Field Study on

“Ecology & Biodiversity”

of
Southern Region of
Bangladesh near coastal
area
Submitted to Submitted by

Jamaluddin Runu
Assistant professor Name - K. M. Abdul Qayum
Department of Roll No - 1238
Environmental Science
Jahangirnagar University,
Savar, Dhaka

Jahangirnagor University, Savar, Dhaka.

Acknowledgement

Ecology and biodiversity is a broad approach to the study of

environmental science. For the study of ecology and biodiversity our
respectable teacher A.K.M. Rashidul Alam who is very experienced in
this field and as a Environmental Scientist we got all types of help from
him. For this we are very grateful to him. Jannatun Nayeem and Abdul
Qayum contribute greater to the editing, typing, and net searching. Other
two of our group members Mobarok Hossain and Meherunnesa (Bini)
collected information from zoology seminar, Environmental Science
seminar, central library which provide us rich information. Our other
group mates Jahangir Kabir, Saeed Ahmed, Nurul Hoque are also
contributed in collecting information for this report.

Overall, our respectable teachers and corresponding batch mates are also
providing us useful help and information for this study.

Thanks to all

Abstract
Environmental Science is a vast multidisciplinary science which deals
with physics, chemistry, biology, earth science and interrelated several
basic science. As a student of Environmental Science we have to perform
various types of field work and lab-base activities. Ecology and
Biodiversity is a functional dealing of life science and related
phenomenon. Ecology always helps to various biotic components to
develop their life cycle. Bio-diversity shows the various diversifications
of species. Ecology and Biodiversity combined form a stabilizing
condition to the earth where human being are settled and carryout their
life cycle.

Overall, from different point of view it is stated that “Ecology and

Biodiversity” is a great emphasizing system to the living earth and
existing for human being.
 Content

Acknowledgement

Abstract

Chapter 1: Noachali Chora (First working day).

Chapter 2: Shrimp culture (Hatchery of shrimp)(First working day)

Chapter 3: Salt farming (Second working day).

Chapter 4: Teknaf Nature Park (Teknaf game reserve) (Second working

day).

Chapter 5: St. Martin’s Island (Third working day).

Chapter: 1
Fig : Bangladesh Map
 Noakhali Chora

A naturally evolved area in the hill which is influenced by hilly stream

and create flowing path of water seasonally.

Position of Noakhali Chora:

Latitude: 20°55´20" N
Longitude: 92°13´48" E
Accuracy: 12m
Elevation: 6m

Ecological stratification of Noakhali Chora:

Big tree → Small tree → Shrub → Herb → Thallophyte

Fig: Ecological pyramid of Noakhali Chora

Natural resources:
Any part of our environment e.g., land, water, air, minerals, forest,
rangeland, wildlife, fish or even human population – that man can utilize
to promote his welfare may be regarded as a natural resource.
The five basic ecological variables are –

 Energy
 Matter
 Space
 Time
 Diversity

Classification of Natural resources of Noakhali Chora:

The natural resources of Noakhali Chora can be classified into following

types:

 Renewable resources
 Non- renewable resources

Renewable resources:

Renewable resources are those which are reproducible and are obtained
from the biomass of living organisms for example – trees.

Dipterocurpus alatus (Garjan) is dominated species in Noakhali Chora. As

it is a woody plant, so it can be recognized a natural resources (timber,
fuel etc)

Aloe indica (Ghritokumari) is a medicinal plant, which is also one kind of

antural resource of this Chora.

Non-renewable resource:

Resources which are not reproducible and are obtains from the finite non-
living reserves are called non-renewable resources e.g., Coal, metal
The area contains calcareous hard bed (marine deposition which can be
used for calcium carbonate (CaCO3) extraction

Climatic feature:

 Sunlight cannot reach to the all region uniformly. So shade-loving

trees are dominated here.
 Conservation of precipitation is low.
 Here the combination of sea environment and hilly environment is
Present.

Non-Anthropogenic activities & their Impact:

 For over precipitation, declination of hill is occurring there.

 Landslide may occur as a result of heavy precipitation & Fault
creating through the hill.

Anthropogenic activities & their Impact:

 Hill cutting activities when extreme then create landslide.
 Free cutting create the losses of soil in the hilly region as a result
for over precipitation huge amount of soil washed away through
the rain water.
Chapter: 2

COASTAL SHRIMP CULTURE

In Bangladesh ecosystem and socio-economic conditions,
extensive and improved extensive systems are being
successfully practiced. Semi-intensive culture during 1993-
1995 in COX ' S BAZAR area failed due to poor management and
outbreak of bacterial and viral diseases. In brief, the
extensive/improved extensive culture technique involves
gher/pond preparation during December-February, stocking in
February-March with wild as well as hatchery produced fry
(pl), post stocking management including water exchange,
liming, manuring etc. whenever necessary, harvesting and
restocking from June to November. Macrobrachium prawn
culture is low density, long duration (5-8 month cycle), mono,
poly or integrated paddy cum prawn-fish mixed culture,
commonly practiced in ponds as well as in paddy fields.
Shrimps and prawns are omnivorous and accept natural as well
as artificial feed.

Fig: Shrimp

At present tiger shrimp (Bagda) is being cultivated in about

145,000 ha of coastal and tidal lands in ghers and ponds (in
25-30 thousand farms) at SATKHIRA , Khulna, BAGERHAT and
Cox's Bazar (including Chakoria and Teknaf) area under both
monoculture, polyculture and integrated with paddy in Khulna
area and salt in Chakoria area. Prawn (Galda) culture in about
30,000 ha in about 60,000 ponds and paddy fields is being
practiced mainly in Bagerhat, Khulna , JESSORE , PATUAKHALI ,
BARISAL , Chittagong, LAKSHMIPUR , FENI , GOPALGANJ ,
MADARIPUR , FARIDPUR , KISHOREGANJ , RAJBARI and Dhaka.
Annual farmed shrimp and prawn production is about 28,514 m
tons (headless) which bring about 16,150 Tk million as foreign
exchange. About 60% of the total export product comes from
culture source and the rest from capture sources. In 1999
farmed Bagda and Galda production was 63,164 m tons (head-
on) of which contribution of shrimp was 65%, prawn 20% and
others 15%. The major input in shrimp and prawn culture is
the fry (pl). It is now being produced in hatcheries; about 48
tiger shrimp hatcheries are located in Cox's Bazar and TEKNAF
area producing about 4 billion tiger shrimp fry annually.
Earlier in the 1980s and 1990s main source was wild fry
collected from coastal and tidal waters. About 440,000 people
mostly the women, children and landless are engaged in this
profession.

Main problems in the shrimp/prawn culture are the outbreak of

diseases mostly due to poor pond management, and lack of
adequate technical knowledge, extension and institutional
credit facilities. The major diseases causing mass mortality are
white spot syndrome virus (WSV), vibriosis (Vibrio bacterial
diseases), soft shell, black gill, muscle necrosis, fungal and
protozoan infections. Metamorphosis molt mortality syndrome,
bacterial necrosis, larval mid-cycle disease, and white prawn
disease are specific for the prawn.

Poor management of pond bottom and water quality, recycling

etc leading to pond environmental degradation, are other
factors responsible for disease outbreak and mass mortality.
For sustainable and environment friendly shrimp/prawn
culture, integrated polyculture with paddy and fish has
recently been proven to be successful technique as paddy
recycle the bottom nitrogenous wastes and fish as an ally
control bacteria and other shrimp/prawn pathogens to tolerable
level. To prevent viral infection, screening of spawners and fry
at the hatchery has been very effective. Balanced planning and
management strategies based on clear understanding of the
interactions between shrimp culture and environment are the
best way to prevent disease problems.

Coastal Shrimp Culture

Stronger surge and tidal wave raise potential for saline water
to overtop coastal embankment now a days a big business in
the coastal districts of cox’s bazaar , Satkhira, Khujna and
Bagerhat. High tides would cer tainly threaten both inside and
outside embankments.General rise in surface water
temperature would also put shrimps into heat related
phenomenon, if the temperature crosses a threshold of 32°C,
the small shrimp would Show very high rates of mortality. In
April the temperature is already quite high. Simultaneously,
warmer water might appear conducive for algal bloom - the
latter having detrimental effects on growth of shrimps".
Climate change can, therefore, put this profitable business into
uncertainty.

Prawn (chingdi) crustaceans related to crabs and lobsters, of

the order Decapoda, found in all types of waterbody
throughout the world. Some species live near the shore, hiding
in mud or sand, or in crevices of the stones; some others swim
about in groups in deep, cold water. They are of grey, brown,
white or pink coloured. Some have bands over the body, some
have spots. Some prawns are red, yellow, green or blue in
colour. Some species can change colour to match the
surroundings. Many deep sea species are luminescent (light
producers). The size ranges from 2.5 to 30 cm.

The prawn body divided into cephalothorax and abdomen is

covered by a chitinous exoskeleton, normally consisting of 19
segments. Each body segment bears a pair of jointed biramous
appendages, which are modified in structure according to their
functions, eg, antennae, antennule, various types of mouth
parts, long walking legs with chela (periopods), paddle-shaped
swimming appendages (swimmerets/pleopods), and fan-shaped
uropod. Most of the prawns have stalked compound eyes.
Prawns are omnivores and essentially scavengers. Some are
planktivores and vegetarians. Others feed on aquatic small
insects and other animals. The type of food varies according to
the developmental stage and species of the prawn. Some
females carry fertilized eggs under their abdomen with the
pleopods until they hatch, others shed the fertilized eggs in
water. Eggs of most species usually hatch as a nauplius larva
and pass few larval stages, similar in appearance with the
primitive crustacean groups. Bangladesh has very rich source
of prawns in the Bay of Bengal, estuaries and freshwater. A
total of 56 species is reported, of which 37 are salt water, 12
are brackish water, and 7 are freshwater in habitats. However,
some species migrate in between lower and higher saline
zones. The prawns are classified under six families,
Palaemonidae, Penaeidae, Pandalidae, Alpheidae,
Hippolylidae, and Sergestidae.

Table Size, habitats and breeding period of some commercially important prawns of
Bangladesh.

Species Average size Habitat Breeding

(cm) period
Macrobrachium Male :34.00 Rivers, January-July
rosenbergii Female :26.70 tributaries,
canals and
 river mouths
M. Male :16.60 Rivers, Throughout the
malcolmsonii Female :12.80 tributaries, year
canals, river
mouths and
floodplains
M. rude Male :12.00 River mouths July-November
Female :10.50 and tidal rivers
Penaeus Male :29.80 Bay of Bengal November-
monodon Female :30.00 and estuaries March
P semisulcatus Male :20.40 Bay of Bengal January-April
Female :23.00 and estuaries
P. indicus Male :15.00 Bay of Bengal October-
Female :23.00 and estuaries November
May-June
P. japonicus 16.00 River mouths January-April
of Banshkhali
and Satkhira
P. merguiensis Male :15.50 River mouths October-
Female :20.00 and estuaries January
of Khulna and
Patuakhali
P. penicillatus Male :14.50 Bay of Bengal, January-March
Female :16.60 the Sundarbans
and back
waters of
Patuakhali
P. orientalis Male :12.20 Bay of Bengal November-
Female :19.00 and the March
Sundarbans
Metapenaeus Male :12.50 Bay of Bengal, Throughout the
monoceros Female :15.50 the Sundarbans year peaks:
and river July-August.
mouths

Prawn is a popular food throughout the world, having good

markets at home and abroad. It occupies a major portion of the
export item of Bangladesh, earning a considerable amount in
foreign exchange each year. Bangladesh Fisheries
Development Corporation (BFDC), Bangladesh Jatiya
Matsayjibi Samabay Samiti (BJMS), Bangladesh Sugar and
Food Industries Corporation (FSFIC), and some private
companies collect, process and export prwans and shrimps. A
number of prawn processing industries have been developed in
KHULNA , CHITTAGONG , and DHAKA . [Selina Parween]

Prawn culture Raising, processing and marketing of

prawns/shrimps as a source of protein food. The most widely
cultured fast growing species in the globe as well as in
Bangladesh are the giant black tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon
and the giant prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii . Their culture
techniques are traditional, extensive, improved extensive,
semi-intensive, intensive and super intensive, named mainly
based on the stocking density of post larvae (pl) and
management techniques of the culture ponds. Both
monoculture, polyculture and integrated culture with paddy
(rotational and concurrent) and with fin fish (mullets, carps
and tilapia) are the common systems practiced. But shrimp
culture starts in saline water and prawn culture mainly in
freshwater though they all need saline water for hatching of
eggs in the hatchery.

