Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 1268e1278

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Journal of Archaeological Science

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

Multi-resolution morpho-bathymetric survey results at the PozzuolieBaia

underwater archaeological site (Naples, Italy)
Salvatore Passaro a, *, Marco Barra a, Roberto Saggiomo b, Simone Di Giacomo c, Antonio Leotta c,
Helge Uhlen d, Salvatore Mazzola a
a
IAMC e Istituto per l’Ambiente Marino Costiero, CNR e Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Calata Porta di Massa, Interno Porto, 80133 Naples, Italy
b
Enviroconsult srl, Via F. Crispi 85, 80122 Naples, Italy
c
Kongsberg Maritime S.r.l., Hydrographic Department, Via Cornelia 498, 00166 Rome, Italy
d
Kongsberg Maritime AS, Product Sales Manager, Strandpromenaden 50, Horten, Norway

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Here we show the results of two morpho-bathymetric surveys carried out on the underwater archaeo-
Received 22 June 2012 logical area of the Pozzuoli Bay (Naples, Italy). Such area is enclosed in the Campi Flegrei active volcanic
Received in revised form complex, where bradyseism and recent volcanic activity strongly influenced the coastline shape over the
11 September 2012
last 2 Ka. The Digital Elevation Model (DTM) of the seafloor allowed to draw the main archaeological
Accepted 26 September 2012
features of the Bay, that also include the military complex of Portus Iulius and the ancient thermal and
villa complex of Baianus Lacus. The extraction of archaeological features from DTM was achieved thanks
Keywords:
to the use of a GIS-derived tool based on the profile curvature algorithm. Thus, the Villa dei Pisoni (1st
DTM
Bradyseism
Century B.C.) and the thermal complex of Secca delle Fumose were investigated by using ultra-high
Campi Flegrei resolution DTMs, that show the presence of Roman pilae for the protection of coastal buildings and
Underwater archaeology also the inner planimetry of the Villa dei Pisoni complex. The observation of coastal engineering
GIS structures give also the opportunity to formulate some hypothesis on the evolution of morphology and of
the sedimentary pattern of the area, while depth of archaeological remains allowed a rough computation
of the rate of subsidence, resulted to be 2.55 (
0.5) mm/y for the Eastern sector (Pozzuoli) and 2.90
(
0.5) mm/y for the western (Baia).
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction scale. Their emplacement is a consequence of both the sea-level rise

Underwater archeological Park are a new way to think to the
conservation and preservation of sites of archaeological interest
that gives the opportunity to create conditions for a proper
management of the available local resources. In Italy, many
underwater sites are known, like Punta Gavazzi (Purpura et al.,
1992; Pruneti and Riccardi, 1993), Ustica, the Egadi Islands; the
underwater archeological Park of Torre Astura (1st century BC;
Piccarreta, 1977), the bay of Camarina in Sicily; the ruins of the
ancient Caulonia Doric temple (430 BC) of Monasterace and the
imperial palace in Capri (Davidde, 2002). All of these Italian
archaeological sites have become popular destinations for under-
water archaeological tours, following a new concept for manage-
ment and safe of archaeological sites now widespread at a global
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ39 81 5423831; fax: þ39 81 5423888.
E-mail addresses: salvatore.passaro@iamc.cnr.it, salvatore.passaro@cnr.it
(S. Passaro).
(e.g. Lambeck et al., 2004a; Lambeck et al., 2004b; Lambeck and
Purcell, 2005; Antonioli et al., 2007; Lambeck et al., 2010) and the
area subsidence due to geological factors. This process is high-
lighted in areas where active volcano-structural processes result in
very high rate of vertical displacement, with obvious consequences
on coastal archaeological findings. The Gulf of Pozzuoli belongs to
the Campi Flegrei volcanic field, which is affected by locally strong
(often co-seismic) vertical movement called “Bradyseism”, that
strongly influenced the vertical displacement of the coastal area.
Aerial photography and, successively, diving surveys testify the
presence of shallow archaeological remains at Pozzuoli (the ancient
“Puteoli”) adjacent to the north westernmost promontory of the
Gulf of Naples, consisting in thermal baths, imperial villas (e.g., Villa
a Protiro and Villa dei Pisoni, nymphaeum of Claudio) and a military
port complex of Portus Iulius (e.g., Lamboglia, 1961).
The aim of this paper is to show the results of a multi-resolution
morpho-bathymetric survey in the archaeological area of Baia and
Pozzuoli. Morpho-bathymetric techniques (multibeam echosound-
ers and side scan sonar) are a powerful tool for the identification and

