Section Oil and Gas Exploration

APPLICATION OF BOREHOLE ELECTRICAL IMAGING TO THE STUDY

OF SARMATIAN DEPOSITS FROM NORTH-WESTERN MOLDAVIAN
PLATFORM (ROMANIA)

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Bogdan-Mihai NICULESCU 1

2
Ph.D. candidate Constantin-
Lecturer Dr. Gina ANDREI 1
1
University of Bucharest, Department of Geophysics, Romania
2
University of Bucharest, Doctoral School of Geology, Romania

ABSTRACT
Integrating conventional well log interpretation with high-resolution borehole electrical
image analysis enables a complex understanding of the geological formations
intercepted by exploration wells. Whereas conventional geophysical well logs allow the
determination of the main reservoir parameters and the fluids distribution, borehole
imaging serves as a valuable tool in sedimentary features identification and
interpretation, regional dip determination, structural and tectonic elements
identification, as well as the analysis of borehole failures (such as breakouts and natural
or drilling-induced fractures) related to tectonic stress in a particular area.
In addition to conventional well log interpretation, we have carried out a detailed
analysis of the borehole electrical imaging data for a gas exploration well drilled in
Sarmatian (late Middle Miocene) deltaic deposits from north-western Moldavian
Platform, Romania. 1100 borehole features were picked and interpreted across a 196 m
interval (386 – 582 m depth) covered by the borehole image. The number of picks
provided a satisfactory statistical dataset to carry out a dip analysis, faults and fractures
characterization and present day stress analysis.
The features identified on the borehole image include bedding and soft-sediment
deformations (in shales), cross-bedding (in sands and silty sands), faults, open fractures,
borehole breakouts and unconformable surfaces. A statistical analysis of 775 low-angle
planar features picked in shale intervals and representing bedding revealed two
dominant dip directions towards SSW (200 – 220 degrees dip azimuth, 3.1 degrees dip
angle modal value) and SSE (150 degrees dip azimuth, 7.2 degrees dip angle modal
value), with subordinate preferential dip directions towards ENE or east (60 – 100
degrees azimuth). The dominant directions are consistent with the general structure of
the Moldavian Platform, which dips from NE to SW and, also, towards south or SSE.
Two high-angle faults (55 – 58 degrees formation dip angles) were recognized on the
borehole image and they might have provided pathways for biogenic gas migration from
deeper levels up to shallower Sarmatian sand reservoirs. Borehole breakouts were found
on various intervals and they show a counterclockwise rotation of their azimuth (from
155 to 116 degrees) along with increasing depth, attributable to localized stress field
perturbations resulted from faulting.
Keywords: borehole electrical imaging, breakouts, geophysical well logs, Moldavian
Platform, Sarmatian

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INTRODUCTION
Integrating conventional well log interpretation with high-resolution borehole electrical
image analysis [1, 2] enables a complex understanding of the geological formations
intercepted by exploration wells. Whereas conventional geophysical well logs allow the
determination of the main reservoir parameters and the fluids distribution, borehole
imaging serves as a valuable tool in sedimentary features identification and
interpretation, regional dip determination, structural and tectonic elements
identification, as well as the analysis of borehole failures (such as breakouts and natural
or drilling-induced fractures) related to tectonic stress in a particular area [3] – [5].
The study area is located in the north-western part of the Moldavian Platform [6] – [9],
a unit comprising two hydrocarbon systems, the younger one being biogenic and found
only in Miocene formations, especially the Sarmatian (late Middle Miocene) ones [10] –
[13]. In this area, relatively small gas fields have been discovered at shallow depths (< 1
km) through seismic surveys and exploration wells, especially during the last decades
[14, 15].
A gas exploration well recently drilled in north-western Moldavian Platform, and which
benefited from a complex geophysical investigation program, provided an opportunity
to gain insight into Sarmatian (late Middle Miocene) deltaic deposits, including a
shallow-depth biogenic gas reservoir. In addition to conventional formation evaluation,
we have carried out a detailed interpretation of borehole electrical imaging data,
including dip analysis, sedimentary features identification, faults and fractures
characterization and present day stress assessment.
Taking into account the relatively limited amount of published geophysical information
regarding the study area, the aim of this research is to provide a better understanding of
the Sarmatian deposits which host most of the gas accumulations from the biogenic
Miocene hydrocarbon system.