Impact
Export of frozen shrimp has become an important foreign
exchange earner of this coutry in the recent years. The greater
part of this commondity originates from the Coastal
Aquaculture, Teknaf.

It has created employment opportunities for thousands of

people both in shrimp fishery (culture and capture) sector
itself as well as in the backward (wild shrimp fry fishing and
hatcheries), and forward linkage (frozen shrimp) industries.

In absence of any code of conduct or national strategy for

aquaculture in Bangladesh the coastal shrimp farming
expanded very rapidly in an uncontrolled, uncoordinated and
unplanned manner. In the recent past this expansion has been
very remarkable, from less than, 20,000 ha of brackish water
ponds in 1980, the area was increased to about 70,000 ha in
1985, 115,000 ha in 1989 and now it is about 145,000 ha.
Shrimp farms are primarily located at the south-western part
of the country in the districts of Khulna (29%), Satkhira
(19%), and Bagerhat (29%), and at the south-eastern part
mainly in the Cox's Bazar district (31%), the rest are in other
coastal districts.

Destruction of mangroves and associated impacts

Like some Southeast Asian countries rapid destruction of
mangroves was done in Bangladesh for expansion of coastal
aquaculture. In the southeastern part of the coastal zone of this
country majority of the shrimp farms were developed at the
cost of valuable mangroves. Once the entire CHAKARIA
SUNDARBANS area was occupied by dense mangroves, and had
the status of the forest reserve with an area of about 18,200
ha. Following introduction of shrimp farming most of the
mangroves (more than 50%) were rapidly cleared for
preparation of shrimp ponds. Leaseholders ruthlessly cleared
the forest in their leased land.

The impact of shrimp farming on mangroves through habitat

conversion has been the concern of many. How many species
of fish and shrimp have been extinct, or endangered or
migrated elsewhere leading to destruction of mangroves in
Bangladesh has not yet been recorded. However, functionally
mangroves are important in nutrient cycling, as a source of
organic matter to increase coastal productivity, and as
breeding grounds, nursery areas or general habitats for many
commercially important finfishes, crustaceans, and molluscs.
Mangroves can support various forms of fish, mollusc, crab,
and crustacean aquaculture. Opportunities may be lost if
mangroves are destroyed or degraded.

Besides ecological impacts, inhabitants in the vicinity of

Chakaria Sundarbans used to earn their livelihood through
collection of fuel wood, thatching materials, timber, various
foodstuffs such as honey, fish etc. Consequently with the
removal of mangroves people of this area have been deprived
of this benefits.

Impact on human habitation

In the southeastern part of this country alternate fish culture
and rice cultivation during dry season (March-June) and
monsoon (July-November) respectively in the same land was a
traditional practice. After rapid development of shrimp
farming by influential and well-to-do people, serious and
strong objections were raised by local residents, peasants,
leaders of grass root organisations, NGOs operating in the
area, and local elected representatives to highlight the
deleterious effects of shrimp farming.

The majority of conflicts arose following construction of

shrimp 'ghers' (areas impounded by dykes), covering generally
40-66 ha of land. Peasants are often compelled to lease out
their land to shrimp farming entrepreneurs. When a peasant
opposes establishment of a gher that encompasses his land he
is intimidated and threatened and has to ultimately yield.
There are middlemen through which the entrepreneurs (often
outsiders), are buying up the local lands. This is leading to
growing land-less peasants in the region.

The ghers are controlled by entrepreneurs and larger land

owning shrimp farmers; poor small land owning peasants
receive an insignificant amount of money (called hari) for
leasing out his land to the entrepreneurs. The entrepreneurs
arbitrarily fix the amount of the lease money, which is only a
small proportion of the income the peasants used to earn from
the traditional rice cultivation in this land. There are many
absentee landlords who do not care about hari and this
facilitates non-payment of hari by the entrepreneurs to local
peasants. Lease of government land ( Khas land) is done in a
non-transparent way and only the wealthy, mighty and
influential persons can afford to get lease of such land. In
some instances, influential people invite owners of small lands
to form co-operative bodies for developing larger ghers, but
there is a constant complaint that the owners of small lands
neither get right share of profit, nor they can participate in
gher management.

Once an area comes under shrimp farming, the gher owners

inundate this large area adjacent to small rice fields with
saline water when the productivity of lands (both inside and
outside the gher in the whole area) declines drastically.
Eventually, owners of these lands are compelled to either
convert their lands into gher by themselves or lease out to the
owners of the adjacent larger gher. Thus, in a vast area, rice
cultivation is gradually being replaced by shrimp farming. A
number of traditional rice varieties (valuable genetic
resources) suitable for the locality (eg gunshi, kalshi etc) are
gradually disappearing. Once the Satkhira district was a rice
surplus area but now there is an inflow of rice from outside.

Crop diversification has been severely undermined because of

shrimp farming. In such area production of non-rice crops,
fodder for livestock, vegetables, etc can no longer be grown.
Thus, there is an acute shortage of these crops in areas under
shrimp farming and their prices have gone up significantly in
recent years.

The law and order situation in the gher areas has deteriorated
drastically over the years. Violence between the people of
shrimp farms and those who oppose shrimp farming is a
common occurrence. The result is that a large number of poor
families have been forced to leave their homes for unknown
destinations. A recent study conducted by a non-government
organisation (NGO) on the impact of commercial shrimp
cultivation on the socio-economic and ecological conditions in
the three coastal districts of Khulna, Satkhira and Bagerhat,
revealed that the socio-economic and family status of the
people living outside the shrimp cultivation area was higher
than those living in the shrimp cultivation belt. Before the
onset of shrimp farming, the people of this region worked 10
hours a day, but after the expansion of shrimp cultivation their
working hours are now hardly two to three on average. This
has affected their earning ability by, in some cases, as much as
75 percent.

Due to the adverse effects of shrimp cultivation, people's

earning from extra agricultural activities like vegetable
production, farming, the rearing of domestic animals fell by 30
to 50 percent. All kinds of trees, including fruit trees, have
declined by 10 to 30 percent due to increasing salinity.
Consequently shrimp cultivation has forced many marginal
farmers to abandon their homesteads and small croplands, and
migrate to nearby towns or in the city's slums.
The Expansion of Shrimp Culture

At the end of the 1960s, production of food grains in some polder areas
became impossible due to stagnation of water, and people began to raise
fish as an alternative. The primary species cultured were barramundi
(Lates calcarifer), gold-spot mullet (Mugil parsia) and mystus (Mystus
sp.). In the 1970s, the demand for, and price of, shrimp increased in the
world market, and their culture became popular and profitable. Other
polder areas that were not affected by stagnation also began shrimp
culture in place of rice culture. Paikgacha, Dumuria, Batiaghata, Dacope,
Rampal and other brackishwater areas came under shrimp culture, in
addition to rice culture, and the process expanded rapidly in brackish
water areas as this subsidiary crop became increasingly popular. In the
1980s, the price of shrimp rose gradually, and as a result, expansion of
shrimp culture accelerated. Influential persons and outside investors
gained control of vast shrimp cultivation areas.

Socio-economic Circumstances

Earlier, people of the area depended mostly upon the cultivation of food
grains. Influence and status were achieved through the possession of land
and crops. However, shrimp cultivation soon produced another moneyed
class; influence and social power gradually transferred to others, and the
basic social hierarchy broke down. This initially created a hazardous
situation in the rural areas, as the inhabitants became hostages to the
whims of these people. Gradually, however, the small landowners
organized. They protested against the newcomers and began individual
and co-operative shrimp culture for their economic emancipation.
Initially, shrimp farmers made enough profit so that farming expanded
greatly within three years. In 1994, the area under shrimp cultivation
reached more than 100,000/ha. Thus, co-operative and small-scale shrimp
farming became very popular and profitable within a short period

Shrimp has replaced rice as the main crop; as traditional shrimp farming
is easier and more profitable than rice growing. Poor womenfolk earn a
considerable amount of money from fry collection, weeding out, de-
heading and other related activities. Young folk with no opportunity to
enter farming directly buy small amounts of shrimp from the farms and
sell them to the nearest market, providing themselves with good earnings.
As well as the activities mentioned previously, there is also land
preparation, fertilization, contract-based shrimp collection etc. These
seasonal activities play an important role in poverty alleviation for local
landless people.

Now, the backyard of every homestead has been turned into a shallow
pond where shrimp are grown. Whereas previously, many small-scale
farmers had to starve through half of the year, they now have plenty of
money to buy food and provisions. Even the landless in the shrimp
farming areas have bank accounts and deposit money every month. The
mobility of shrimp farmers has increased significantly, and shrimp
farming has brought substantial changes to the livelihood status of the
coastal communities in Bangladesh.

A polder is an area encircled with an embankment to prevent the intrusion

of salt water where shrimp and paddy culture are practised.

Shrimp Disease

White-spot disease made its first appearance in southwestern Bangladesh

in 1995. It had a high impact through 1996 and 1997, and then seemed to
disappear. In 1998, there was no report of the disease. In 1997, after
release into the farm, the fry were severely affected by the virus;
however, the situation has since improved, and farmers reported a good
harvest in 1999. Bacterial disease was noticed in some of the farms in
Shyamnagar.

The diseased shrimp displayed the classic signs - red or bluish coloration
and white spots under the shell. This virus affected 80% of ghers in all the
polders. Dead shrimp were sometimes found on the bottom. In two to
three days, mortalities reached 50-70%, and the remaining shrimp did not
grow well. As a consequence, farmers harvested small-sized shrimp.
Farmers also became nervous when neighbouring farms were hit with
white spot, and they harvested early. Moreover, in 1998, soft-shell,
swollen and cramped muscle necrosis and broken appendages appeared in
cultured shrimp, problems that were attributed to different bacterial
diseases.
2
Ghers are modified rice fields with high, broad peripheral dikes, and are
found throughout southwestern Bangladesh in areas that are seasonally or
perennially inundated. A trench dug inside the dikes retains water in the
dry season, while the dike protects the gher from flooding during the
summer.

Causes of Shrimp Disease

Environmental and management factors relating to seasonal fluctuations
in brackish water apparently influence the onset of white-spot disease.
The major causes identified from the sessions were:

Poor water management

Three types of sluice gates exist: those constructed by the Bangladesh

Water Development Board (BWDB), those individually constructed and
those constructed by the Third Fisheries Project (TFP). Reports of virus
in the individually owned and gated farms and in farms at the periphery
were less. However, many farmers are located far from these gates and do
not have systematic arrangements for flushing and drainage of water in
the shrimp ghers. These farmers are totally dependent on the individual
gate owners and need to pay them higher rent for the use of water.
Although there are some sluice gates owned by the authorities, these are
not serving the purpose of managing the overall water supply and
drainage in the gher.