0305-4403/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2012.09.035
 S. Passaro et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 1268e1278
mapping of target outcropping from the seafloor, and may result in
a very useful support for archaeologists when dealing with under-
water sites (Momber and Geen, 2000; Mayer et al., 2003; Quinn,
2006; Passaro et al., 2009; Passaro, 2010; Quinn and Boland, 2010;
Plets et al., 2011. Brennan et al., 2012; Gregory et al., 2012). In
particular, these techniques may improve the cost-benefit ratio
when sites of archaeological interest are hidden by plant life, thus
making very difficult the relief of real archeological shapes from
divers. In the Pozzuoli Bay, for example, most of the archaeological
remains placed on the seafloor are covered by sea-grass meadows
like cymodocea nodosa and posidonia oceanica.
2. Volcanological background
The Pozzuoli Bay (Fig. 1) is the offshore counterpart of the Campi
Flegrei caldera (CFc), a volcanic district located in the Neapolitan
area and inhabited by more than 1 million people. The actual
morphology of the Campi Flegrei is the result of two major caldera
forming eruption related to the Campania Ignimbrite and Neapol-
itan Yellow Tuff events occurred at w39 ka B.P. (De Vivo et al., 2001)
and w15 ka B.P. (Deino et al., 2004) respectively. The post-NYT
‘recent’ activity has been commonly subdivided into three epochs
of active volcanism separated by quiescent intervals (Orsi et al.,
2009 and references therein), although there is evidence that the
subdivision is more complex (Insinga et al., 2006; Fedele et al.,
2011). Its magmatic system is still active with the last eruption
Fig. 1. Location map and main geological features of the Pozzuoli Bay (redrawn after Orsi et al., 2009). AL ¼ Averno Lake, MN ¼ Monte Nuovo, GC ¼ Gauro Crater, Ag ¼ Agnano,
AC ¼ Astroni Crater, LL ¼ Lucrino Lake.
1269
occurring in 1538 AD (Di Vito et al., 1987). Widespread fumaroles
and hot spring activity (Allard et al., 1991) as long as unrest
episodes in the last 35 years, with a maximum net uplift of about
3.5 m in the Pozzuoli area (Orsi et al., 1999 and references therein),
also testify the vitality of this volcanic area.
A complex set of vertical ground movement called bradyseism
was reconstructed at least for the last 2 kyrs. It consists of a series of
spot uplifting crises inside an overall sinking, recognized through
(in the beginning) sea-level measurements made on the ruins of
the Serapeo roman market (e.g., Morhange et al., 2006, and refer-
ences therein). Sinking magnitude increases both eastward and
westward from Pozzuoli (Berrino et al., 1984). Secca delle Fumose is
placed at about 1500 m southward from Pozzuoli, and is charac-
terized by thermal (up to 93 ) emissions rich in methane, sulphur
dioxide, arsenic and carbon dioxide (Vaselli et al., 2011).
3. Archaeological background
As a consequence of both the CF subsidence and sea level rise,
the coastline of Baia-Pozzuoli has receded of several metres in the
last z2 Ka. In this area, the main features (Fig. 2) from the ancient
Puteoli (the actual Pozzuoli) harbour to the Baianus Lacus (Baia)
were mapped thanks to several years of underwater archaeological
surveys (Di Fraia et al., 1985; Di Fraia, 1993; Lombardo, 2009;
Scognamiglio, 1993, 2002). The Baianus Lacus was essentially made
from Villas and luxury buildings and was the site of several thermal
1270 S. Passaro et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 1268e1278
Fig. 2. Underwater map of the main archaeological remains. BL ¼ Baianus Lacus, BL-EC ¼ Baianus Lacus Entry Channel, NT ¼ Triclinic Nymphaeum, VaP ¼ Villa a Protiro, VdP ¼ Villa
dei Pisoni, VH ¼ Via Herculanea, PI ¼ Portus Iulius, PI-EC ¼ Portus Iulius Entry Channel. See text for details and references.
complex, while the Puteoli remains are mainly related to the
presence of Portus Iulius, which was initially a military complex,
later converted in commercial.
3.1. Portus Iulius
Portus Iulius (Hereafter PI, Fig. 2), so named in honour of Gaio
Giulio Cesare Ottaviano, was built from Marco Vipsanio Agrippa in
the 37 BC for military purposes. The harbour almost completely
occupied the Ancient Lucrino Lake (ALL), at that epoch larger than
now, while some activities partially emplaced also in the adjacent
Averno Lake, linked thanks to a 300 m long and 50 m wide artificial
channel. On top of the dam bounding seaward the ALL basin,
a paved trail called Via Herculanea (VH) linked PI to Baianus Lacus.
The entire anthropic ALL basin extended 1.6 km2.
