SPA5304 Physical Dynamics Lecture 11-12

David Vegh

30 January 2019

1 Lagrangian mechanics

1.1 Example: Atwood’s machine

Invented by George Atwood in 1784 to verify the mechanical law of motion with constant acceleration.
• Constraint: x1 + x2 = 0
• 1 degree of freedom
• generalized coordinate: x ≡ x1 = −x2

1 1 1
T = m1 ẋ21 + m2 ẋ22 = (m1 + m2 )ẋ2
2 2 2
V = m1 gx1 + m2 gx2 = (m1 − m2 )gx
1
L=T −V = (m1 + m2 )ẋ2 − (m1 − m2 )gx
2
The Euler-Lagrange equation:
d ∂L ∂L
− = (m1 + m2 )ẍ + (m1 − m2 )g = 0
dt ∂ ẋ ∂x
and thus
m1 − m2
ẍ = − g
m1 + m2
No constraint forces (tension) appear.

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1.2 Example: A bead sliding on a uniformly rotating wire
An example of time-dependent constraints.

• Constraint: θ = ωt (this is time-dependent!)

• 1 degree of freedom
• generalised coordinate: r


x = r cos ωt
y = r sin ωt

Using the expression for T in polar coordinates,

1 1
T = m(ṙ2 + r2 θ̇2 ) = m(ṙ2 + r2 ω 2 )
2 2
Note that this is not quadratic in ṙ.
If there are no other forces, L = T . The E-L equations are
d ∂L ∂L
− = mr̈ − mrω 2 = 0
dt ∂ ṙ ∂r
r̈ = rω 2
r = r0 eωt
This means that the bead moves exponentially outward.
• Again no constraint force appears in the equation.
• The constraint force is not perpendicular to the motion, and thus it does work on the bead (energy is
not conserved).

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2 Curvilinear coordinates
Let us recall a few examples for curvilinear coordinate systems. These will be useful as generalised coordi-
nates.

2.1 Polar coordinates

We have already seen this example in Lecture 9.

1 ˙2 1
T = m~r = m(ṙ2 + r2 φ̇2 )
2 2

2.2 Spherical coordinates

~r = (x, y, z) = r(sin θ cos φ, sin θ sin φ, cos θ)

θ ∈ [0, π] : polar angle (colatitude)

φ ∈ [0, 2π] : azimuthal angle

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 • Components of the hatted vectors are

r̂ = (sin θ cos φ, sin θ sin φ, cos θ)

Take the θ derivative of this to get

θ̂ = (cos θ cos φ, cos θ sin φ, − sin θ)

Finally,
φ̂ = (− sin φ, cos φ, 0)

One can check that the vectors are orthonormal:

r̂2 = θ̂2 = φ̂2 = 1

r̂ · θ̂ = r̂ · φ̂ = θ̂ · φ̂ = 0
and that r̂ · (θ̂ × φ̂) = +1, i.e. they form a right-handed frame.

• In the kinetic term ~r˙ shows up which we need to compute

∂~r ∂~r ∂~r
~r˙ = ṙ + θ̇ + φ̇
∂r ∂θ ∂φ
We can find expressions for the partial derivatives using the hatted vectors
∂~r ∂~r ∂~r
= r̂, = rθ̂, = r sin θ φ̂
∂r ∂θ ∂φ
Plugging these back in gives
~r˙ = ṙr̂ + rθ̇θ̂ + r sin θ φ̇φ̂
and
m ˙2 m 2 
T = ~r = ṙ + r2 (θ̇2 + sin2 θ φ̇2 )
2 2

• The conjugate momenta are

∂L ∂T
pr = = = mṙ
∂ ṙ ∂ ṙ
∂L ∂T
pθ = = = mr2 θ̇
∂ θ̇ ∂ θ̇
∂L ∂T
pφ = = = mr2 sin2 θ φ̇
∂ φ̇ ∂ φ̇

• Angular momentum (about origin)

~ = m~r × ~r˙ = mrr̂ × (ṙr̂ + rθ̇θ̂ + r sin θ φ̇φ̂) = mr2 (θ̇ r̂ × θ̂ + sin θ φ̇ r̂ × φ̂) = mr2 θ̇φ̂ − mr2 sin θ φ̇θ̂
L
| {z } | {z }
φ̂ −θ̂

~ · ẑ = mr2 θ̇ φ̂ · ẑ −mr2 sin θ φ̇ θ̂ · ẑ = mr2 sin2 θ φ̇

Lz = L
|{z} |{z}
0 − sin θ

So Lz = pφ and it is conserved if φ is cyclic.