Small ghers often experience waterlogging , mainly because of under

development of infrastructure. The waterlogging causes variations in the
level of salinity, oxygen and natural feed. Moreover, excessive
temperature increases the salinity of the stagnant water, which may
produce poisonous gases such as ammonia and hydrogen sulphide and
cause deterioration of the gher environment.

Lack of awareness about shrimp farming technology

Shrimp farming is a highly technical activity and very sensitive to the

environment. Repeated outbreaks of viral disease in most farms have
made this sector more vulnerable. Most farmers are conscious of the
requirements for environmentally friendly shrimp farming; often,
however, they do not fully follow these requirements, mainly because of
the temptation to earn short-term profit. Most farmers adopt a "wait and
see" strategy and prefer to exchange knowledge among themselves. If one
farm does well from applying new knowledge, others will adopt it.
Farmers are not well informed about the quality of soil and water and will
apply lime and fertiliser without testing the soil. They are also not careful
about using the correct stocking density. Farmers can understand when
their ghers are attacked by disease, but they do not know how to deal with
this problem. All this leads to adverse changes in the gher ecosystem.
Decomposing faeces and other organic matter accumulate on the gher
bottom, and with rising temperature, cause oxygen depletion and
increases in toxic material (NH3, NO2, H2S etc.).
Imported fry

In 1994, fry were very few in local rivers, and the price increased
significantly. Many small farmers failed to stock fry in time, and some
stocked fry imported from Thailand. These were brought into the country
without checks on their health status and without quarantine. It is
generally believed that white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) was carried
by these fry. Since then, many farmers have lost their harvest to this
disease. In 1995, 1996 and 1997, white-spot disease spread in epidemic
proportions. Some farms were affected, while adjacent farms were not.
The reason for this is not known, and remedies for the disease are yet to
be discovered.
3
Accumulation of stagnant water due to rain or flooding that is not
possible to drain and does not dry out naturally.

Intensification of Diseases

Farmers of Shyamnagar said that many of them had lost their harvest and
they were very confused. The fry grew to a certain stage (50-70/kg) and
then disappeared. Other species, such as crabs and fish, were also affected
and disappeared within a week. The farmers tried many ways to
overcome this situation, but once a farm was affected no harvest was
possible. Some farmers who had earlier achieved one or two harvests
could manage, while others who had been affected since the first crop had
serious problems. The impact was so serious that many of them
considered changing the species cultured. Reasons for losses, other than
viral infection, that were identified included lack of growth, long legs,
soft-shell and tail and gill rot. The occurrence of viral infection was less
in Paickgacha than in Shyamnagar and was almost nil in Dacope and
Rampal. The reason is assumed to be high salinity; where the salinity is
less, viral infection is also less. Poor water management has increased the
problem. The main constraints to production in the Paickgacha region
include the high price of fry and the immaturity of shrimp. Farmers
stocked both local and hatchery-raised fry, but some encountered
problems of slow growth; a few had viral infections or leg lengthening.
The farmers of Dacope had the problem of low growth rate; there were no
reports of viral infection.

Lack of Capital

Losses due to the problems mentioned previously are harmful to the

small-scale farmers and to all concerned. People carrying out this activity
are not inclined to save money; they only save one term's investments and
depend on the harvest. If this fails, the farmer is left with no alternative
but to borrow at a high interest rate from the local moneylenders, or to get
a loan from the bank, which is very difficult. Some farmers sell
household belongings and invest once again, in an attempt to recover
their losses. In addition to these problems, the market price of shrimp is
not steady. When the harvest is at its peak, the price in the market
generally falls, and farmers do not get an adequate return. Case studies of
the problems disease has caused to two small-scale farmers are given in
Boxes 1 and 2.

Remedial Measures Undertaken by Affected Farmers

Some farmers affected by the virus tried to overcome the problem with the help of the
local Fisheries Extension Service; however, most preferred to follow the measures
taken by their neighbouring farmers. Also, extension services were not always
available when required. Some traders are now selling various chemicals to promote
shrimp growth, and to treat bacterial infections and other problems; however, the
effectiveness these compounds is not always known.

Box 1. Case study 1 - shrimp virus

and Mr. Mistry.

Jatindranath Mistry, a rich farmer of

Burigoalinee Village in Shyamnagar
Thana, began shrimp culture when
influenced by other local farmers. He
had 4 ha of land, inherited from his
father, near his homestead with a water
supply from the sluice of the BWDB
embankment. Mr. Mistry made a good
earning in the early years of cultivation,
and followed the traditional methods, as
many others do. Being an educated and
elite person, he often took advantage of
advice and extension services from the
local Thana Fisheries Office. He is not
a saving-minded man and saved only
the expenditure value of one crop.

In 1999, he started stocking his pond in

the first week of February. He had
applied lime, urea, TSP and cow dung
during pond preparation and dried the
farm and ploughed with a power tiller.
Despite this, his stock became infected
with white spot syndrome virus, and he
lost all the shrimp. He stocked again in
the first week of April, but the result
was the same. During this period, he
obtained a bank loan and began a third
stocking; however, he again got no
harvest due to viral infection. Mistry
then borrowed some money locally and
invested again; however, he once again
had viral disease problems.

His sorrows now know no bounds.

When he began aquaculture, he had his
own land and did not need to borrow
money for stocking. Now, the two loans
hang upon him, and he has no money
left to attempt further stocking. He is
completely stunned and thinking that he
may lease out the farm. He says that
viral infection has ruined his family in
all respects.

Box 2. Case study 2 - Mr. Parmal

Zoarder's disaster.

During 1988, Sudhir Zoarder and his

son Parimal started a shrimp farm on
5.6 ha of land belonging to them. In
1995, the farm was divided into four
portions. Sudhir Zoarder got a farm of
2.5 ha, which was under two
landowners. In 1996, it was again
compartmentalised into two sections.
Sudhir now had a farm of 1.6 ha, and
handed over its management to his son
Parimal. He had capital of about
200,000 Taka (US$3,900), earned
earlier from shrimp fry and shrimp
trading. In early February 1996, he
 stocked 13,000 fry at Taka 2,200
(US$43) and got a good return. In early
April, he stocked 10,000 fry; however,
these fry did not grow well, and thus,
his return was poor, although he
managed to recover his capital. He
stocked again during early June, but the
harvest was totally affected by viral
disease. In early August, he stocked
again, and again lost the entire crop to
virus.

In 1997, Parimal prepared the farm and

the nursery with lime, organic fertiliser,
cow dung, urea and TSP. He ploughed
the land with a power tiller and stocked
fry costing 2000 Taka/1000 PL
(US$40). All four harvests were virus
free, and he had a good profit. In 1998,
he stocked fry from India. He got a
harvest in April; however, WSSV
affected the next crops.

In 1999, during pond preparation, he

applied lime, fertilisers etc., as usual,
but he applied a little more TSP. Virus
infected the first and second crops.
Before the third crop, he dried the
ponds, applied only lime, and stocked
fry from Cox's Bazar; however, virus
also affected the harvest. He again
prepared the land and stocked, but the
virus infected the shrimp again. He is
now puzzled, has debts and no way left
to survive. He is frustrated in every
aspect, and he finds life hazardous and
colourless.

Other Disease-related Issues

The following are some other impacts and issues resulting from disease
outbreaks:
The price of land in the coastal area where shrimp is farmed became
constant due to the negative impact of disease. At the beginning of shrimp
culture, land cost 10,000 Taka/bigha (US$1,470/ha; 1US $ = 50.66 Taka).
The price then jumped to 30,000-40,000 Taka/bigha (US$4,410-5,880/ha)
and has since remained stationary. People from outside have lost interest
in entering this sector.

Outside leaseholders refused to pay lease money to landowners. Many

closed up business and left the area without paying the remaining lease
money; this generated chaos.

Lease money demanded by landowners remained constant or, in some

cases, was reduced in comparison to previous years.

On 24 January 1998, the Government of Bangladesh (GOB) imposed a

ban on the importation of shrimp fry. Since then, there has been a great
scarcity of fry, and farmers have had to pay very high prices, 3,000-4,000
Taka/1000 PL (US$59-78/1,000 PL), whereas previously the price had
been 300-1,000 Taka/1,000 PL (US$5.8-19.6/1,000 PL). Due to this, most
of the ghers in the southwest region remained vacant until May.
Moreover, the small farmers' shortage of capital multiplied the problems.
As a result, fry collectors have suffered reduced income.

The ban on the importation of fishery products into European Union (EU)
markets from Bangladesh imposed in 1997-1998, and the fall in price of
30-40% in the international market, accelerated the economic disaster in
this sector.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Participants in the PRA sessions put forward the following suggestions:

Credit management. Shrimp culture is a sector demanding high

investment; however, the present bank credit arrangements are time
consuming and rigid. A more flexible, timely and accessible approach to
disbursement of credit to farmers is required.

Insurance. All other sectors have insurance facilities. They have the right
and ability to insure their factories, trading centres and even their
products; however, this is not available to shrimp farmers. This is an area
of high investment without insurance facility; steps should be taken to
bring this into line with other industries.
Extension activities. Extension facilities need to be within the farmers'
reach. An informed extension service and a routine reporting system
should be in place. Co-ordination of experts, extension workers,
investment agencies and farmers is urgently required.

Network building. A co-operative network to address shrimp diseases

should be further developed that includes research, field investigation,
information exchange and preventative measures.

Farm management. A management strategy, adopted at the conception

of the shrimp farm, should include pond preparation, the use of fine
screens at inlets, maintenance of standard stocking densities and
implementation of a water management system. In the case of imported
postlarvae, proper checking should be carried out before importation is
allowed.

Crop diversification. Shrimp cultivation should be stopped occasionally

to allow ponds to recover. Crop diversification should be encouraged.

Alternative income-generation activities. Provisions should be made

for small-scale shrimp farmers to explore, and engage in, alternative
activities.

CONCLUSIONS

Small-scale shrimp farmers in the coastal area are presently in a poor

state. The flow of capital between the shrimp farmers and related
activities is reduced. Measures need to be taken to assist shrimp farmers;
otherwise this potentially valuable sector will disappear from this area.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors acknowledge the encouragement and valuable suggestions

received from Mr. Bitu D'Costa, Executive Director, and Dr. Thomas
Costa, Development Director, of Caritas. Thanks are also due to Mr.
Naresh C. Debnath and Mr. Ashim Kumar Pal for their untiring support in
facilitating PRA sessions in the field. Mr. Ikbal Faruk deserves great
credit for computer work. Lastly, acknowledgement is due to the people
in the study areas for their generous contributions of time and
information.
Chapter : 3
 Salt farming, Teknaf.

Salt produced in Bangladesh mainly by a process of drying up seawater

by solar heat, although the lixiviation technology is also in use to
manufacture about 5% of the production. Salt was manufactured in
Bengal as an indigenous product along a line of seacoast extending from
Cuttock to Chittagong.

History

Salt industry was some sort of government monopoly during the Mughal
period.
The management was in the hands of Zaminders.who worked in
collaboration with local merchants and advanced money for salt
production. Between 1757 and1765, many Englishmen entered the salt
business either directly or indirectly through Benians.The society of trade
formed in1765 organised British participation in salt industry for the
benefit of the officers of East India Company.