An underground walkways ensured a protected link between
the military complex and both the Averno Lake and the Port of
Strabo (Cuma). The military port was operative for 25 years, until
a definitive transfer of the roman fleet in the Miseno natural
harbour. Such a displacement of the fleet was due to the progres-
sive reduction in depth, originated by the partial filling of the
Ancient Lucrino Lake. Commercial activities of the harbour was still
active until the 4th Century AD, after a partial dam collapse and
a progressive deepening of the seafloor.
3.2. Baianus Lacus
Baianus Lacus (BL, Fig. 2) was a natural harbourage located
between Punta Epitaffio to the North and Punta del Castello to the
South. This area was linked to the Pozzuoli Bay with a N100 E
striking, 220 m long and 30 m wide channel that is actually
partially covered by sediment. In this area there are the remains of
the nymphaeum triclinium (1st Century BC), and findings of
thermal bath plants, villas with mosaic floors and a wine shop
(Davidde, 2002). About 130 m from Punta Epitaffio. The nym-
phaeum triclinium of the Claudian palace was a rectangular edifice
with a dinning room consisting in a seaward open semi-circular
apse. In the central sector of the room there was a seawater
pool, while on each side triclinic beds where located between the
pool and a seawater channel that surrounded the whole camera.
The camera walls were made by arches in which many sculptures
were present. Actually, original sculptures have been retrieved and
are now guarded at the Archaeological Museum of Baia, while
several resin-made copies of the original sculptures was placed on
the seafloor.
3.3. Villa dei Pisoni
Villa dei Pisoni, also visible from aerial ad satellite images, is
located at about 150 m south-eastward from the Punta Epitaffio
Cape. Is composed by several rooms with a global rectangular plan
structure elongated 160*120 m that strikes N80 E (Fig. 2). Most of
the internal sector was occupied by gardens (about 95  65 m) and
surrounded from apses and columns. Thanks to the findings of
a “fistula aquaria” containing the inscription “L. Pisonis”, the Villa
property was attributed to the important “Pisonis” family and dated
first century A.C. (Lombardo, 1993). The Pisonis family took place to
the conspiracy against the Emperor Nerone, and the Villa was
confiscated and become imperial property in the second century
B.C. South-eastward, the Villa structure is linked to an area where
there are remains of a thermal bath complex, piers and fish ponds.
Near Villa dei Pisoni, there are remains of another Villa character-
ized from the presence of an entrance with an extended arcade,
known as “Villa a Protiro”.
 S. Passaro et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 1268e1278
4. Data and methods
4.1. Multibeam systems
Multibeam echosounders are standard equipments used to
simultaneously collect several depth measurements, called
“beams”. The beam array obtained for each source-ping is called
swath, and is orthogonal to the vessel motion. A complete multi-
beam system is usually composed from a computer unit, transmit
and receive transducer for sending and receiving sound in the
water, a position system, a gyro-compass and a motion sensor. All of
the instrumental components are real-time connected, thus
allowing to rectify the position of each beam as a function of the
instantaneous position and 3D attitude of the acquisition vessel.
Each depth measurement is related to the center of the beam
impacting the seafloor, and represents the average depth value of
the seafloor sector rather than a spot measurement. The beam
dimension, which is also called footprint, is expressed from the
following equation (nadir footprint in equally spaced beam
arrays):
Nf ¼ D*tgðSO=NBÞ
where: Nf ¼ Nadir footprint, D ¼ depth, SO ¼ Swath Opening (in
degrees), NB ¼ Number of beams in the used array (de Alteriis et al.,
2003). Data are processed according the International Hydro-
graphic Organization standards (IHO, 1998) by using swath editor
tools for the removal of various data issues related to erroneous
measurements, vessel motion, navigational jumps and sound
refraction. The processed data consist in a scattered “numb” of
depth measurements, that need to be spatially re-organized in
a regular matrix, called “grid”. In Geographic Information Systems
(GIS), grids are named Digital Elevation Model (DEM) when dealing
with merely relief, or Digital Terrain Model (DTM) when additional