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2.3 Cylindrical coordinates

~r = (ρ cos φ, ρ sin φ, z)

∂~r ∂~r ∂~r

~r˙ = ρ̇ + φ̇ + ż = ρ̂ρ̇ + ρφ̂φ̇ + ẑ ż
∂ρ ∂φ ∂z
where
∂~
r
r̂ = ∂ρ = (cos φ, sin φ, 0)
1 ∂~
r
φ̂ = ρ ∂φ = (− sin φ, cos φ, 0)
∂~
r
ẑ = ∂z = (0, 0, 1)
These three vectors form a right-handed orthonormal basis.

1 ˙2 1 1
T = m~r = m(ẋ2 + ẏ 2 + ż 2 ) = m(ρ̇2 + ρ2 φ̇2 + ż 2 )
2 2 2

The conjugate momenta are

∂L
pρ = = mρ̇
∂ ρ̇
∂L
pφ = = mρ2 φ̇
∂ φ̇
∂L
pz = = mż
∂ ż
~ = m~r × ~r˙ = m(ρρ̂ + z ẑ) × (ρ̂ρ̇ + ρφ̂φ̇ + ẑ ż) = m(ρ2 φ̇ ρ̂ × φ̂ +ρż ρ̂ × ẑ +z ρ̇ ẑ × ρ̂ +zρφ̇ ẑ × φ̂)
L
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
ẑ −φ̂ φ̂ −ρ̂

~ = mρ2 φ̇ẑ + m(z ρ̇ − ρż)φ̂ − mρz φ̇ρ̂

L
Lz = L ~ · ẑ = mρ2 φ̇ = pφ
Lz is conserved if φ is cyclic.

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 Let us look at some examples of Lagrangian mechanics using these coordinate systems.

2.4 Example: A free particle in spherical coordinates

m 2
L=T = (ṙ + r2 (θ̇2 + sin2 θ φ̇2 ))
2
The Euler-Lagrange equations
• for r:
d ∂L ∂L
=
dt ∂ ṙ ∂r
d
(mṙ) = mr̈ = mr(θ̇2 + sin2 θ φ̇2 )
dt
• for θ:
d ∂L ∂L
=
dt ∂ θ̇ ∂θ
d
(mr2 θ̇) = mr2 sin θ cos θ φ̇2
dt
• for φ:
d ∂L ∂L
= =0 cyclic coordinate
dt ∂ φ̇ ∂φ
d
(mr2 sin2 θ φ̇) = 0 ⇒ pφ = mr2 sin2 θ φ̇ = const.
dt

2.5 Example: A free particle in cylindrical coordinates

1
L=T = m(ρ̇2 + ρ2 φ̇2 + ż 2 )
2
The Euler-Lagrange equations
• for z:
∂L
=0 cyclic coordinate
∂z
thus the linear momentum along z is constant:

pz = mż = const.

• for ρ:
d ∂L ∂L
=
dt ∂ ρ̇ ∂ρ
mρ̈ = mρφ̇2
| {z }
centrifugal force

• for φ:
d ∂L ∂L
= =0 cyclic coordinate
dt ∂ φ̇ ∂φ
pφ = mρ2 φ̇ = const. ≡ l

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Plugging this into the E-L equation for ρ,
2
l2

l
mρ̈ = mρ =
mρ2 mρ3

The RHS is the centrifugal force.

3 The Central Force Problem

As an important application of the Lagrangian formulation of mechanics, let us study the two-body problem
with central forces.

3.1 Reduction to a one-body problem

Consider a system of two particles with masses m1 and m2 .