Salt's ability to preserve food was a foundation of civilization. It

eliminated the dependence on the seasonal availability of food and it
allowed travel over long distances. It was also a desirable food seasoning.
However, salt was difficult to obtain, and so it was a highly valued trade
item, which followed the pull of economics along salt roads, some of
which had been established in the Bronze age. Until the twentieth
century, salt was one of the prime movers of national economies and
wars.

Aside from being a contributing factor in the development of civilization,

salt was also used in the military practice of salting the earth by various
peoples, beginning with the Assyrians.

It is believed that Roman soldiers were at certain times paid with salt, [1] [2]
and this is still evident in the English language as the word "salary"
derives from the Latin word salarium that means payment in salt (Latin
sal). The Roman Republic and Empire controlled the price of salt,
increasing it to raise money for wars, or lowering it to be sure that the
poorest citizens could easily afford this important part of the diet.
It was also of high value to the Hebrews, Greeks, the Chinese and other
peoples of antiquity.

Already in the early years of the Roman Republic, with the growth of the
city of Rome, roads were built to make transportation of salt to the capital
city easier. An example was the Via Salaria (originally a Sabine trail),
leading from Rome to the Adriatic Sea. The Adriatic Sea, having a high
salinity due to its shallow depth, had more productive solar ponds if
compared with those of the Tyrrhenian Sea, much closer to Rome.

During the late Roman Empire and throughout the Middle Ages salt was a
precious commodity carried along the salt roads into the heartland of the
Germanic tribes. Caravans consisting of as many as forty thousand
camels traversed four hundred miles of the Sahara bearing salt to inland
markets in the Sahel, sometimes trading salt for slaves: Timbuktu was
once a huge such salt and slave market.

Today salt is almost universally accessible, relatively cheap and often

iodized.

Sources of salt

There have been two main sources for salt: sea water and rock salt. Rock
salt occurs in vast beds of sedimentary evaporite minerals that result from
the drying up of enclosed lakes, playas, and seas. Salt beds may be up to
350 m thick and underlie broad areas. In the United States and Canada
extensive underground beds extend from the Appalachian basin of
western New York through parts of Ontario and under much of the
Michigan basin. Other deposits are in Ohio, Kansas, New Mexico, Nova
Scotia, and Saskatchewan. In the United Kingdom underground beds are
found in Cheshire and around Droitwich. Salzburg was named "the city of
salt" for its mines.

Salt is extracted from underground beds either by mining or by solution

mining using water or brine. In solution mining the salt reaches the
surface as brine, which is then turned into salt crystals by evaporation.

Location
Salt producing areas are in costal belt of Chittagong, Noakhali, Barisal
and Khulna district.

Fig: Salt
Statistics

Production fluctuated from year to year due to natural calamities,

variations in rainfall, and changes in the forms of land use. Salt
production never reached the pre independence level, was only about
696tons in1994 necessitating the import of 328 tons. Of the total
available quantity of 1023 tons, 666 tons was for household consumption
and the remaining was for industrial purposes mainly in tannery.

Uses

Besides being an essential ingredient for cooking, salt is used in

production of pharmaceuticals (including orsaline) and detergents,
Preservation of foods. (Especially dry fish in coastal areas).

Salt trade

During more modern times, it became more profitable to sell salted food
than pure salt. Thus sources of food to salt went hand in hand with salt
making. The British controlled saltworks in the Bahamas as well as North
American cod fisheries. This may have added to their economic clout
during their 19th century imperial expansion period. The search for oil in
the late 1800s and early 1900s used the technology and methods
pioneered by salt miners, even to the degree that they looked for oil
where salt domes were located.

Salt production

On an industrial scale salt is produced in one of two principal ways: the

evaporation of salt water (brine) or by mining. Evaporation can either be
solar evaporation[4] or using some heating device.

Solar evaporation of seawater

In the correct climate (one for which the ratio of evaporation to rainfall is
suitably high) it is possible to use solar evaporation of sea water to
produce salt. Brine is evaporated in a linked set of ponds until the
solution is sufficiently concentrated by the final pond that the salt
crystalises on the pond's floor.

Open pan production from brine

One of the traditional methods of salt production in more temperate

climates is using open pans.[5] In an open pan salt works brine is heated in
large, shallow open pans. Earliest examples date back to prehistoric times
and the pans were made of ceramics known as briquetage, or lead. Later
examples were made from iron. This change coincided with a change
from wood to coal for the purpose of heating the brine. [6] Brine would be
pumped into the pans, and concentrated by the heat of the fire burning
underneath. As crystals of salt formed these would be raked out and more
brine added.

Salt mines

In the second half of the 19th century industrial mining and drilling
techniques originating in China made the discovery of more and deeper
deposits possible, increasing mine salt's share of the market. Although
mining salt was generally more expensive than extracting it from brine
via solar evaporation of seawater, the introduction of this new source
reduced the price of salt due to a reduction of monopolization. Extraction
of salt from brine is still heavily used: for example vacuum salt produced
by British Salt in Middlewich has 57% of the UK market [8] for salt used
in cooking.

Other salt uses

The earliest systematic exposition of the different kinds of salts, its uses,
and the methods of its extraction was published in China around 2700
years BCE. Hippocrates encouraged his fellow healers to make use of salt
water to heal various ailments by immersing their patients in sea water.

Fig: Salt cultivation land

Environmental Threats

Environmental Threats from salt farming cannot be ignored .In our study
area (teknaf) we see salt farming claims a large area. Problems are:

 Loss of fertility of land due to excessive salinity

 Crop production is not possible.
 Local primary production is feasible.
 Unemployment after a certain period.
 Pollination process is hampered.

Proposals:

 Proper selection of salt farming site is needed.

 Environmental impact assessment is required.
 Training of salt farmers is needed.
 Scientific method should be applied to make it viable.
 Introducing of salt tolerant crops is needed.
Chemical composition of sea salt
Chapter : 4
World Conservation Union
The World Conservation Union is the world’s largest and most important
conservation network. The Union brings together 83 States, 110
government agencies, more than 800 non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), and some 10,000 scientists and experts from 181 countries in a
unique worldwide partnership. The Union’s mission is to influence,
encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve the
integrity and diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of natural
resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable. The World
Conservation Union is a multicultural, multilingual organization with
1100 staff located in 40 countries. Its headquarters are in Gland,
Switzerland.

IUCN
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources Use of the name “World Conservation Union” began in 1990,
but the full name and the acronym are often used together as many people
still know the Union as IUCN.The World Conservation Union was
founded in October 1948 as the International Union for the Protection of
Nature (or IUPN) following an international conference in Fontainebleau,
France. The organization changed its name to the International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources in 1956.While the idea of
conserving the environment has steadily gained political acceptance over
the past few decades, people still misunderstand and ignore the goods and
services that nature, biodiversity and ecosystems provide to us. For
example, 16,119 species of animals and plants are threatened with
extinction and many ecosystems – wetlands, forests – are being degraded
and destroyed, while we know that natural ecosystems provide humans
with a large range of highly valuable services. The importance of well-
functioning ecosystems in helping reduce poverty and improve
livelihoods, societies and economies is increasingly clear to scientists.
This knowledge needs be integrated into the decisions and actions of
local, national and international policy makers in all sectors, as well as
business leaders.

The World Conservation Union continues to improve scientific

understanding of what natural ecosystems provide to humans. But the
Union also seeks to ensure this knowledge is used in practical ways by
bringing together scientists, policy makers, business leaders and NGOs to
impact the way the world values and uses nature.

The World Conservation Union supports and develops cutting-edge

conservation science; implements this research in field projects around
the world; and then links both research and results to local, national,
regional and global policy by convening dialogues between governments,
civil society and the private sector.

The priority of the Union’s current Programme (2005–2008) is to build

recognition of the many ways in which human lives and livelihoods,
especially of the poor, depend on the sustainable management of natural
resources.

In its projects, the Union applies sound ecosystem management to

conserve biodiversity and builds sustainable livelihoods for those directly
dependent on natural resources. The Union is actively engaged in
managing and restoring ecosystems and improving people’s lives,
economies and societies.

The Union’s databases, assessments, guidelines and case studies,

prepared by its global membership, Commissions and Secretariat,
are among the world’s most respected and frequently cited sources
of information.

As the world’s largest environmental knowledge network, the

Union has helped over 75 countries to prepare and implement
national conservation and biodiversity strategies. The Union also
has the official status of Observer at the United Nations General
Assembly.

Knowledge

 Monitoring the state of the world’s species through the IUCN Red
List of Threatened Species
 Contributing to and supporting the Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment
 Convening multi stakeholder events such as the World Parks
Congress in 2003
 Disseminating the Union’s knowledge and expertise through the
World Conservation Bookstore
Policy

 Giving policy advice and technical support to governments, UN

organizations, international conventions and other groupings such
as the G8 and G77.
 Assessing all new sites nominated for natural World Heritage Site
listing
 Contributing technical assistance to prepare national biodiversity
strategies and action plans
 Providing technical support for drafting environmental laws and
natural resource management strategies

Action

 Through the Water and Nature Initiative, working with 80 partners

in a five-year global action plan in 10 water basins
 Through the Forest for Life Strategy, promoting wise management
through guidelines for fire prevention and community management
of forest resources
 Working with the corporate sector on energy and biodiversity, and
mining and protected areas
 Facilitating Parks for Peace between countries in areas of conflict

IUCN Protected Areas Management Categories

The IUCN promotes a common approach to the world's environmental

pressures, and acts as a global advocate for the environment. One of the
IUCN's initiatives is to classify the different kinds of protected area found
around the world. Their classification includes:

Strict Nature Reserve/Scientific Reserve (1)

To protect nature and maintain natural processes in an undisturbed state

in order to have ecologically representative examples of the natural
environment available for scientific study, environmental monitoring,
education, and for the maintenance of genetic resources in a dynamic and
evolutionary state.

National Park (2)

To protect outstanding natural and scenic areas of national or
international significance for scientific, educational, and recreational use.
These are relatively large natural areas not materially altered by human
activity where extractive resource uses are not allowed.

Natural Monument/Natural Landmark (3)

To protect and preserve nationally significant natural features because of

their special interest or unique characteristics. These are relatively small
areas focused on protection of specific features.

Managed Nature Reserve/Wildlife Sanctuary (4)

To assure the natural conditions necessary to protect nationally significant

species, groups of species, biotic communities, or physical features of the
environment where these may require specific human manipulation for
their perpetuation. Controlled harvesting of some resources can be
permitted.

Protected Landscapes and Seascapes (5)

To maintain nationally significant natural landscapes which are

characteristic of the harmonious interaction of man and land while
providing opportunities for public enjoyment through recreation and
tourism within the normal life style and economic activity of these areas.
These are mixed cultural/natural landscapes of high scenic value where
traditional land uses are maintained.

Resource Reserve (6)

To protect the natural resources of the area for future use and prevent or
contain development activities that could affect the resource pending the
establishment of objectives which are based upon appropriate knowledge
and planning. This is a `holding' category used until a permanent
classification can be determined.

Anthropological Reserve/Natural Biotic Area (7)

To allow the way of life of societies living in harmony with the
environment to continue undisturbed by modern technology. This
category is appropriate where resource extraction by indigenous people is
conducted in a traditional manner.

Multiple Use Management Area/Managed Resource Area (8)

To provide for the sustained production of water, timber, wildlife, pasture

and tourism, with the conservation of nature primarily oriented to the
support of the economic activities.