landscape attribute are present (Weibel and Heller, 1991).
Fig. 3. Lower resolution DTM. AL ¼ Averno Lake, MN ¼ Monte Nuovo, LL ¼ Lucrino Lake, A, B and C are frame positioning of ultra-high resolution data.
1271
4.2. Horizontal and vertical resolution of multibeam records
DTM resolution depends on several parameters, such are: depth
of the survey area, number of beams, accuracy of sound velocity
across water column, instrumental frequency and the used posi-
tioning system. The vertical resolution is improved by applying
a Sound Velocity Profile (SVP) along the water column, recorded
and real-time applied at every 6e8 h during the whole survey. Once
SVP-corrected, vertical resolution mainly depends on the instru-
mental frequency while the horizontal mainly depends on footprint
(i.e., the number of beams and water depth of the area). Both
horizontal and vertical resolution are also a function of the posi-
tioning system accuracy, that can be evaluated through the use of
Vertical Dilution Of Precision (VDOP) or Horizontal Dilution of
Precision (HDOP). These parameters allow the quantitative error
estimation committed by the GPS receiver during the survey
(Langley, 1999). Of course, also multibeam acquisition that poten-
tially may results in very high resolution DTM are constrained in
Grid Cell Size choice when the HDOP is higher than footprint. In this
paper we used two different resolution bathymetric datasets,
named hereafter Lower Resolution DTM (LRD) and the Higher
Resolution DTM (HRD).
4.3. LRD data acquisition
Lower Resolution DTM (LRD) data acquisition was carried
onboard of the R/V. Tethis of the National Research Council of
CNR, between 2003 and 2005, by using the Reson Seabat 8111
multibeam equipment. This echosounder is characterized by
a 100 kHz acoustic source frequency, 101 beams and 150 of pulse
width. The resulting Digital Terrain Model (DTM; Fig. 3) was ob-
tained by merging the results of several surveys, all acquired with
a Fugro Seastar GPS system with no differential correction.
Despite the multibeam bathymetry was potentially characterized
by a lower average nadir footprint value (about 1.5 m) in the
1272 S. Passaro et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 1268e1278
archaeological area, the limitation induced from the GPS posi-
tioning precision results in a metrical spatial uncertainty of beam
positioning, that can not be resolved with a lower than 5  5m
grid cell size. Data were processed by using the PDS2000 swath
and grid model tools.
4.4. HRD data acquisition
Higher Resolution DTM (HRD, Fig. 4) were acquired in 2011 by
using the Konsberg EM 2040 ultra-high resolution multibeam
equipment by the Kongsberg Maritime S.r.l. Hydrographic Depart-
ment of Rome. The EM 2040 is a 0e600 m bsl depth range operative
multibeam equipment that has an operative frequency range of
200e400 kHz, 140 of swath coverage and allow more than 800
soundings per ping. This equipment is well suited for surveys
meeting the IHO-S44 special class/order. Also thanks to the use of
a Differential Global Positioning System, HRD data allowed to
obtain two ultra-high resolution DTMs (10 cm) on the Villa dei
Pisoni (VdP, Fig. 4A) and the Secca delle Fumose (SdF, Fig. 4B) areas.
In addiction, the EM 2040 echosounder was also used to collect
backscatter measurements for side scan-like imaging on VdP
(Fig. 5). Backscatter data gives one value per depth points and
describes the signal strength of the returning echo from the
seafloor. Rock will give a strong echo, while mud gives a small echo.
Mosaicking of side scan measurements and DTM data processing
for these high resolution surveys were obtained by using the SIS
software.
Fig. 4. A) HRD of the southern sector of the Villa dei Pisoni complex (positioning frame is A in Fig. 3); B) HRD of the Secca delle Fumose area (positioning frame is B in Fig. 3); C) 2.5
view of A; D) 2.5 view of C. Courtesy of Italian Ministry for Heritage and Cultural Activities.
4.5. GIS outliers detection
In order to highlight the presence of bathymetric “outliers”,
a GIS procedure was developed (Fig. 6). All analysis were carried out
by using the GRASS GIS Open Source package (Neteler et al., 2012).
The first step of procedure was to interpolate at high resolution
(1 m) the original DTM by means of regularized spline with tension
interpolator, setting tension parameter and search radius in order
to highlight local “outliers” in DTM (Fig. 6). The second step was to
use “r.param.scale” command to calculate the profile curvature of
