batteries

are identical. Compare the brightnesses of the bulbs.

A. A  B  C.
B. A  C  B.
C. A  B  C.
D. A  B  C.
E. A  B  C.

Slide 31-84
QuickCheck 31.13

The three bulbs are identical and the two batteries

are identical. Compare the brightnesses of the bulbs.

A. A  B  C.
B. A  C  B.
C. A  B  C.
D. A  B  C.
E. A  B  C.

Slide 31-85
QuickCheck 31.14

The three bulbs are identical and the two batteries are
identical. Compare the brightnesses of the bulbs.

A. A  B  C.
B. A  C  B.
C. A  B  C.
D. A  B  C.
E. A  B  C.

Slide 31-86
QuickCheck 31.14

The three bulbs are identical and the two batteries are
identical. Compare the brightnesses of the bulbs.

A. A  B  C.
B. A  C  B.
C. A  B  C.
D. A  B  C.
E. A  B  C.

Slide 31-87
 Find Everything

V  15.0V, R1  10.0, R2  20.0, R2  30.0,

Single Loops: When a circuit can be
reduced to one equivalent Resister.
Reduce and Use Ohm’s Law

For the circuit shown, find the equivalent resistance of the

circuit, the total current drawn by the battery, and the
current through and the potential difference across each
resistor. Place your results in a table for ease of reading.
6.0
 Multi-Loop Circuits
When resistors are connected so that the circuits
formed cannot be reduced to a single equivalent
resistor you can use two rules, called Kirchhoff’s
rules, to solve the problem by generating systems
of equations to find the unknowns!!
 Gustav Kirchhoff
• 1824 – 1887
• German physicist
• Worked with Robert
Bunsen
• They
– Invented the
spectroscope and
founded the science of
spectroscopy
– Discovered the elements
cesium and rubidium
– Invented astronomical
spectroscopy
 Kirchhoff’s Rules for Spectra: 1859
German physicist who developed the spectroscope and the science of
emission spectroscopy with Bunsen.

Bunsen

Kirkoff

* Rule 1 : A hot and opaque solid, liquid or highly compressed gas emits a continuous spectrum.
* Rule 2 : A hot, transparent gas produces an emission spectrum with bright lines.
* Rule 3 : If a continuous spectrum passes through a gas at a lower temperature, the transparent
cooler gas generates dark absorption lines.
 Kirchhoff’s Rules Equations
• In order to solve a particular
circuit problem, the number
of independent equations
you need to obtain from the
two rules equals the number
of unknown currents
• Any capacitor acts as an
open branch in a circuit
– The current in the branch
containing the capacitor is zero
under steady-state conditions
 Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule
• Junction Rule
– The sum of the currents at any junction must
equal zero
• Currents directed into the junction are entered
into the -equation as +I and those leaving as -I
• A statement of Conservation of Charge
– Mathematically,

junction
I 0
 Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule
• Loop Rule
– The sum of the potential differences across all
elements around any closed circuit loop must
be zero
• A statement of Conservation of Energy
• Mathematically,
 V  0
closed
loop
 Using the Loop Rule
• Traveling around the loop
from a to b
• In (a), the resistor is
traversed in the direction
of the current, the
potential across the
resistor is – IR
• In (b), the resistor is
traversed in the direction
opposite of the current, the
potential across the
resistor is is + IR
 Loop Rule: Polarity
• In (c), the source of emf is Discharging
traversed in the direction of
the emf (from – to +), and I
the change in the electric
potential is +ε

• In (d), the source of emf is

traversed in the direction I
opposite of the emf (from +
to -), and the change in the
electric potential is –ε
which means you are
CHARGING the battery!
Charging
 Kirchhoff’s Rules
• Junction Rule:

junction
I 0

• Loop Rule:

 V  0
closed
loop

•First use junction rule and assign values to the current - guess the directions!
•Then use the loop rule CONSISTENTLY (e.g. Clockwise) on each loop.
•Any capacitor acts as an open branch in a circuit once under steady state conditions
 Single Circuit: Multiple Batts
What is the direction of current?
If you choose wrong Current Directions you get negative currents. It still
works out but try to pick the correct direction!

The 12 V WINS!
When polarities of the batteries are opposed, one gets CHARGED.
 Multiple Loop Circuit
How Many Currents?
If you choose wrong Current Directions you get negative currents. It still
works out but try to pick the correct direction!