GEOLOGICAL AND TECTONIC SETTING

The Moldavian Platform (Fig. 1) represents the western margin of the East European
Platform [6, 8] and is the oldest platform unit of the Romanian territory. To the north
and east the Moldavian Platform is formally limited by the state border with Ukraine
and with Moldova (Prut river), to the west by the Eastern Carpathians Foredeep and to
the south by the Bârlad Depression (part of the Scythian Platform). From a tectonic
standpoint, the western limit of the platform is conventionally outlined by the
Pericarpathian fault / Solca fault (along the lineament Straja – Solca – –
– –
Plopana lineament) [6, 7, 9].
The folded metamorphic basement of the Moldavian Platform, of Archaean – Early
Proterozoic age, consists of gneissic rocks and granite-gneissic migmatites, with granitic
intrusions [6, 8]. The sedimentary cover of the platform unconformably overlies the
basement and comprises marine deposits accumulated during three megacycles,
separated by exondation periods. These megacycles are: (1) Late Vendian – Devonian,
(2) Cretaceous – Eocene and (3) Late Badenian – Meotian. The cumulative thickness of
the sedimentary cover, ranging from hundreds of meters up to about 6 km, increases
from east to west and from north to south [7, 9].

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Figure 1. (a) Location of the Moldavian Platform (MP) and of the analyzed gas
exploration well; (b) Tectonic map of the Moldavian Platform showing the main fault
systems. BF – ; VF – Vaslui Fault; PF – Prut Fault, SF – Siret Fault, SoF
– Solca Fault (adapted from [14] and [15]).

The final sedimentary megacycle, lasting about 7 Ma, is important from the perspective
of hydrocarbons accumulations, including biogenic dry gas. The Late Badenian marine
deposits cover the entire platform and start with a detritic "Infra-anhydrite" formation
(conglomerates, sands and sandstones with intercalations of marls), followed by an
evaporite formation (anhydrite and gypsum, with intercalations of shales, marls and
tuffs) and, finally, by shales, marls and limestones [7, 9].
The Sarmatian (late Middle Miocene) outcrops all over the Moldavian Platform area.
Unlike the Badenian, it consists of deposits accumulated in brackish water conditions,
marking the transition towards the freshwater regime of the Meotian (Late Miocene).

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The Sarmatian deposits are divided into four substages (Buglovian, Volhynian,
Bessarabian, Khersonian) that successively outcrop from north to south, in the direction
of a marine regression [7] – [9]. Lithologically, the Sarmatian deposits consist mainly of
shales, marls, silts, sands and, subordinately, sandstones, calcareous sandstones, oolitic
limestones and biosparitic limestones. The dominantly pelitic-arenaceous sediments
frequently show lateral facies variations. During the Volhynian, Bessarabian and
Khersonian substages, the sedimentation took place in different facies conditions in the
western part of the platform with respect to the eastern one. To the west, the deposits are
predominantly arenitic, with sands and intercalations of sandstones and limestones.
Towards the contact with the Eastern Carpathians Orogen, ruditic and arenitic fluvial-
deltaic deposits occur, corresponding to paleodeltas and suggesting the existence of
important paleorivers with sources in the Carpathian flysch area [7, 9]. Seismic surveys
performed in the western part of Moldavian Platform have delineated many prograding
deltaic systems, younger and younger from NW to SE. The sand bodies accumulated
during the deltaic construction, particularly when they overlap and alternate with pelitic
sequences, offer the most favorable conditions for hydrocarbon (in particular, biogenic
gas) accumulations [12]. The Sarmatian from the eastern part of the platform is
dominated by pelitic deposits, consisting of shales and silts with intercalations of sands,
sandstones and limestones [7, 9].
The litostratigraphic column of the platform closes up with a Meotian clayey-sandy
sequence which largely develops southwards.
The Moldavian Platform has a monoclinal structure which dips from NE to SW towards
the Eastern Carpathians Foredeep and, also, towards south, along faults (Fig. 2). The
seismic surveys have identified a number of faults with two main orientations: (1)
NNW–SSE or N–S and (2) NE–SW or E–W. The NE–SW / E–W faults are younger,
displacing the blocks formed by the other faults [6, 7, 9, 13].
Two hydrocarbon systems are recognized in the Moldavian Platform: a thermogenic
system of Paleozoic age, with oil and condensate fields (e.g. Cuejdiu, Frasin – Gura
and a biogenic system of Miocene age [10, 13]. The Miocene
biogenic system comprises significant natural gas fields (e.g. Roman – Secuieni, Valea
including dry gas with more than 98% methane,
reservoired especially in Sarmatian sands/sandstones or siltstones, where suitable
conditions for accumulation and sealing are encountered. The Badenian and Sarmatian
shales/claystones may be considered as both source and seal rocks for this system [10,
13]; their vitrinite reflectance values show that they are immature and generated only
biogenic gas [11]. These gas accumulations are hosted in combination traps, with a
marked lithological character due to frequent vertical and lateral facies variations. With
the exception of Roman – Secuieni field, the most important gas accumulation of the
Moldavian Platform, with a discontinuous development but with a large areal extension,
the other accumulations, including ones discovered recently, are of lesser size. Likely,
several more, relatively small traps of these play remain unexplored, but they will be
identified by means of seismic surveys.