Game Reserve Forest, Damdomia, Teknaf.

The World Conservation Union (IUCN) has been implementing a project

entitled “Action Research for Conservation of Asian Elephants in
Bangladesh” with financial support from US Fish and Wildlife Service
(USFWS). The Phase I (November 2001–April 2003) and Phase II (April
2004–June 2005) of the project were successfully completed in
collaboration with Forest Department, Bangladesh.The Phase III of the
project has started in November 2006 with overall goal to conserve Asian
Elephants in Bangladesh.

Objectives:
 Degraded habitats of elephants in selected areas restored and
protected
 Capacity and awareness levels of the local communities for
conservation of wild elephants enhanced
 Local people mobilized for minimizing human-elephant conflicts
operationalization of the draft compensation guideline facilitate

Game Reserve rules and regulations:

Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) order, 1973 (P.O No. 23 of 1973)
under clause No.2(c), Game Reserve means area declared by the
Government as such for the protection of wildlife and increase in the
population of important species wherein capturing of wild animals shal be
unlawful.
(Mohiuddin and Rezwana, 1996). Under Section 6 of clause (1) and (2) of
Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) order, 1973 (P.O No. 23 Of 1973) as
otherwise expressly provided in this Order.

No person shall
(a)
1. Hunt any wild animal by means of a set-gun, drop spear, deadfall gun
trap, an explosive projectile bomb, grenade, electrical contrivances, a
baited hook or any other trap whatsoever;

2. Hunt any game animal by means of an automatic weapon of a caliber

used by the Bangladesh Army, Bangladesh Rifle or Police Force, a shot
gun, rifle of 22 caliber or les, or a projectile containing any drug or
chemical substance having the property of anaesthetizing, paralyzing,
stupefying or rendering a wild animal crippled whether partly or totally;

(b)
 use any motor vehicle, motor driven vesel,watercraft of any type or
aircraft or any other manually or mechanically propelled vehicle of
any type to pursue any game animal, or to drive or stampede game
animals for any purpose what so ever;

 Use or have in his possession any poison or like injurious

substance for the purpose of hunting a game animal;

 Shoot any game animal from any aircraft, motor vehicle, rail
trolley cart, boats or any
Kind of watercraft or any other conveyance;

 Hunt with the help of live decoys, cal birds or any other artificial
contrivances;

(c)
 Construct or use or have in his possession any pitfalls, game pit,
trench or similar excavation
or any fence or enclosure, or fire to any vegetation or any other
contrivance for the purpose of hunting any game animal.

 It shal not be an offences to use a motor vehicle or aircraft to drive

any wild animal away from an aerodrome or airstrip when such
action is necessary to ensure the safety of aircraft using that
aerodrome.
 The Government may declare any aerator be a game reserve and
allow hunting and shooting of wild animals under a special permit
wherein the maximum number of the wild animals to be killed and
the area and the duration for which such permit shal remain valid
shal be specified.

Location

The project activities will be concentrated in Cox’s Bazar Districts

(Ringbone area of Fasiakhali Range of Cox’s Bazar North Forest Division
and Teknaf Game Reserve of Cox’s Bazar South Forest Division) and
Sherpur (Mymensingh Forest Division) of Bangladesh.

Resources:

Teknaf game reserve comprises 55 types of mammals,286 types of

birds,56 types of reptiles and 290 types of plants. The main attraction is
the Asian elephants, Eliphas maximus.Around 26 elephants are found
here.

Threats

People collect woods indiscriminately. There are many brickfields that

use this wood as fuel. Such activities destroy the habitat of the animals
and hamper ecological balance.

Stakeholders

The whole work will be accomplished by involving all relevant

stakeholders and on a participatory basis. The relevant stakeholders are,
 Local communities
 Educational institutions
 Forest Department, Bangladesh
 Concerned Ministries
 Research Institutes and projects

Proposed activities:

Mapping of elephant movement paths including corridors and human-

elephant conflict prone areas
 1. Negotiating and convincing the Forest Department for elephant
fodder plantation
2. Fodder plantation involving local communities
3. Facilitating GoB in protecting key elephant habitats
4. Networking with existing initiatives on elephant conservation
5. Capacity building of local stakeholders on elephant conservation
and conflict reduction
6. Awareness programs on elephant conservation at local and national
level
7. Demonstration of bio-fencing
8. Facilitating the community to replicate bio-fencing
9. Assisting local community with tools to tackle elephant attack.

Timeframe: To be completed by April 2008

Achievements:
1. Two Peer Group meetings were organized at the 'Forest
Department, Bangladesh' Dhaka Office in November 2006 and
January 2007 where the experts advised on the methodology and
approaches of different project interventions.
2. The project villages have been selected in two Reserve Forest areas
in Cox's Bazar District.
3. Baseline survey of 80 households of Cox’s Bazar North and South
Forest Divisions conducted. Four group discussions in Cox’s Bazar
North and South Forest Divisions and three in Sherpur
(Mymensingh Forest Division). These will form a good database
on the present condition of elephant population, elephant habitat,
people's awareness level and human-elephant conflict scenario in
the project areas.
4. Elephant fodder plantation completed involving the Forest
Officials and local communities at the end of June 2007 and
according to the plan developed earlier.
5. Forest Department, Bangladesh has formally been requested in
February 2007 to incorporate elephant fodder plantation in its
regular plantation programme in elephant ranges to improve
elephant habitats.

A community meeting was organized in Fashiakhali Forest Range, one

project site, on 19 February 2007 with the local government
representatives, concerned forest officials and other service providing
government agencies and was very fruitful. People recommended a
number of suggestions for conserving elephant and reducing HEC in the
area. One important recommendation was declaration of Fasiakhali
Range as a ‘Wildlife Sanctuary’. The second community meeting was
held on April 23, 2007 in Shilkhali, Teknaf. IUCN Bangladesh and
Nishorgo Support Project of Forest Department, Bangladesh jointly
organized the meeting. Posters and leaflets on elephant conservation were
disseminated on both occasions.

Natural resources of Teknaf game reserve

The natural resources of Teknaf game reserve are following types:

 Vegetation
 Wild life

Bio-diversity of Game Reserve of Teknaf:

Trees:

Chapalish = Artocarpus Chaplasha

Civit = Swintoning floribande
Garjan = Dipterocarpus alatus
Mehogoni = Swietenia mahogoni
Shimul = Bombox ceita
Bailam = Anisoptera scaphula
Jarul = Lagerstroemia speciosa
Ashok = Sarace indica
Chalta = Dillinia indica
Shonalu = Cassia fistula

Grass:

Chon ghash = Impetata cylindrical

Climber, Orchid:

Asham lota = Eupatorium ordoratum

Bhat = Clerodendrum Viscosum
Lojjaboti = Mimosa pudica

Mammal
Asian elephant = Elephus marimus
Golden cat = Felis chaus
Barking deer = Carvus porcinus
Ashami monkey = Macaca mulatta

Fish

A total of 234 species of fish in 85 familes of 14 orders and 2 classes have

been identified, of which only 16 are freshwater species.
Rhinocodon typus (timi mach), Rhizoprionodon acutus, Narcine brunea
(brown electric fish), Ilisha elongata (Big eye ilisha), Coilia ramcarati
(korati), Clarias batrachus (Magur mach), Harpadon nehereus (Loitta
mach), Hippocampus kuda (ghora mach), Pama pama
(poa)Lepturacanthus savala (churi mach)

Reptiles

A total of 29 reptilian species are found such as Varaus salvator ( gui

shap), Calotes versicolor (kaklash), Caretta caretta (sagor kachim), Naja
kaouthia (Padma gokhra), Naja naja knouthia ( khaya gokhra) etc.

Birds

A total of 120 spcies of birds are found, of them 77 species are resident
and 43 are migratory such as Nettapus coromandelianus ( Bali hash),
Coracias benghalensis (Nilkantho), Halcyon pileata ( Machranga),
Eudynamis scolopacea (kokil), Amaurornis phoenicurus (Dahuk) etc.

Mammals

A total of 19 species of mammals belonging to 7 families are found such

as Pteropus giganteus (Badur), Balaenopterus musculus (nil timi),
Delphinus delphis ( Shishu), Rattus norvegicus (Idur) etc.

Echinoderms
A total of nine species belonging to eight genera in four classes of
phylum Echinodermata are found such as Cenometra bella (Attached to
soft corals), Tropiometra afra (Abundant, attached to soft corals and
rocks).
Chapter : 5
Saint Martin Island

St. Martin’s Island is a small offshore island in the Bay of Bengal some
50 km to the south of Teknaf peninsula. The island is roughly dumbel
shaped, approximately 7 km long and 500 m wide at its broadest point.
Narikcl Jinjira. Also known as the St. Martin's Island, is a small island
in the north easier!! Part of the Bay of Bengal, about 9 km south of
Cox's Bazar-Teknaf peninsula tip. It forms the southern-most tip of
Bangladesh. It is about 8 km west of the northwest coast of Myanmar and
lies exactly on the mouth of the River Naaf. The island is situated roughly
between 20°34'N - 20°38.3'N and 92°18. 2"E - 92C20.8”E.

There has been a confusion regarding the origin of the island. In some
recent literature, the island has been classified as a 'Coral Island' of
biogenic nature. The assumption based on the presence of coral
communities on the island. The presence of a submerged reef on the south
and so St. Martin's Island thought it to be the western extension of one of the
Malayan sea coast. Presence of shell and coralline limestone deposits as
well as coral clust existence of coral reefs.
The term 'Coral Island' was probably adopted by the general public and
base rock of Narikel Jinjira is sedimentary in origin and consists of
sandstone mixed with shell deposits. Some unweathered subtidal area
clearly show the signs of cracks, caused probably due to uplifting. Some
spherical boulders with dead coral colonies, are probably formed through an
accretion procedure.
RESOURCES OF SAINT MARTIN:

Plant Diversity:

The island is a good example of co-occurrence of corals, sea grases and

mangroves. Sandy beaches also support sand dune vegetation.
A recent survey under NCSIP-1recorded a total of 151 species of benthic
and drifted algae, 18 species of bryophytes and 157 species of
angiosperms.
The mangrove formation here is quite different from any other mangroves
in the country in that it is a pure Lumnitzera racemosa formation.
Associated species are Acanthus ilicifolius,Aegialitis rotundifolia,
Hibiscus tiliceous, Excoecaria agalocha and Clerodendrum inerme.
Pandanus odoratissimus and Ipomea pescaprae, in association with
grasses Panicum repens,Paspalum
vaginatum and sedges Cyperus spp. and Fimbristylis spp., constitute the
vegetation of the sand dunes. Streblus asper and Vitex trifoliataare also
found among the crevices formed by the rocks. Common algal plants
include Hypnea Ceramium, Acanthophora, Polysiphonia among
Rhodophyceae; Sargasum spp. Dictyota spp.Sphacelaria spp.among
Phaeophyceae; Enteromorpha, Chaetomorpha Cladophora, Caulerpa,
Helimeda ,Ulva, which belong to Chlorophyceaea; Oscilatoria spp. and
Nostoc are members of Cyanophyceae.

Faunal Diversity:

The rocky sub tidal habitat from the seaward margin to about 1000 m
offshore support a diverse coral community which can be classified as a
veneering coral community. A total of 61 species of mollusks have been
recorded from the island. Of these, 44 species are
Gastropods and the rest are bivalves. Some important gastropods, like
Conus striatus, C.textile, C.geogrphes are abundant. Two economically
important gastropod, Trochus niloticus and Turbo marmoratus are present at
the island. These two species are heavily depleted worldwide.