I1 I1
I2

I3 I3
QuickCheck 31.4

The current through the 3 

resistor is

A. 9 A.
B. 6 A.
C. 5 A.
D. 3 A.
E. 1 A.

Slide 31-34
QuickCheck 31.4

The current through the 3 

resistor is

A. 9 A.
B. 6 A.
C. 5 A.
D. 3 A.
E. 1 A.

Slide 31-35
Kirchhoff Problem
What is the current in the
resistors?
Many-Loop – Many Equations!
You can solve systems of equations with simple algebra or
by using linear algebra (Cramer’s Rule) but I can’t teach
you that! I’ve put a document on the website if you want to
teach yourself. BUT YOU DON’T NEED TO! Algebra
will work and I won’t put a circuit with more than two
loops on the exam! Also, you calculator can solve systems
of equations!
 Which Circuit(s) Requires
Kirchoff? Rank net Power Supply

Figure P28-50, p. 824

Voltage in a single-resistor circuit
with an Ideal 1.5 Volt battery
 Electromotive Force: EMF
e = V+ Ir
• The emf e is the voltage labeled on
the battery. It is greater than the
terminal voltage. V=IR
• The actual potential difference V
between the terminals of the
battery depends on the current in
the circuit and the internal
resistance of the battery:
V = e – Ir
• If the internal resistance of the
battery is zero, the terminal voltage
equals the emf : V = e
• R is the load resistance: V = IR
 Power with real batts
• The total power output of the
battery is
  I V  Ie
• This power is delivered to the
external resistor (I 2 R) and to
the internal resistor (I2 r) is
maximum when R = r!! (see
nice proof in text)

 I R  I r
2 2
HW: What is the emf and internal
resistance of the battery?
Next Time: RC Circuits: Charging
The capacitor continues to charge until it reaches its maximum
charge (Q = Cε). Once the capacitor is fully charged, the current
in the circuit is zero and the The potential difference across the
capacitor matches that supplied by the battery.
 RC Simulator

http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/ntnujava/index.php?topic=31
 RC Circuit: Charging
• The charge on the capacitor varies
with time
q(t) = Ce(1 – e-t/RC) = Q(1 – e-t/RC)

t is the time constant

• t = RC
• The current through R is:
ε t RC
I( t )  e
R
• The time constant t has units of time represents the time required
for the charge to increase from zero to 63.2% of its maximum
• The energy stored in the charged capacitor is ½ Qe = ½ Ce2
 RC Circuit: Charging
Q( t ) εC( 1 e t RC )
Capacitor: VC ( t )    V0 ( 1 e t RC )
C C
ε t RC
Resistor: VR ( t )  I( t )R  R e  εe t RC  V0e t RC
R
 Charging an RC Circuit
http://faculty.wwu.edu/vawter/PhysicsNet/Topics/DC-Current/RCSeries.html
Discharging
 An RC Problem

The switch in the figure has been in position a for a long time. It is
changed to position b at t = 0s. What are the charge on the capacitor
and the current I through the resistor
a)immediately after the switch is closed?
b)What is the time constant t ?
c)at t = 50 s?
d)at t = 200 s?
RC Circuit Charging
q(t) = Q(1 – e-t/RC)

ε t RC
I( t )  e
R
HO RC Problem
Discharging a Capacitor in an RC
Circuit
• When a charged capacitor is
placed in the circuit, it can be
discharged
– q = Qe-t/RC
• The charge decreases
exponentiallyAt t = t = RC,
the charge decreases to 0.368
Qmax
– In other words, in one time
constant, the capacitor loses
63.2% of its initial charge
• The current is:
dq Q t RC
I t    e
dt RC
QuickCheck 31.16

What does the voltmeter read?

A. 6 V.
B. 3 V.
C. 2 V.
D. Some other value.
E. Nothing because this
will fry the meter.

Slide 31-91
QuickCheck 31.16

What does the voltmeter read?

A. 6 V.
B. 3 V.
C. 2 V.
D. Some other value.
E. Nothing because this
will fry the meter.

Slide 31-92
QuickCheck 31.17

What does the ammeter read?

A. 6 A.
B. 3 A.
C. 2 A.
D. Some other value.
E. Nothing because this
will fry the meter.

Slide 31-93
QuickCheck 31.17

What does the ammeter read?

A. 6 A.
B. 3 A.
C. 2 A.
D. Some other value.
E. Nothing because this
will fry the meter.

Slide 31-94
 Current: Dead or Alive
DEATH:
• NEUROLOGIC CRITERIA: An individual with
irreversible cessation of all brain function,
including the brain stem, is dead.
• CARDIOPULMONARY CRITERIA: An individual
with irreversible cessation of circulatory and
respiratory function is dead.
 Electric Shock
What causes electric Shock in the human
body, Voltage or Current?
•Electric Shock occurs when current is
produced in the body, which is caused by an
impressed voltage.

•Voltage is the CAUSE

•Current does the DAMAGE
 Electric Shock
Current (A) Effect

0.001 Can be felt

0.005 Painful
0.010 Causes involuntary muscle spasms
0.015 Causes loss of muscle control
0.070 If through heart, serious!
If current lasts for 1 s - FATAL!