the surface produced by the first step (Fig. 6C). Profile curvatures is
defined as the curvature intersecting with the plane defined by Z
axis and maximum gradient direction. Positive values in resulting
surface therefore described convex profile curvature, while nega-
tive values concave one. The final result of described procedure was
a surface characterized by a higher detectability of sectors rising
above the local “mean” bathymetric trend. This results were
compared and joined with those obtained from the slope map,
where high slope gradient are mainly concentrated on the border of
the archaeological outliers (Fig. 6D).
5. Results
5.1. Low Resolution DTM
Low Resolution DTM (LRD) data consist in a 5  5 m grid cell size
matrix, enclosed in the 0e60 m bsl bathymetric range, that extends
for some 6 km2. It shows that the Pozzuoli Bay was a strongly
 S. Passaro et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 1268e1278
Fig. 5. Seafloor backscatter mosaic of the Villa dei Pisoni complex (positioning frame is
C in Fig. 3). Courtesy of Italian Ministry for Heritage and Cultural Activities.
anthropized coastal sector. The LRD Archaeological findings are
partially visible on the shaded relief image and almost concen-
trated in the 0e15 m bsl depth range (Fig. 6a and B), thus testifying
the strong influence of bradyseism on the coastal area in the last
2 Ka. Major gradients in the slope map are about 50 and almost
concentrated on the border of archaeological findings (Fig. 6D).
Thanks to the slope map representation and to the self-extraction
procedure of outliers from DTM by using GIS, we drowned and
described the main bathymetric anomalies that can be found in the
Fig. 6. LRD data processing: A) Original DTM, B) 1 m spline smoothed DTM, C) Archaeological outliers derived from DTM by using a GIS tool based on the profile curvature, D) Slope
map.
1273
first 15 m bsl depth sector, that correspond to the main archaeo-
logical features that are present in the area (Figs. 2 and 7).
Despite poorly resolute, the triclinic nymphaeum of Claudio (NT,
Figs. 2 and 7) is visible at about 6
1.5 m depth, as well as Villa
a Protiro (VaP) and other remains on the ancient Baianus Lacus (BL,
Fig. 7) area, also included the entry channel (BL-EC), which is
composed from two piers of 200 and 180 m N100 E oriented.
On the contrary, Villa dei Pisoni (VdP, Fig. 7) appears to be very
similar in shape and dimensions as in the map made from divers
(e.g., Lamboglia, 1961). The Villa complex is located at about 150 m
south-east off the coast of Punta Epitaffio. Is composed by several
rooms with a global rectangular plan structure that strikes
160*120 m along N40 E. Most of the internal sector was occupied
by gardens, (about 95  65 m). Seaward, the complex (that globally
extends for more than 250 m along N150 E) continues with several
rooms that was interpreted as thermal baths, fish and water storage
tanks, piers and docks. In the southernmost part of the complex
two, N60 E striking lines of pillars are visible. These pillars, located
at 10 m (for the bottom) on average reaches 6 m depth, and
were part of a breakwater system built for the protection of VdP
from the south-easterly winds. Starting from the NW corner of the
VdP, the Via Herculanea (VH, Fig. 7) dam linked the BL with PI. This
dam structure was the seaward limit of the ancient, anthropic
Lucrino Lake, the site of the Roman military harbour. VH strikes
N60 E for about 1300 m, and actually is exposed with few,
uncontinous segments, mainly near VdP and Portus Iulius (PI,
Fig. 7), since the central sector collapsed in the 4th Century AC. The
VH dam seems to be slightly seaward convex rather than perfectly
linear. Portus Iulius (PI) is located at a mean depth of 2.5 m from the
seafloor. It was linked to the open sea thanks to a 360 m long, 60 m
wide N130 E striking artificial channel, made from two parallel
piers perfectly visible on DTM. The complex had buildings and
other constructions extended for about 1 km2 eastwartd from PI-
EC. The Secca delle Fumose (SdF, Fig. 7) outcropping is located at
about 800 m from the coast, perfectly at the center (580 m for each
side) between VdP and the entry channel of PI. Similar to the
southernmost part of VdP, also SdF shows several pillars, mainly
displaced on a single line N60 E oriented. Actually, SdF reaches
about 4 m bsl. At about 55 m southwestward from SdF, a 250 m long
rupture surface is present (Figs. 3 and 7D). The higher part of the
1274 S. Passaro et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 1268e1278