The coral community also supports associated fish and invertebrate fauna. A
total of 240 species of Fish have been identified, 86 of which are coral-
associated fish species. A total of seven species of crabs have been identified
from the island. The island is particularly important as a wintering area for a
wide variety of migratory shorebirds, Gulls and terns, and as a nesting area
for marine turtles. A total of 120 species of birds has been recorded from the
island, of which 67 species are resident and 53 are migratory. A total of 18
species

Fig : Crabs

Of mammals have been recorded from the island. Al five species of

marine turtle known to occur in Bangladesh have been reported in the

area, namely Chelonia mydas, Careta careta, Lepidochelys olivacea,

Eretmochelys imbricata and Dermochelys coriacea. A conservation

estimate shows that at least 80-120 turtles breed in the area during the

nesting season. Other reptiles include Varanus salvatorand the sea-

snakesLaticauda laticauda, L. colubrina and Enhydrina schistosa.

Altogether, the island Supports a total of 27 reptile species and four

amphibians.

ST. MARTIN’S & TURTLE NESTING BEACH

Only island in Bangladesh, which has coral colonies of reef building
species in the shallows. Large areas of sand dune and scattered
mangroves are the basic characteristic of the land. Island climate is
governed by the subtropical monsoon. During May-August the southeast
monsoon climate prevails over the island, which is characteristically
warm, humid, with up to 1000 mm of rainfall in a single month.
According to old islander abundant tropical evergreen vegetations
previously covered the land. Martin is dumbbell-shaped, sedimentary and
continental in origin. Its 3 small islands, at the south, locally known as
Cheradia.The intertidal and sub tidal zone is fringed with boulders. Beach
length of St. Martin’s is 14 kms, of which a small stretch of about 2 km is
suitable for nesting. Rocks and seawalls frequently interrupt nesting
process and females often require several attempts before laying eggs.
This curved sandy beach on the western coast named Shil Banya
(2023.6’N; 92019.5’E) is the main Turtle nesting beach, where 70% nests
recorded during the last records .

Fig : Turtle

Facts of Marine Turtle

They are reptilian, ancient and a distinctive part of the marine

biodiversity
evolved more than 100 million years before, Long-lived animal that
mature in late life, They are highly migratory and travel great distances
during lifetime from ocean to ocean, around the globe,Excelent navigator;
can recognize their own nesting beach, They transport massive nutrient
and increase productivity of coastal habitat, They must have to breath in
air & lay eggs on sandy beach for reproduction, Feed on jelyfish, crab,
shels, squids, sponge, sea grass etc.Some are carnivores and others
herbivore,Sea Turtle return in maturity to the same beach where they
hatched long time
before.Female marine turtle lay eggs on the sandy beaches in 50 -1 00 cm
depth those hatch by sand heat provided by sunshine after 45-70 days.
Mother has no duty regarding hatching after laying and the babies find
their
own ways in the open ocean. The sexes of the hatchlings are determined
by
the incubation temperature.

MARINE TURTLE IN BANGLADESH

Five species of marine turtles travel in the Bangladesh marine teritory:

Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea)

Green turtle (Chelonia mydas)

Hawks bil turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata)

Leather back (Dermochelys coriacea)

Loggerhead turtle (Careta careta

Marine Turtle and Marine Ecosystem

 They play significant role in maintaining marine ecosystem

especially the food chain:
 Jellyfish is one of the major food items of marine turtle, which is a
dominant predator of fish fry, turtle helps to keep jelly fish
population balanced,
 Marine turtle introduce marine vegetation from one coast to other
coast of far distance,
 The attract ecotourism tremendously and thousands of foreign
tourists visit our country to watch marine turtle.
Summary of Differential Data on Nesting Females
Chelonia mydas
Curved carapace Length (CCL) cm 92 - 111 cm
Clutch Size 95 - 163 nos
Egg Weight/gm 42.1 - 44.5 gm
Egg Diameter/mm 42.1 - 43.9 mm

Lepidochelys olivacea
Curved Carapace Length (CCL) cm 66 - 93 cm
Body weight/Kg 36 - 54 kg
Clutch Size 36 - 182 nos
Egg Weight/gm 25.5 - 33.5 gm
Egg Diameter/mm 36.86 - 39.47 mm

Fig: Marine Turtle in St. Martin’s Island

Fish
A total of 234 species of fish in 85 familes of 14 orders and 2 classes
have been identified, of which only 16 are freshwater species.
Rhinocodon typus (timi mach), Rhizoprionodon acutus, Narcine brunea
(brown electric fish), Ilisha elongata ( Big eye ilisha), Coilia ramcarati
(korati), Clarias batrachus (Magur mach), Harpadon nehereus ( Loitta
mach), Hippocampus kuda (ghora mach), Pama pama
( poa)Lepturacanthus savala (churi mach)

Reptiles

A total of 29 reptilian species are found such as Varaus salvator ( gui

shap), Calotes versicolor (kaklash), Caretta caretta (sagor kachim), Naja
kaouthia (Padma gokhra), Naja naja knouthia ( khaya gokhra) etc.

Birds

A total of 120 spcies of birds are found, of them 77 species are resident
and 43 are migratory such as Nettapus coromandelianus ( Bali hash),
Coracias benghalensis (Nilkantho), Halcyon pileata ( Machranga),
Eudynamis scolopacea (kokil), Amaurornis phoenicurus (Dahuk) etc.

Mammals

A total of 19 species of mammals belonging to 7 families are found such

as Pteropus giganteus (Badur), Balaenopterus musculus (nil timi),
Delphinus delphis ( Shishu), Rattus norvegicus (Idur) etc.

Echinoderms

A total of nine species belonging to eight genera in four classes of

phylum Echinodermata are found such as Cenometra bella ( Attached to
soft corals ), Tropiometra afra (Abundant, attached to soft corals and
rocks).

Coral reef in St. Martin’s Island

While no formed coral reef exists, the subtidal zone of Narikel Jinjira
island supports a total of 66 sceleratianian coral species, belonging to 22
genera, a number of which represent reef building species. The coral beds
in Narikel Jinjira extends from the seaward margin of the intertidal to
about 200600m offshore. Corals are found around most of the Island, but
their abundance and cover is generally low. Coral covers various from 4-
10% of the surface area. The density estimate of coral is 1.3 colonies/m 2.
Porites spp. are the most abundant group of coral, followed by Favites
spp., Goniopora, spp., Cyphastrea spp., and Gontastrea spp. The coral
resources are heavily exploited in Narikel Jinjira. It has been estimated
that about 30,000 colonies are removed annually which is 24% of the
existing coral population in the extractable areas. The coral community in
Narikel Jinjira supports associated fish and invertebrate fauna
characteristics of coral reef environment. There are at least 86 species of
reef associated fish, 4 species of Zoanthids. 4 spp. of Echinoids, one
species of Asteroids, one species of Holothuroid and 4 spp. of Crinoids
have been identified from the coral beds of the island. Molluscs are the
most abundant group of invertebrate found in the coral bed, 61 species of
them have been identified. Siltation, fluctuations in salinity, cyclonic
storms and tidal surges, over exploitation of resources have been
identified as the potential threats to the resource degradation, Narikel
Jinjira satisfies the requirements for category 11 (Marine Park)
designation. A zoning plan has been proposed as a key tool for the
management of Narikel Jinjira as a Marine Protected area. Local
community based eco-tourism has been strongly suggested. It is strongly
recommended that new scientific studies are planned for the island, since
the unique and dynamic nature of the intertidal and subtidal rocky
habitats offer excellent research opportunities.

Introduction

Location

In Bangladesh, corals are found only on the Narikel Jinjira (St. Martin's
Island). Narikel Jinjira is a small island in the north-eastern part of the
Bay of Bengal, about 9 km south of Cox's Bazar-Teknaf peninsular tip
and forms the southern most tip of Bangladesh. It lies roughly between
20° 34'N - 20° 38.8'N and 92°18' - 92°20.8'E

Geology

The island has been classified as a coral island of biogenic nature. The
assumption was probably made on the presence of coral communities on
the island. However, the base rock of Narikel Jinjira is of sedimentary in
origin and consists of sand stones of tertiary age, mixed with shell
deposits. The boulders found on the intertidal and subtidal zones are
mostly sedimentary in origin and probably the continuation of base rock.
Some spherical boulders, intermixed with dead corals colonies, (origin
and probably the continuation of base rocks. Some spherical boulders,
intermixed with dead corals colonies (boulders), are probably formed
through accretion process. According to Warrick et al. (1993) the island is
located on the eastern flank of an anticline and probably the part of
Arakan-Naga folded system and therefore the island may be regarded as a
sedimentary continental island whose coastal environment supports
diverse coral communities.

Physiography

The island is (dumbbell-shaped, about 7.8 km in length and few hundred

to little about 1 km in width, the surface area is about 8 km 2 at low tide
and about 5 km at high tide. The island is located on a shallow
continental shelf with a maximum depth of 25m. The maximum depth of
coast of Narikel Jinjira is only 10m.

The main shoreline habitats are sandy beaches and dunes and scattered
rocks and coral boulders. Some boulders are also found on the interior
into the island. The shallow water marine habitats include, rocky and
sandy intertidal, intertidal rockpools, off shore lagoons, rocky and sandy
subtidal and offshore soft bottom habitats.

Due to differences in exposure, benthic habitats along with the east and
west, coasts of the island support different benthic communities.
However, the upper and middle intertidal habitats along both coasts
generally support similar communities. A generalised zonation of the east
coast benthic communities along an inshore to offshore gradient starting
from the lower intertidal is as follows: 1) intertidal gastropod-algal
community 2) Coral-algal community 3) mixed seagrass-algal
community, 4) soft coral community and 5) soft bottom. The zonation on
the west-coast is as follows: 1) gastropod algal community: 2) Coral-algal
3) algal community, and 4) soft bottom community.

Environmental Conditions

Surface Water Temperature

The surface water temperature around Narikel Jinjira ranges between 18-
31 C and thus lies within the optimal range (20-30 C) for both coral and
coral reef development.

Salinity
The coastal water salinity of Narikel Jinjira, as measured on few
occasions during drier seasons, fluctuates between 26 to 35 ppt. It is
expected that the level will drop further below this marginal value due to
the increased freshwater discharge from Naaf River during rainy season
(July-October). This level is therefore below the optimal range (32-36
ppt). However, some species may tolerate low salinity in some areas of
the world.

Light/Turbidity

The turbidity of inshore water as measured by the sechi disk depth,

ranges from 1.5m to 8.0m depending on the sea condition and tide cycle.
This low light penetration is the consequence of many factors. In addition
to silts coming with Naaf discharge, the combined action of wind
generated waves, ocean swell and high velocity tidal current cause
resuspension of bottom sediments (fine sand; silts and mud). A sechi
depth of >7m is required for optimal growth of reef-building corals. Since
corals are light-sensitive organisms, high turbidity coastal waters of
Narikel Jinjira is the key environmental factor for impeding the
development of coral reefs. However, some coral species may tolerate
turbid waters of this magnitude (e.g. Porities).

Substrate

The shelf of Narikel Jinjira is covered by a layer of sedimentary boulders

that vary greatly in size. While they provide a very suitable substrate for
the settlement of coral larvae, as it evident by relatively high recruitment
rates of juvenile corals, the boulders are very susceptible to disturbances
(i.e. over turning, translocation, etc.) by heavy seas that are frequently
generated by cyclonic storms and tidal surge. The growing corals on the
boulders are thus damaged or destroyed during translocation and shifting
of substrate boulders.