• ~r1 , ~r2 ⇒ there are 6 degrees of freedom

• As generalized coordinates, take:
– COM position R ~

– difference vector ~r ≡ ~r2 − ~r1

What is the Lagrangian?
Recall the dcomposition of T in many-particle systems (see the end of Lecture 6):
N
1 ~˙ 2 X 1 ˙ 02
T = MR + mi~ri
2
| {z } i=1
2
COM | {z }
relative to COM

For two particles,

~ = ~r1 − m1~r1 + m2~r2 m2 (~r2 − ~r1 ) m2

~r1 0 = ~r1 − R =− =− ~r
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2

~ = ~r2 − m1~r1 + m2~r2 = m1 (~r2 − ~r1 ) =

~r2 0 = ~r2 − R
m1
~r
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2

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 Thus,
 2  2
1 ~˙ 2 1 m2 1 m1 1 ~˙ 2 1 m1 m2 ˙ 2
T = M R + m1 − ~r˙ + m2 ~r˙ = MR + ~r
2 2 m1 + m2 2 m1 + m2 2 2 m1 + m2

and we get
1 ~˙ 2 1 ˙ 2
T = M R + µ~r
2 2
m1 m2
where µ ≡ m1 +m2 is the reduced mass.
Assume that the potential depends only on the relative position: V = V (~r). Then,

1 ~˙ 2 1 ˙ 2
Ltotal = M R + µ~r − V (~r)
|2 {z } |2 {z }
~˙
LCOM (R) Lrel (~ r˙ )
r ,~

Note that the COM motion and the relative motion decouple from each other.
Explicitly,
~
• E-L equation for R:
d ∂L ∂L ~¨ = 0 :
= =0 ⇒ MR trivial inertial motion
˙~
dt ∂ R ~
∂R

• E-L equation for ~r:

d ∂L ∂L ∂
= =0 ⇒ µ~r¨ = − V (~r) : motion of a particle with Lagrangian Lrel
dt ∂~r˙ ∂~r ∂~r

The two-body problem thus reduces to a one-body problem. The #DoF has been reduced to 3.

3.2 Central force

Now consider just the relative motion described by ~r.
Assume V = V (r) where r ≡ |~r|.
• The force is central: F~ ||~r
∂V
F~ = − = −V 0 (r)r̂
∂~r
~ is conserved
• Angular momentum L
~ Thus, the #DoF is reduced to 2.
• Motion is planar (since ~r is in a plane perpendicular to L).

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 Take polar coordinates (r, φ) on the plane of motion.

1
L=T −V = µ(ṙ2 + r2 φ̇2 ) − V (r)
2

The Euler-Lagrange equation for φ:

d ∂L ∂L
= =0 ⇒ ṗφ = 0
dt ∂ φ̇ ∂φ
|{z}
pφ

pφ = µr2 φ̇ = const. ≡ l (1)

Claim: pφ = Lz .
Proof:
~r = (r cos φ, r sin φ, 0)
~r˙ = (ṙ cos φ − r sin φ φ̇, ṙ sin φ + r cos φ φ̇, 0)
Let’s take the cross-product,
~r × ~r˙ = (0, 0, r2 φ̇)
~ = ~r × µ~r˙ = (0, 0, µr2 φ̇)
L
so indeed Lz = pφ .

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3.3 Reduction to one-dimensional problem
Energy is conserved,
µ 2
E =T +V = (ṙ + r2 φ̇2 ) + V (r)
2
l
using φ̇ = µr 2 from eqn. (1),
2
l2

1 1 l 1 2
E = µṙ2 + µr2 + V (r) = µṙ + + V (r)
2 2 µr2 2 2µr2
or
1 2 l2
E= µṙ + Veff (r) Veff (r) = V (r) +
2 2µr2

Veff is the effective potential.

• This is the expression for the energy of a particle in one dimension with potential Veff .
• The 2d problem has been reduced to a 1d problem (#DoF: 6 → 3 → 2 → 1)
• The extra “force” is
l2 l2
 
d
− =
dr 2µr2 µr3
This is nothing but the centrifugal force

µv 2 l l2
Fcf = , v = rφ̇ = ⇒ Fcf =
r µr µr3
The Newton equation is

l2
µr̈ = − V 0 (r)
µr3

l
Note: It would have been incorrect to replace φ̇ in the Lagrangian by φ̇ = µr 2 as we did in the formula
2
l WRONG
for the energy. This would lead to a wrong effective potential = V (r) − 2µr Veff (r)
2 which has the

wrong sign for the second term. This is because the Lagrangian formulation assumes that the dynamical
variables are independent (see p. 140 of Hand & Finch).

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