METHODOLOGY
The analyzed gas exploration well was drilled near the northern edge of the study area
and reached a total depth of 596 m, intercepting exclusively Sarmatian deposits of
deltaic origin (shales/claystones and a series of unconsolidated to moderately cemented,

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medium to very fine or siltic sandstones and friable argillaceous sandstones). A KCl-
polymer mud was used for the final, 8.5 inch diameter, section of the well (302 – 596 m
measured depth - MD), with mud density m = 1.15 g/cm3, mud resistivity m = 0.111
m @ 25 °C, mud filtrate resistivity mf
mc

The wireline investigation program carried out in the final section of the well included
conventional correlation and formations delineation logs, resistivity logs (Laterolog and
Microlaterolog tools), nuclear and sonic porosity-lithology logs, and borehole electrical
imaging.

Figure 2. Example of conventional well logs recorded in the Sarmatian deposits

intercepted by the analyzed exploration well (tracks 3 to 6) and the main results of
quantitative log interpretation (tracks 7 to 9).

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An example of conventional geophysical logs are shown in Fig. 2 - tracks 1 – 6, on the

limited interval 400 – 500 m MD, where the main gas-bearing reservoirs are located:
CGXT (°C) – borehole temperature, GRGC (API) – natural gamma-ray, SPCG –
spontaneous potential, MATC (in) – caliper, BS (in) – bit size, MRRS ( ) –
Microlaterolog resistivity, DSLL ( ) – Laterolog shallow resistivity, DDLL ( )–
Laterolog deep resistivity, NPRL (fractional) – limestone neutron porosity, DEN
(g/cm3) – formation bulk density, PDPE (barn/electron) – photoelectric absorbtion
factor, DT35 (µs/ft) – sonic interval transit time. TVDSS in Fig. 2 track 2 is the true
vertical depth sub-sea, referenced to mean sea level.
The interpretation of conventional wireline logs was performed with the probabilistic
Mineral Solver module integrated in LR Senergy's Interactive Petrophysics™ log
analysis software. By using the theoretical response of a certain petrophysical model,
reconstructed (synthetic) logs are compared to the original input logs, the fitting errors
guiding an iterative adjustment of the model with respect to its solid (matrix minerals
and shale/clay) and fluid (formation water and hydrocarbons) volume fractions.
The model used in the Mineral Solver module was sandstone (quartz) matrix + clay +
water + gas, with the following interpretation parameters: GRma (GR radioactivity of
mineral matrix) = 55 API, ma (density of mineral matrix) = 2.65 g/cm3, ma (sonic
transit time of mineral matrix) = 56 µs/ft, GRclay (GR radioactivity of clay) = 125 API,
3
clay (density of clay) = 2.46 g/cm , Nclay (neutron porosity of clay) = 0.36, clay (sonic
3
transit time of clay) = 110 µs/ft, w (density of water) = 1 g/cm , Nw (neutron porosity
of water) = 1, w (sonic transit time of water) = 189 µs/ft, g (density of gas) = 0.04
g/cm3, Ng (neutron porosity of gas) automatically computed as a function of g, g
(sonic transit time of gas) = 640 µs/ft. The clay clay resistivity as seen by the deep
Laterolog and by the Microlaterolog tools was statistically determined and set to 5.5
and 3.4 , respectively. The formation water resistivity used for the quantitative
interpretation of conventional logs was w = 0.227 at formation temperature (25.8
Kppm equivalent NaCl salinity), being obtained from a resistivity-porosity crossplot.
Water saturations in the uninvaded and flushed zones of the reservoirs (SW and SXO,
respectively) were computed with the "Indonesia" [16] equation (parameters: tortuosity
factor a = 1, cementation exponent m = 1.7, saturation exponent n = 2) and the Raymer-
Hunt-Gardner equation [17] was used as sonic transit time – porosity transform.
The borehole electrical imaging (Fig. 3) was performed with a Weatherford Compact
MicroImager™ (CMI) tool, across a 196 m interval (386 – 582 m MD). Wireline
imaging tools such as the CMI produce a high-resolution borehole conductivity image,
which may cover the entire hole circumference due to a total of 176 button electrodes
equally distributed over eight pads. This enables a better reservoirs characterization and
reduces the need for costly core data. The primary applications of the tool are definition
of bedding plane dips, identification of faults, fractures (natural or induced), borehole
breakouts, unconformities, disconformities and nonconformities, and stratigraphic-
sedimentologic interpretations [1, 2].
The raw electrical imaging data consist of a series of microconductivity curves, which
were processed to create conductivity images, after applying corrections such as filling
data gaps, speed correction using the z-axis accelerometer data, and depth alignment of
the pads and buttons.