Tide

The tides affecting Narikel Jinjira are semi-diurnal (i.e. two high tide and
two low tides per day). The mean tidal level at Shahpuri Island (about
9km north-east from Narikel Jinjira) in the Naaf estuary Is 1.874m. The
mean low spring tide is 0.19m and mean high water spring tide is 3.56m.
The highest astronomical tide is 4.lm (BIWTA, 1996). It is expected that
somewhat similar tidal condition exists around Narikel Jinjira.

Based on the environmental data (i.e. surface seawater temperature,

salinity and turbidity), it is concluded that natural environmental
conditions around Narikel Jinjira are marginal for the development and
survival of coral communities, and sub-optimal for the development of
coral reefs. However, a year round environment monitoring programme is
required to obtain a clear, picture of the environmental conditions. The
rainy season is the critical bench-mark for environmental conditions.

Corals and Associated Resources

Fossil Corals

The fossil corals are mainly scattered among the boulders on the beach
and on the land interior into the island. Some isolated massive coral
blocks (measuring 1.5m x 0.65m x 1.1m) are found on the beaches and on
the inter-tidal rock pools. However, percentage of corals boulders as eye
estimated to be less than 2-311/o of the boulders (DoZ, 1997).

Live Corals

Corals are found around most of the island, except the northern part (Fig.
1) The rocky subtidal seaward margin of intertidal to about 200-600m
offshore support coral communities. Corals are also found in the rock
pools of lower intertidal. A total of 66 seleleratinian coral species,
belonging to 22 genera and 10 families, has been recorded from Narikel
Jinjira . All families represent reef forming corals. Table 1 provides the
scientific names and relative abundance of the recorded species. The
genera Porites, Favites, Goniopora, Cyphastrea and Goniastrea are most
abundant. In terms of coral coverage, Porites is by far most important
genus. In relative terms, almost all other coral genera, perhaps with the
exception of Acropora, can be viewed as rare. The abundance of corals
and their cover is low. The coral cover varies from 2-10% of the rocky
substrate. Based on the quadrant transect survey, the density at some
selected areas is about 1.3 colony/m2.

Coral Associated Fauna

Soft Coral (Order - Octocoralina)

The soft coral community on Narikel Jinjira is a unique feature of

subtidal zone. The deep water soft coral belongs to 6 families, namely,
Plexarudae, Aanthogoridae, Subergorgoniidae (gorgonians sea fans) and
Malithaddae, Anthothetidae (small sea fans), Ellisellidae (sea whips). The
species level identification is being done at the Department of Zoology,
Dhaka University. The species number may go above 12. The soft corals
collected from shallow subtidal included Sinularia, Lobophyton and
Authelia.

Other macro-invertebrates

The other macro-invertebrates were represented by 61 species of

molluscs, 9 species echinoderms, 4 species zonathids and 4 species of
Bryzoans. By far the most abundant macro-invertebrates are the
gastropod molluscs, notable of them are periwinkles, nerites, top shells,
cowries, murex, and cone shells. There is high abundance of Conus
striatus, C. textiles, C. geographus, Trochus niloticus and Tarbo
marmoratus, two economically important gastropod throughout Indo-
Pacific, are also present, but their population are depleted world-wide. A
number of colourful nudibranchs (Mollusca, Opistobrachia) were
recorded from the shallow subtidal rocky reefs. The four species found
were Joruna funebris (Kentodordidae), Glossodoris atromarginata
(Chromodorididae, and one unidentified species.

The diversity of macro-invertebrates is surprisingly low considering the

abundance of algae and benthic detrital material. Only four species of sea
urchins (Echinodermata, Ecinodea) namely Echinotrix diadem,
E.calamahs, Echinometra mathaei, and Echinostrephus aciculatus are
present in the rocky subtidal habitats on Narikel Jinjira. One species of
sea star (Echinodermata, Asteroidea) belonging to genus Protoreasterwas
collected. There are a number of brittle stars (Ophiruoidea) present, but
these were not assessed since they are cryptic (i.e. live under the
boulders) by nature. Only one sea cucumber (Holothuroidea) was found
in the lower intertidal in the intertidal pools. The sea cucumber
(Holothuria atra) occurs in very low numbers due to over exploitation.
Bryozoans (Cheilostomata) are an abundant group of encrusting
calcareous invertebrates. The main genera are Reteporellina,
Tryphyllozoon, Scrupocellaha and Stylopoma. Another important group
of antozoans in the lower intertidal and shallow subtidal are the zoanthids
(Zoanthidae). The genus Palythoa dominates, and covers many large
boulders. Other anthozoans observed in the subtidal were Nemanthus,
(Nemanthidae), Telemactis sp. (Isophellidae) and Discosoma spp.
(Dicosomtidae).

Table 1: Seleractinian reef-building corals (order Seleratetinia) of Narikel

Jinjira (St. Martin's Island) (tentative list). Relative abundance categories
based on visual observations during snorkelling: A- abundance, C-
common, and R- rare, indicates need for taxonomic verification.
FAMILY GENUS AND SPECIES ABUNDANCE

ASTROCOENIIDAE Stylocoeniella armata C

ACRPORIDAE Montipora angulata* R

Montipora hispida* R

Montipora informis C

Montipora spongodes A

Montipora turtlensis* A

Montipora verucosa R

Acropora glauca A

Acropora multiacuta* R

Acropora vaughani* R

Acrpora austera R

Acrqora aculeus A

Acropora rudis C

Acropora latistella R

PORITIDAE Porites lobata A

Porites solida A

Podtes lutea A

Porites murrayensis* C

Goniopora columna A

Goniopora djiboutiensis A

Goniopora stokesi A
 Goniopora stutchburyi A

Goniopora tenuidens R

SIDERASTREIDAE Psammocora hatmeana* R

Psammocora profundacella A

Coscinaraea columna A

Psedosiderastrea tayami A

AGARICIIDAE Pavona decussata R

OCULINIDAE Galaxea astreata C

Galaxea fascicularis C

MUSSIDAE Acanthastrea echinata* R

Acanthastrea hillae* R

FAVIIDAE Favites abdita A

Favites halicora A

Pauttes flexuosa C

Favitessp. 1 R

Pavites sp. 2 R

Gonioastrea aspera A

Gonioastrea edwardsi A

Goniostrea palauensis* R

Goniostrea pendulus* R

Goniostrea retiformes C

Platygyra daedalea A
 Platygyra pini C

Ptatygyra stnensis R

Leptastrea purpurea C

Leptastrea pruinosa* R

Leptastrea transversa A

Cyphastrea serallia A

Cyphastrea chalcidicum A

Cyphastrea sp. R

Monastrea curta R

Monastrea magnistellata R

Favia favus R

Favia pallida R

Favia speciosa R

MERULINIDAE Hydnophora exesa A

Hydnophora micoconos A

Hydnophora pilosa C

DENDROPHYLLIDAE Turbinira frondens R

Turbinira peltata R

Turbinira reniformis R

Turbinira stellulata R

Dendrophyllia sp. C
Resources Exploitation

Coral Extraction

The main threat to future viability of coral communities comes from

direct extraction of corals colonies. Coral collection activities started in
50's but until recently extraction was at low level.

Coral collection is done by using about 18 small manual boats. It was

estimated that the weight of harvest ranges from 40-100 kg/day/boat or
about 20-40kg/day/person. It has also been estimated that about 30,000
coral colonies are collected annually and current extraction activities
remove about 24% of the existing population from the extractable areas.

Fig.2 shows the areas where coral collections are currently being made.
Earlier, only Acrpora spp. were sought after. These are being becoming
relatively rare. Now-a-days, 4 kinds of corals are mainly collected. These
are locally called, pataphu (Acropora spp.), gachphul (Acropora spp.),
shaibal (Favites spp.) and mog (Goniastrea sp.). At present there are 8
middle men engaged in coral trading. It was gathered that coral worth
about Tk.4 lakhs are traded annually.

Shell Extraction:

Of all the marine habitats on the island, the lower intertidal is most
heavily exploited. Shell extraction is the main activity. Few families in
the island are fully dependant on shell collection. Earlier only the larger
shells were collected, but now, with tile introduction of diversified use of
shell smaller species are also collected. Unavailability of shell has lead to
the collection of live molluscs.

Potential Threats to Coral and Associated Resources

The following are the key environmental (natural and anthropogenic)

concerns in Narikel Jinjira which pose threats to environment and
resource degradation. A summary of the potential threats is also provided
in Table 2 with their relative contribution to environment and resource
degradation.

Anthropogenic Threats

 Overexploitation of renewable marine and coastal resources (e.g. rocky

reef fisheries, coral and shell extraction, removal of coastal vegetation)
 Large scale removal of key-stone species from intertidal subtidal
habitats (I.e. corals, cucumbers and molluscs).

 Destructive fishing practices, mainly the use of rock weighted gill nets
over the inshore boulder reefs.

 Increased water turbidity and sedimentation from agricultural

practices, deforestation and urbanization,

 Waste disposal, particularly fish offal’s from large number of fish dry
farms.

 Tourists activities (e.g. collection of sample specimens other

destructive activities)

Natural Threats

 Cyclonic storms and tidal surge probably cause serious damage to

coral communities by shifting and overturning substrate boulders.

 Silts coming with Naaf discharge causing turbidity problems on the

east coast of the island. Resuspension of sediments also help to increase
water turbidity and directly impeding the coral develpoment and survival.

 Increased discharge of freshwater flood water fro Naaf River during

rainy season causes salinity to fall to a suboptimal level.

Table 2 Major threats to environment and coral & associated resources.

Anthropogenic Threats Relative Threat Level

Coastal erosion 4

Turbidity and sedimentation 5

Coral extraction 5

Shell extraction 5

Intertidal boulder removal 5

Coral use for construction and lime 1

Destructive fishing techniques 3

Tourism activities 5

Domestic pollution 3

Agricultural polluttion 5

Oil pollution from boats 3

Boat anchoring 2

Fish processing 3

Boat building 2

Overfishing 5

Natural Threats

Cyclones and storms 5

Sedimentation and resuspension 5

Freshwater flooding 5

Earthquakes 1

Management Efforts for Narikel Jinjira Coral Resources

Past planning activities on Narikel Jinjira have proceeded without much

government involvement concerns regarding the Narikel Jinjira coral
resources first came as one of the NCS (National Conservation Strategy)
recommendation. NCS recommendation for Narikel Jinjira is as follows:
"Declaration of St. Martin's Island (Narikel Jinjira) and the Jinjira coral
reef a Protected Area and development of a management plan".
The Ministry of Environment and Forest is executing the conservation
programme through establishment of NCS implementation Project 1.
IUCN Bangladesh is providing the technical assistance. At the initial
stage, collection of baseline information and preparation of resource
inventories were made through the implementation of Survey of Fauna,
Survey of Flora and Base Map Preparation Projects. At this stage various
universities and research institutes of the country became involved with
the survey programme. A coral reef management specialist was also hired
with view to develop a Management Action Plan for the sustainable
management of coral resources.

Unfortunately, the government planning included single sector approach

and has contributed to particularly troublesome developments. It is
imperative that the management plan should be formulated to allow for
inter-government co-ordination and co-operation.

For the sustainable development and management of coral resources on

Narikel Jinjira, the Marine Protected Area concept has been proposed
with a suggestion for the establishment of a Marine Park.