Fig. 7. Map of the archaeological features extracted from DTM. BL ¼ Baianus Lacus, BL-
EC ¼ Baianus Lacus Entry Channel, NT ¼ Nymphaeum Triclinic, VaP ¼ Villa a Protiro,
VdP ¼ Villa dei Pisoni, VH ¼ Via Herculanea, SdF ¼ Secca delle Fumose, PI ¼ Portus
Iulius, PI-EC ¼ Portus Iulius Entry Channel.
Fig. 8. Main features visible from the HRD of Villa dei Pisoni. Dashed lines are hypo-
thetic original alignments of pillars. Positioning frame is C in Fig. 3.
border of detachment starts from 15 m bsl (F1, Fig. 7D) following
the main morphological break in slope of the acquisition area.
several metres below the actual mean sea level (Dubois, 1907;
5.2. High Resolution DTMs Gianfrotta, 1996; Scognamiglio, 1997). Despite the great work done
during at least 15 years of diving surveys, many rests are still
High Resolution DTMs (HRD) are a sort of sonic picture of the unmapped, since of the complexity induced by the folding of ruins,
seafloor, and testify the potential of multibeam swath bathymetry masked by aquatic plants or sediment filling, and for the obvious
in terms of seafloor imaging on archaeological targets. In addiction difficulty to get an accurate positioning of detected items during
to what highlighted from LRD, HRD data show two roads to the the diving survey.
north and east of the central courtyard of the VdP (Figs. 5 and 8),
the thermal complex of the NE corner and the inner distribution of
rooms, thermal baths, fish and water storage tanks, piers and docks
in the southernmost sector. In particular, the southern boundary
shows the presence of at least 17 pillars with squared plants
ranging from 6 to 10 m, sometimes with finished tops. Pillars are
actually not aligned on a line, although they seems to be moved
from a double row original displacement. Northward from these
pillars, other pillar tops are visible at this scale, linked in a sort of
“opus reticulatum”, made by 3 rows of six pillars for each row
(Figs. 4A, C and 8). In this last case, pillars are perfectly aligned and
strike N60 E, with rectangular plants of about 4  5.5 m. Also Secca
delle Fumose (SdF) high resolution dataset shows the presence of
pillars, with a more articulated organization. A first series of eleven
pillars with a 10  10 m squared plant strikes N60 E (L1, Fig. 9).
Three blocks with the same dimension and alignment are located
20 m downward the first line (L2, Fig. 9). A third parallel line is
located northward from the first, and shows 4, 5 m large blocks
(L3). A N340 E alignment of five, 5 m blocks (L4); a N340 E line
consisting in 3 blocks with a 6e8 m squared plant (L5). Northward,
data show a chaotic facies, probably due to sulphur concretions and
rock outcroppings (Fig. 4B and D).