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Figure 3. Electrical imaging data (CMI - Compact MicroImager) recorded in the

Sarmatian deposits intercepted by the analyzed exploration well (tracks 3 to 7) and
the main results of data processing and interpretation (tracks 8 to 11).

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The processing and interpretation of CMI microconductivity data was carried out with
the Image Analysis module of Interactive Petrophysics™ software. Both static and
dynamic image normalizations were applied, mapping to a color spectrum either the full
range of recorded electrical data or the partial data range from a sliding depth window,
respectively. The dynamically-normalized image has a maximized local contrast and
allows a detailed visualization of the electrical features with sedimentary or tectonic
significance intercepted by the borehole, being preferred for the dip picking
(determination of dip angles and dip azimuths). The CMI data in Fig. 3 - tracks 3 – 7
are: GR (API) – natural gamma-ray, BS (in) – bit size, CALX (in) and CALY (in) –
oriented four-arm caliper providing two independent and perpendicular borehole
diameters, DEVI (°) – borehole inclination, AZIM (°) – borehole azimuth, P1AZ (°) –
azimuth of the CMI tool's reference pad 1. The GRlim is a gamma-ray cut-off value (97
API), separating sandstones from shales. Track 8 shows the 360° coverage electrical
image obtained with static normalization, oriented with respect to true North – left and
right sides. This image is useful for visualizing the overall conductivity variations on the
entire investigated interval (dark tones – high conductivity/low resistivity, light tones –
low conductivity/high resistivity). Track 9 ("Tadpoles") presents the dip angles and dip
azimuths of the contrasting planar or non-planar features, with sedimentary or tectonic
significance, picked on the electrical images. Track 10 shows a representation of the
picked dip azimuths as frequency polar plots and track 11 shows a stick plot
representation of the picked dip planes intersection with a 0° azimuth vertical plane.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Within the Sarmatian deposits intercepted on the 302 – 596 m MD interval, the GR
curve in Fig. 2 - track 3 delineates reservoirs ranging in thickness from 4.7 to 10.4 m,
with additional thin porous-permeable beds of 1.0 – 1.2 m thickness. The GR signature
of these reservoirs suggests distributary channel or distributary mouth bar sandstone-
siltstone bodies. The log interpretation results from track 7 (water saturations in the
uninvaded and flushed zones of the reservoirs), track 8 (water, movable and residual
hydrocarbon volume fractions) and track 9 (lithological volume fractions, assuming a
sandstone + clay + effective porosity model) show a main gas-bearing reservoir (457.1 –
463.7 m MD) with cylindrical to slightly fining-upward GR signature and with a
maximum effective porosity eff = 28%. Additional minor reservoir intervals, possibly
with low gas saturations, are 424.5 – 429.2 m, 436.0 – 437.2 m and 467.7 – 468.7 m
MD. For the main reservoir, the DDLL deep resistivity curve reads fairly high values
(26 ), leading to a computed minimum water saturation SW = 28% (72% gas
saturation). A 3.7 m thickness interval at reservoir's top is at irreducible saturation, the
computed bulk volume of water (BVW) reaching a minimum and relatively constant
irreducible value BVWirr = 8%; this corresponds to a siltic grain size (< 0.062 mm) and
indicates a low-energy depositional environment, consistent with a deltaic setting. A
well test performed for this reservoir confirmed the log interpretation results, an initial
gas flow rate of 76500 m3/day at 30 bar wellhead pressure being obtained.
A total of 1100 borehole features (planar or non-planar electrical contrasts) were picked
and interpreted along the interval covered by the CMI borehole image (Fig. 3 and Fig.
4). The number of picks provided a satisfactory statistical dataset to carry out a dip
analysis, faults and fractures characterization and present day stress analysis.