Table 3: Conservation value of selected coastal and marine areas on

Narikel Jinjira

Criteria Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area 6 Area 7

Naturalness 0 1 1 2 2 0 1

Habitat diversity 3 5 7 9 4 5 6

Unique habitats 0 0 1 1 1 0 2

Coral diversity 0 0 1 2 2 0 2

Coral cover 0 0 1 2 2 0 2

Fish diversity 0 0 1 2 2 1 1

Coral damage 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

Scientific value 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
Total score 3 6 13 20 15 6 14

Naturalness indicates the extent to which the area has been protected
from, or not been subjected to human-induced damage (0= low; l=
medium; 2= high). Habitat diversity is the sum of the following habitats
present; beach; dune; rocky intertidal; coral associations; sea grass;
lagoons; mangrove; soft coral habitat; offshore rock reefs (o= absent; 1=
present). Unique habitats: presence of habitats not found elsewhere on the
island: Area 3 has a large intertidal sandy lagoon; Area 4 has subtidal
rocky reefs where Acropora is present in relatively high numbers; Area 5
has a turtle nesting habitat; Area7 on the high energy coast of the island
has a bettered Coral diversity (qualitative assessment): 0=low; 1=
medium; 2=high. Coral cover (qualitative assessment): 0= low; 1=
medium; 2=high. Fish diversity (qualitative assessment) 0= low; 1=
medium; 2=high. Coral damage (qualitative assessment):0= high l= low.
Scientific value (qualitative assessment) reflects potential research
possibilities biological, ecological, taxonomical, environmental and
geological): 0= low; l= high. "Conservation value calculated as the
percentage of the total score (=20)"

Narikel Jinjira has got unique geographical features and diverse habitats
and many of which is still undisturbed. The island support diverse coral
communities which are not seen elsewhere in the country. The island also
contains a number of rare (e.g. cone shells) and endangered species in
Bangladesh. The Island is also used as nesting ground by three marine
endangered turtle species. Quantitative analysis of criteria, used by IUCN
(1994) to determine whether an area is suitable candidate for a protected
area status, suggest that Narikel Jinjira satisfies the requirements for
category 11 (Marine Park) designation. Table 3 shows conservation
values of selected coastal and marine areas on the island. A zoning plan is
proposed as a key tool for the management of Narikel Jinjira as marine
protected area. The proposed plan identifies a range of purposes for the
protected area description and provides a clear rational for the zoning
plan (Table 4). The zoning system consists of 1) General use zone; 2)
Buffer zones; 3) Coral appreciation area, 4) Coral reserve 5) Coral
Sanctuary (Fig. 4). Various community based programmers are suggested
in the Proposed Action Plan to include the local community in the
conservation process.

Table 4: Management objectives of protected area categories following

IUCN recommendation (IUCN,1994)
Management Objectives Protected Area Categories

Ia Ib II III IV V VI

Preservation of Biodiversity 1 2 1 1 1 2 1

Maintenance of Environmental Services 2 1 1 0 1 2 1

Wildness Protection 2 1 2 3 3 0 2

Sustainable Use of Resources 0 3 3 1 2 2 1

Scientific Research 1 3 2 2 2 2 3

Education 0 0 2 2 2 2 3

Tourism and Recreation 0 2 1 1 3 1 3

Maintenance of cultural/traditional attributes 0 0 0 0 0 1 2

Protection of specific natural/cultural features 0 0 2 1 3 1 3

Protected Area Categories:

Ia- Strict Nature Reserve/Wilderness Area, protected area managed

mainly for science or wilderness protection.

Ib- Wilderness Area protected area managed mainly for wilderness

protection. II- National Monument, protected area managed mainly for
conservation of specific natural features. III - Habitat/Species
Management Area, protected area managed mainly for conservation
through management intervention V- Protected Landscape, protected area
managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation. VI-
Managed Resources Protected Area, protected managed mainly for the
sustainable use of natural ecosystems. Key: 1 - Primary objective; 2 -
Secondary objective; Potentially applicable objective:- not applicable.

Ecotourism
Narikel Jinjira lacks the main criteria to be considered as a potential
international destination for SCUBA diving. However, coral viewing
using glass-bottom boat has been suggested. Development of small scale
community based ecotourism, to satisfy national demand for new travel
destinations, is a viable option on Narikel Jinjira that needs to be
promoted. Development of community based ecotourism will not only
benefit local conservation efforts through community participation but
will also expose tourists to new experiences. Table 5 provides a
preliminary assessment of seven areas on Narikel Jinjira in terms of their
potential ecotourism value. Based on the ecotourism potential analysis,
areas 3, 5, and 7 are to be considered as the target areas for ecotourism
development (Fig 4). The choice of areas for ecotourism development is
supported by the analysis of conservation value these areas (Table 3). Due
to high score of Area 4 in the conservation potential analysis, it has been
suggested to designate this area as a "coral refuge."

The proposed Action Plan for the management of the island provides a set
of environmental guidelines for future tourism and agricultural
development. The guidelines identify the links between various
environmental impacts and functional and structural integrity of the coral
communities on the island.

Table 5: Ecotourism value of seven selected coastal and marine areas of

Narikel Jinjira

Criteria Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area 6 Area 7

Aesthetics 0 0 2 2 1 0 2

Naturalness 0 1 1 2 2 0 1

Safety 0 1 1 0 0 1 2

Local sensitivity 0 0 1 1 1 0 1

Accessibility 2 2 1 1 1 2 2

Fishing activity 0 0 1 1 1 1 1

Total score 2 4 7 7 6 4 9
Tourism Value 20 40 70 70 60 40 90

Notes: Aesthetic criteria used: high coral cover, abundance, large coral
size, presence of fish, water quality, good swimming area (0= low, 1=
medium, 2= high). Naturalness criteria: the extent to which the area has
been protected from, or not been subjected to human-induced damage
(0=low; 1 = medium; 2= high). Safety criteria little or no wave action,
protection from swells, slow currents, no chance of entanglement in
fishing tiers, no boat traffic, safe entry for swimmers (0=low; 1= medium;
2= high safety factor). Local sensitivity relates to attitudes of local
inhabitants to western style water recreation (i.e. use of bathing suits): 0=
high; 1= low, Accessibility criteria! distance from port of entry, distance
from guest houses, easy of entry for divers or skin divers (i.e. use of
snorkel only) from boats, case of access from beaches, cast of entry for
glass bottom boat operators (0= low; 1= medium; 2= high). Fishing and
other extractive activities: based on distance to villages, relative fishing
activity observed in the areas (0= high; 1= low). Ecotourism value
calculated as a percentage of the maximum potential score (= 10).

Research Needs

The unique and dynamic nature of the jntertidal and subtidal rocky
habitats offers excellent research opportunities. The following research
areas may be considered:

 Physico-chemical characteristics of water and other environmental

aspects.
 Taxonomic studies of fish.
 Biology of some important molluscs species and other macro-
invertebrates.
 Interaction studies of macro-invertebrates algae and other organisms.

It is strongly felt that a small field laboratory should be established to

facilitate research.

Global biodiversity significance:

Global biodiversity significance of St. Martin’s Islnd stems from a
number of considerations i.e., biogeographic importance, ecological
importance, socioeconomic Importance, scientific importance,
international and national significance. While there have been
considerable changes on land, the marine environment remains relatively
intact along much of the coastline, especially along the southern part of
the island. The sub-tidal habitat that supports coral resources is in a
relatively undisturbed state throughout a significant part of the sub-tidal
area. Extensive algal and sea grass beds in the coastal waters may be
important as spawning and/or nursery grounds for a number of
economically important fish and shellfish species. The island supports a
variety of habitats and a number of rare moluscs (e.g. Cone Shells). Two
marine mammals from the areas surrounding the island Indo-Pacific
Humpback Dolphin Sousa chinensis, And Black Finless tortoise
Neomeris phocaenoides. These are listed as globally threatened in the
IUCN Red Data Book. The island is also an important nesting ground for
two marine turtle species considered as globally endangered by IUCN,
i.e., Lepidochelys olivacea and Chelonia mydas. It is the only continental
island in Bangladesh with coral communities and associated flora and
fauna, which are found on

True coral reefs throughout the Indo-Pacific. There are only a few
examples worldwide where coral communities dominate rock reefs; St.
Martin’s Island provides a unique set of environmental conditions (biotic
and abiotic) not found anywhere else in Bangladesh and perhaps not in
the world.

Finally, St. Martin’s Island contains unique geological features. The

current controversy over the geology and the origin of unique
geomorphologic features on the island clearly demonstrates the high
scientific value of St. Martin’s Island. Co-occurrence of corals, seagrases
and mangroves in the island represents little known succession sequence
of corals in the tropical areas and is of considerable scientific interest.
The island also contains some of the most unique, but thus far not
studied, benthic communities in Bangladesh, one not found elsewhere in
the South Asian Region.

Conservation and Management:

St.Martin Island has numerous species of corals, algae, molusks and
boulders even with its limited area. Its unique natural beauty attracts
researchers and tourists from al over the world. But the island is under
threat from biodiversity destruction. So, the project has been taken by the
Ministry of Environment and Forest with the following objectives:

 Conserve and enhance the moluscan and coral resources around the
Island in Bangladesh where this important biological resource is
available.
 Conserve the ecologically important moluscan resources and coral
bearing Island of the Country-Narikel Jinjira through measure with
the local peoples participation.

 Conservation of other flora and fauna of the Island.

 Conservation and Development of Marine Turtle Breeding Ground.

 Develop viable eco-tourism in the Island.

 Designate, develop and manage the Island as a marine park in the

subsequent stage.

 Improve the socio-economic status of people of the Island.

 Establish a marine laboratory to facilitate research on moluscs,

coral, flora, fauna and marine ecosystem.

 Establish necessary institutional set-up in place.

 Local peoples training on handicraft production like coconut, shel

craft & Plaster of Paris.

 Community people has been trained to make models of sea animal

with coconut shel/wood/ Plaster of Paris, to encourage people/
tourist to buy model items instead of living coral & shel.

 Construction of motel for eco-tourism.

 Coconut sapling production & distribution to plant in the island.

 Socio-economic survey of the island.

 Training & distribution of energy saving stove for the Island to

prevent deforestation.
Recommendations

1. Coral extraction should be prohibited. This may result in increased

coral size and coral population, particularly in some vital areas.
Apparently some 15-20 people will be affected. It should not be
difficult to generate alternative source of income for them.
2. Fishing within the coral bed area should be prohibited. Fishermen
have to be made aware about the harm they do to the corals and the
ecosystems which are sustaining the island community.
3. The number of operating fishing boats should be restricted to its
present size.
4. The boats should be encouraged to fish further out into the deep
sea. This will reduce pressure on the fish in shallow waters.
5. It should be made obligatory for the fishermen to release the
invertebrates’ cought in tana jal into the sea. The mesh size of the
tana jal may be increased.
6. Awareness among fishermen has to be created about the benefits of
conservation efforts.
7. Erection of embankment should be discouraged and the old ones
should be removed (this aspect is discussed detail later).
8. Collection of turtle eggs has to be banned.
9. If banning does not work, 2-3 turtle hatcheries may be established.
10.Breeding biology of the turtles of St. Martin’s Island should be
investigated.
11.Large trees on the island should be protected.
12.Fruit bearing trees should be planted.
13.The forested area in Dakhinpara and the lagoons should be
protected.
14.Protected areas are established for corals and coral associated
fishes.
15.Marine Park is set up.
16.Ecotourism be developed.
17.Sea turtle breeding centre be established.
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