Dry Skin Body Resistance: 500,000 

Wet Skin Body Resistance: 1000 
 Electric Shock Therapy
ELECTRO CONVULSIVE
THERAPY
An electric shock is applied to produce a convulsive
seizure. The shock is typically between 140 - 170 volts and
lasts between 0.5 and 1 seconds. No explanation of how it
works.
Used in the treatment of:
1.Chronic endogenous depression
2.Bipolar disorder.
3.Acute mania.
4.Certain types of schizophrenia

In the U.S. 33,000 - 50,000 people receive ECT each year

 Question
What current would you draw if you
were unfortunate to short-circuit a
120 V line with dry hands?
Wet hands?
Dry Skin Body Resistance: 500,000 
Wet Skin Body Resistance: 1000 

DRY: I = V/R = 120 V/500,000  = .00024 (live!)

WET: I = V/R = 120 V/1000  = .12 (dead!)

 Ground Wire
• Electrical equipment
manufacturers use
electrical cords that
have a third wire,
called a ground
• This safety ground
normally carries no
current and is both
grounded and
connected to the
appliance
Ground-Fault Interrupters
(GFI)
• Special power outlets
• Used in hazardous areas
• Designed to protect people from electrical
shock
• Senses currents (< 5 mA) leaking to ground
• Quickly shuts off the current when above
this level
 Is AC Deadlier than DC?
• Low frequency (50 - 60 Hz) AC
currents can be more dangerous than
similar levels of DC current since the
alternating fluctuations can cause the
heart to lose coordination, inducing
ventricular fibrillation, which then
rapidly leads to death.

• High voltage DC power can be more

dangerous than AC, however, since it
tends to cause muscles to lock in
position, stopping the victim from
releasing the energized conductor once
grasped.

• Frequency MATTERS.
 Is AC Deadlier than DC?
They are BOTH Deadly!
Any practical distribution system
will use voltage levels quite
sufficient for a dangerous
amount of current to flow,
whether it uses alternating or
direct current. Ultimately, the
advantages of AC power
transmission outweighed this
theoretical risk, and it was
eventually adopted as the
standard worldwide after Nikola
Tesla designed the first AC
hydroelectric power plant at
Niagara Falls, New York which
started producing electrical
power in 1895.
 War of Currents 1880’s

George Westinghouse, Nikola Tesla,

Thomas Edison, American American entrepreneur Serbian inventor,
inventor and businessman, and engineer, backed physicist, and
pushed for the development financially the electro-mechanical
of a DC power network. development of a engineer, was
practical AC power instrumental in
network. developing AC
networks.
 Edison's Publicity Campaign
Edison wired NYC with DC. He carried out a campaign to discourage the use of
AC, including spreading information on fatal AC accidents, killing animals, and
lobbying against the use of AC in state legislatures. Edison opposed capital
punishment, but his desire to disparage the system of alternating current led to the
invention of the electric chair. Harold P. Brown, who was at this time being secretly
paid by Edison, constructed the first electric chair for the state of New York in
order to promote the idea that alternating current was deadlier than DC.

The first electric chair, which was used to execute William Kemmler in 1890
 GE & Edison: We bring good things to light.
More than a 1000 killed since 1890!

Nebraska: Only state that requires it.

The first electric chair, 15-second-long jolt of 2,450 volts of
which was used to execute
William Kemmler in 1890
electricity (~ 8 Amps)
 Limitations of DC Transmission
• Large currents in wires produce heat and energy losses by
P = I2R.
• Large expensive conductors would be needed or else very
high voltage drops (and efficiency losses) would result.
• High loads of direct current could rarely be transmitted for
distances greater than one mile without introducing
excessive voltage drops.
• Direct current can not easily be changed to higher or lower
voltages. Separate electrical lines are needed to distribute
power to appliances that used different voltages, for
example, lighting and electric motors.
 Advantages of AC Transmission
• Alternating Current can be transformed to ‘step’ the
voltage up or down with transformers.
• Power is transmitted at great distances at HIGH voltages
and LOW currents and then stepped down to low voltages
for use in homes (240V) and industry (440V).
• Convert AC to DC with a rectifier in appliances.

AC is more efficient for Transmission

& Distribution of electrical power than
DC over long distances! But what if the
power generation is LOCAL?
 In The Future….
Long Distance AC Power Transmission may
not be needed!!! New DC technologies and
Solar Power will make AC obsolete!
 Quick Quiz

For the two lightbulbs shown in this figure,

rank the current values at the points, from
greatest to least.

Ia = Ib > Ic = Id > Ie = If.

The 60 W bulb has the lowest

resistance and therefore draws the
most current and burns brightest!