6. Discussion

As a consequence of the bradyseism, the ancient ports of Mis- Fig. 9. Main features visible from the HRD of Secca delle Fumose. Dashed lines are
eno, Baia and Portus Julius (Pozzuoli) are presently drowned original hypothetic alignments of pillars. Positioning frame is B in Fig. 3.
 S. Passaro et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 1268e1278
6.1. Pillars and breakwaters
Both VdP and SdF DTMs show the presence of pillars with
a squared plant. This kind of construction, called “pilae”, was often
used from Romans to build artificial reefs, breakwaters and (less
often) piers. More specifically, the realization of the cement quays
made with hydraulic grout containing pozzolana (“pulvis puteola-
num”) allowed the Roman progress for “in water” building tech-
niques. Vitruvius in “De Architectura” described the developement
of three main building techniques for the realization of coastal
engineering structures that can be summarized in the following
(Felici, 2002): 1) with bones made by wooden frameworks, both
realized with or without bottom closure. Bottomed frameworks
were realized inland, and then moved to the place of storage and
sunk (e.g., Oleson, 1988), while bottomless frameworks were real-
ized “in situ” by using an optimal mixing of materials. This tech-
nique was usually used when there were no problems to find
satisfying amounts of pozzolana. 2) drywalls filled of clays, that
were often used to build individual elements (pilae) all kept
together from a sort of hanging walls (“opus pilarum” or “opus
reticulatum”) and 3) by using prefab blocks. Surprisingly, despite
the large availability of pozzolana, most of the marine constructions
of the in the Pozzuoli Bay were realized by using the pilae method.
According Franco (1996), the choice of the pilae method was also
driven from seafloor geotechnical conditions, that were analysed in
order to choose the more suitable foundation method, and pilae
were preferred when dealing with significant thicknesses of mud or
clay layers.
6.2. Estimation of the average rate of subsidence
The studied area was subjected to several significant morpho-
logical changes, basically due to its volcanic history and to the bra-
dyseism vertical ground movements. Recent estimates on sea level
prediction curves for the last 10,000 years (see Lambeck et al.,
2004a) and observations and model valid for the last 2000 years
(Lambeck et al., 2004b) allowed to locate paleo-shorelines at about
1.3 m below the past mean sea-level at 2 Ka BP (Before Present). Due
to the massive concentration of human activities in coastal areas,
most of the roman human artefact built on the coastline, like fish
tanks, piers, docks, pools, quarries, harbours and slipways
constructions, are powerful indicators for the reconstruction of high
resolution vertical rate of movement (e.g., Flemming and Webb,
1986; Dvorak and Mastrolorenzo, 1991; Tallarico et al., 2003;
Antonioli et al., 2007; Ferranti et al., 2010; Anzidei et al., 2011;
Lambeck et al., 2011). In the Campi Flegrei area, in particular, the
problem related to the vertical rate of movement is particularly
important, since of the bradyseism and of the volcanic nature of the
area. Despite the obvious meaning of delimitation of land-sea
boundary, roman breakwaters (and pilae, as a consequence) are
Table 1
Description of archaeological data used as markers for the computation of the subsidence rate. Location of points is in Fig. 10.
Name Description
P1 Pillar of Secca delle Fumose
P2 Paved road of the Via Herculanea
P3 Pillar of the Portus Iulius Entry Channel
P4 Portus Iulius Entry Channel
P5 Inner margin of Portus Iulius
P6 Inner court of the Villa dei Pisoni complex
P7 Breakwater system of the Villa dei Pisoni Complex
P8 Paved road of the Via Herculanea
P9 Baianus Lacus Entry Channel
1275
usually considered less precise respect to other archaeological
indicators (e.g., Auriemma and Solinas, 2009, and references
therein). This is particularly true when a poor state of preservation
characterize the top surface of the archaeological features (e.g. pillar
tops in our case study, Fig. 4C and D). However, we tentatively tried
a computation of the mean vertical displacement of the study area in
the last 2 Ka by considering depth measurement chosen over
selected archaeological targets, that are summarized in Table 1. In
this attempt, we chose heights from shallower and flat tops (that
should be hypothetically less eroded), flat paved tracts of the via
Herculanea and boundaries of peers, and tried to define their func-
tional elevations above the past mean sea-level from literature
(þ0.60 m for peers and walkways, þ1 m for entry channels, þ0.6 m
for pillar tops; see Antonioli et al., 2007). The location map of the
chosen archaeological targets is reported in Fig. 10.
Results demonstrate that the global subsidence affecting the
Pozzuoli Gulf is up than 5 m on average and seems to be not
uniform, since shallower depth of the archaeological features occur
in the Eastern sector of the acquisition. More in detail, apart from
the Inner margin the Portus Iulius (P5, Fig. 10), which is too shallow
with respect to other measurements, the Eastern sector is charac-
terized by 5/5.2
1 m subsidence (P1, P2, P3 and P4 in Table 1 and
Fig. 10), while the western from 5.7
1 m subsidence on average
(P6, P7, P8 and P9 in Table 1 and Fig. 10). This difference is evident
on the points selected on the Via Herculanea, where “mirrored”
segments (P2 and P8, Fig. 10) are placed at 6.0
1 m (P2, placed to
the E) and 6.6
1 m (P8, to the W) respectively. The global
subsidence rate of the studied area, which derives from the sum of
the effects of spot uplifting crises and of the overall sinking of the
Campi Flegrei, results in an overall subsidence characterized by an
average rate of 2.55 (
0.5) mm/y for the Eastern sector and 2.90
(
0.5) mm/y for the western.
We remark that the computation of the mean rate of subsidence
here presented must be considered as a rough approximation of the
bradyseism phenomenon in this area, since it suffers of inaccura-
cies due to several factors, such are the grid cell dimension, the
wear and tear of remains, the possible presence of sediments, etc.
However, the measured average rate of subsidence is similar to the
one computed thanks to the study of fish ponds in several case-
study of the Phlaegraean coast, which is 4.5
0.5 m below
current sea level (Benini, 2007).
6.3. Evolution of coastal area morphology
After the Averno eruption (3.7 Ka, Alessio et al., 1971), the paleo-
morphology was reconstructed by using morphological (Cinque
et al., 1985), volcanic (Lirer et al., 2001) as well as archaeological
(Camodeca, 1987) data. The Averno Lake was separated by the sea
from a thin land stripe, and its morphology was substantially
undisturbed until the emplacement of the Via Herculanea, that
Actual depth (m below Presumed functional Amount of subsidence
the actual sea level) height above the past in the last 2 Ka
mean sea level
5.7 0.60 5.0
6 0.6e1 5.3
5.6 0.6 4.9
5.5 1? 5.2
2.9 0.6 2.2
5.9 1? 5.6
6.3 0.6 5.6
6.6 0.6e1 5.9
6.0 1? 5.7
1276 S. Passaro et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 1268e1278