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The features identified on the CMI borehole images, especially on the dynamically-
normalized one, included bedding and soft-sediment deformations (in shales), cross-
bedding (in sands and silty sands), faults, open fractures, borehole breakouts and
unconformable surfaces. They were assigned to 6 classes: "Bedding" (low-a
10°, dips in shale intervals), "Unclassified" (high-angle, i.e. > 10°, dips in shale
intervals, of sedimentary or tectonic nature), "Open fracture", "Planar bedding" (planar
dips of variable angle in sandstone-siltstone intervals), "Breakout" and "Unconformity".
A statistical analysis of 775 low-angle planar features picked in shale intervals and
representing bedding revealed two dominant dip directions towards SSW (200° – 220°
dip azimuth, 3.1° dip angle modal value) and SSE (150° dip azimuth, 7.2° dip angle
modal value), with subordinate preferential dip directions towards ENE or east (60° –
100° azimuth). These directions, interpreted as regional/structural trends, are consistent
with the general structure of the Moldavian Platform, which dips from NE to SW
(towards the Eastern Carpathians) and, also, towards south or SSE.
The 196 higher-angle (> 10°) planar features picked in shale intervals show a dominant
dip trend towards SE (125° – 155° dip azimuth) for the 11° to 15° dip angle features and
two perpendicular and opposite trends towards NE (25° – 65° dip azimuth) and SW
(195° – 225° dip azimuth) for the features with dip angles in the 20° to 58° range.

Figure 4. Stereonet plot (upper hemisphere) showing the dip angles and dip azimuths
of the features picked on the borehole electrical image. The dip azimuths frequency is
computed using 10° bins. The circles represent dip angle increments of 10°.

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Figure 5. Detail of the dynamically-normalized electrical image corresponding to the

interval 480 – 495 m MD, showing a fault zone and breakouts (marked with
rectangles). The sine-wave traces are dip picks fitted to planar features crossing the
borehole.

The two opposite trends of the higher-angle features picked in shale intervals may be
interpreted as drag (bending of the layers at the proximity of faults) induced by faults
with approximately NW – SE orientation. This agrees with one of the main orientations
of fault systems in the study area (Fig. 1). Such faults can be observed on the borehole
image at 480 – 495 m and 530 – 540 m depth (Fig. 3 and Fig. 5), being marked by high
dip angles (up to 55° – 58°) and significant borehole ovalization seen on the oriented
four-arm caliper logs (CALX > BS, CALY < BS). Such faults might have provided
pathways for the biogenic gas migration from deeper levels up to shallow-depth
Sarmatian reservoirs.

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Borehole breakouts were found on the intervals 484 – 489 m, 527 – 534 m and 535 –
537 m MD, as parallel conductive "traces" (wellbore spalling zones filled by conductive
drilling mud) separated by 180° (Fig. 5). Such breakouts, associated with borehole
ellipticity, occur when the tangential tectonic stress exceeds the shear stress limit of the
rocks, the minimum borehole diameter in these zones indicating the direction of the
present-day maximum horizontal stress, whereas the maximum borehole diameter
corresponds to the direction of the minimum horizontal stress. The identified breakouts
show a counterclockwise rotation of their azimuth from 155° to 116° (SSE to ESE)
along with increasing depth, attributable to localized stress field perturbations resulted
from nearby faulting. The average direction of the breakouts, 135° / 315°, would
indicate an approximately NE – SW direction of the present-day maximum horizontal
stress, quasi-normal to the nappes system of the Eastern Carpathians Orogen.

CONCLUSIONS
In the analyzed exploration well from northern Moldavian Platform, several potential
gas-bearing reservoirs were identified through wireline logging in shallow-depth
Sarmatian (late Middle Miocene) deposits of deltaic origin. The main sandstone-
siltstone reservoir is located in the 457.1 – 463.7 m MD depth interval, the log
interpretation being confirmed by a flow test.
The processing of Compact MicroImager™ (CMI) borehole imaging data across a 196
m interval (386 – 582 m MD) revealed two distinct dip azimuth trends for the low-angle
planar features associated with shale bedding: SSW and SSE. These dominant trends are
consistent with the regional/structural dip of the formations in the study area. The high-
angle dips towards NE and SW of the planar features identified in shale sections are
interpreted as manifestations of drag along two faults with approximately NW – SE
orientation. Such faults might have facilitated the biogenic gas vertical migration from
deeper levels up to the shallower Sarmatian reservoirs, where the gas accumulated.
By analyzing the borehole breakout zones observed on the electrical image, an
approximately NE – SW direction was determined for the present-day maximum
horizontal stress, which is approximately normal to the Eastern Carpathians Orogen
nappes system.
The presented case study illustrates the usefulness of combining conventional
geophysical logging data with data provided by modern borehole imaging tools.
Conventional well logs were used for the petrophysical characterization of the
Sarmatian deposits, whereas the electrical imaging data provided information related to
the sedimentary environment and tectonic-structural framework.

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