Fig. 10. A) Plan view of the Monte NuovoeSecca delle Fumose fracture system visible at the seafloor. Filled rectangles are location of points used to calculate the average rate of
subsidence as reported in Table 1. B) The Pr1ePr2 elevation profile extracted from the Low Resolution DTM. Profile location is reported in the above frame. See text for details.

separated the Ancient Lucrino Lake (ALL) basin from the rest of the
Pozzuoli Bay (VH, Fig. 11A). The ancient coastline (at the first half of
the 1st Century AC) can be reproduced by picking the archaeolog-
ical remains of the Pozzuoli Bay, also including the VH, that
delimited the anthropic area of the Roman military harbour
(Fig. 11A).
The presence of the VH dam barrier may has strongly influenced
the sediment dynamic of the coastal area, as suggested by the fact
that military activities in Portus Iulius terminated in the 12 AC,
since of the progressive filling of the ALL. Also the commercial
activities was terminated in the 1st Century AC for the same reason,
thus suggesting a fast rate of sediment accretion near the VH dam

1 Km 1 Km
AL AL

MN

Pozzuoli
ALL
4520200
4520200

PI
LL
+ PI
-
PI-EC PI-EC

VdP
SdF SdF
VdP
+
-
A B
4518200
4518200

421500 423500 421500 423500

Fig. 11. A) Reconstruction of the coastline as it was at the 1st Century AC. The plus and minus signs are referred to the gap (““)/accumulation (“þ”) pairs to the presence of
obstacles (piers). B) Actual coastline. AL ¼ Averno Lake, ALL ¼ Ancient Lucrino Lake, VH ¼ Via Herculanea, SdF ¼ Secca delle Fumose, PI ¼ Portus Iulius, PI-EC ¼ Portus Iulius Entry
Channel, VdP ¼ Villa dei Pisoni, BL ¼ Baianus Lacus, MN ¼ Monte Nuovo, LL ¼ Lucrino Lake (actual).
 S. Passaro et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 1268e1278
wall. On the 4th Century AC, a partial fall of the VH dam caused
a new equilibrium on the sediment dynamics (IV Century AC). Such
a fall should be triggered by both: 1) the differential strain rate due
to the sedimentary fills on the internal site of the ALL and the strain
caused on the internal part of the VH dam wall; and 2) a possible
differential rate of movement along the dam (VH), due to differ-
ential vertical sinking rates connected with the bradyseism. The
dam opening induced the sediment redistribution to deeper
seafloor and the end of the ALL. The Monte Nuovo eruption in 1538
strongly influenced the global morphology of the whole area, since
its products almost completely occupied the ALL basin and create
the actual LL (Fig. 11B). Since the SdF fumaroles were localized on
the fracture feeding the initial phase of the Monte Nuovo eruption
(Giacomelli and Scandone, 2012), the SdF-Monte Nuovo alignment
should has covered a leading role in the vertical ground movements
starting at least from the Monte Nuovo eruption, also according
deformation models obtained by GPS and seismics (Ventura et al.,
2009) as well as from InSAR data (Vilardo et al., 2010). These
fractures are actually visible on DTM (Fig. 10A), where they are
exposed as vertical steps of about 1 m (Fig. 10B) and may justify the
difference in the subsidence rates visible on archaeological targets
(Fig. 10A and Table 1). Of course, this fracture system may had also
a key-role in the triggering of the VH dam wall, as well as it may
have controlled the emplacement of the F1 slide (Figs. 6D and 10A),
which constitutes a potential risky factor for the preservation of the
SdF pillars.
Finally, two gap/accumulation pairs related to the shoreline
dynamic of sediment transport can be derived from the paleo-
shoreline obtained by picking the archaeological remains. This
set of sediment pairs individuate a possible counter-clockwise
prevailing hydro-dynamic regime for the sediment transport at
the time of emplacement (Fig. 11A). This detail allow to explain
the sedimentary cover of VdP, that was buried from a thick of
sediments until the begin of the second half of the 1900, despite
the global sinking of the whole area and the consequent down-
ward shifting of the erosional base level, due to the following
counter-clockwise redistribution of the ALL sediments after the
VH dam fall.
7. Concluding remarks
Morpho-bathymetric surveys (multibeam and backscatter) are
an excellent support for underwater archaeology, since of their
capability to carry out detailed sonic pictures of the seafloor that
allow the detection of masked archaeological features. We
successfully applied these techniques on the Pozzuoli Bay under-
water archaeological site (Naples, Italy), thus obtaining the high
resolution mapping of the Secca delle Fumose and Villa dei Pisoni
complex with a detail never obtained before. Despite the use of
higher resolution data is strongly suggestible, we remark that
a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) that covers 6 km2 (such the LRD here
presented) requires about 600 millions of valid grid nodes if the cell
size is 10  10 cm, with obvious complexity in computing and
graphics coasts. Nevertheless, it should be important for the safe of
an underwater archeological site to obtain a full view of the area of
interest, that needs to be not strictly focused on the archaeological
remains but also takes into account the morphology of the
surrounding seafloor. In our case, for example, a wider bathymetric
view of the Pozzuoli Bay allowed us to determine
1) A rough drowning of the main archaeological features in the
area, extracted by the DTM by using a GIS procedure based on
spline and profile curvature. This procedure may be useful to
obtain a fast mapping of seafloor “outliers” in large DTM, thus
helping in the localization of potential archaeological targets.
1277
2) An high resolution representation of the Villa dei Pisoni
and Secca delle Fumose areas, and of their breakwaters
systems.
3) A rough computation of the average subsidence rate of the
Pozzuoli Gulf, made on the basis of selected archaeological
features on processed multibeam data. The measured vertical
displacement shows a not uniform subsidence rate, that ranges
from 2.55 (
0.5) mm/y for the eastern sector of the Pozzuoli
Gulf and 2.90 (
0.5) mm/y for the western.
4) The relief of the Monte NuovoeSecca delle Fumose fracture
system, that may had a key-role in the deformation patterns
related to the Campi Flegrei bradyseism.
5) The possible causes of the Via Herculanea dam fall, in the 4th
Century AD that, in our opinion, was strictly related to the
presence of the Monte NuovoeSecca delle Fumose fracture
system and to the sedimentary filling of the ancient Lucrino
Lake (the site of the ancient Roman military Harbour).
6) The presence of a slide at 15 m below the sea level, which
constitute a possible risky factor for the security of the Secca
delle Fumose Roman “pilae”.
In any case, high resolution multibeam equipments are an
irreplaceable tool for a first, well georeferenced mapping of
underwater archaeological areas, that can be used for an adequate
planning of successive diving surveys on the localized targets.
Acknowledgements
We thank two anonymous reviewers and Donatella Insinga
(IAMC) for helpful comments, and Chris O. Hunt (Editor) for the
precious editorial handling. We also thank the Italian Ministry for
Heritage and Cultural Activities.
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