GE 100: General

Surveying I

INTRODUCTION TO
SURVEYING

Lecture No. 2
Caraga State University
College of Engineering and Information Technology
 SURVEYING
It is the art and science of determining
angular and linear measurements to
establish the form, extent, and relative
position of points, lines, and areas on or
near the surface of the earth or on other
extraterrestrial bodies through applied
mathematics and the use of specialized
equipment and techniques.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 CLASSIFICATION OF
SURVEYS
1. Plane Surveying
 It is a type of surveying in which the earth
is considered to be a flat surface, and
where distances and areas involved are of
limited extent that the exact shape of the
earth is disregarded.
2. Geodetic Surveying
 They are surveys of wide extent which take
into account the spheroidal shape of the
earth.
GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 TYPES OF SURVEYS
1. Cadastral Survey
 They are usually closed surveys which are
undertaken in urban and rural locations for the
purpose of determining and defining property
lines and boundaries, corners, and areas.
2. City Surveys
 They are surveys of the areas in and near a
city for the purpose of planning expansions or
improvements, locating property lines, fixing
reference monuments, determining the
physical features and configuration of land
and preparing maps.
GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
3. Construction Surveys
 They are surveys which are undertaken at a
construction site to provide data regarding grades,
reference lines, dimensions, ground configuration,
and the location and elevation of structures which are
of concern to engineers, architects, and builders.
4. Forestry Surveys
 This type of survey executed in connection with forest
management and mensuration, and the production
and conservation of forest land.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
5. Hydrographic Surveys
It refers to surveying streams, lakes, reservoirs,
harbors, oceans, and other bodies of water.
6. Industrial Surveys
It is sometimes known as optical tooling.
It refers to the use of surveying techniques in ship
building, construction and assembly or aircrafts,
lay out and installation of heavy and complex
machinery, and other industries where very
accurate dimensional layouts are required.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
7. Mines Surveys
They are surveys which are performed to
determine the position of all underground
excavations and surface mine structures, to fix
surface boundaries of mining claims, determine
geological formations, to calculate excavated
volumes, and establish lines and grades for
other related mining work.
8. Photogrammetric Surveys
It is a type of surveys which makes use of
photographs taken with specially designed
cameras either from airplanes or ground stations.
GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
9. Route Surveys
It involves the determination of alignment,
grade, earthwork quantities, location of natural
and artificial objects in connection with the
planning, design, and construction of highways,
railroads, pipelines, canals, transmission lines,
and other linear projects.
10. Topographic Surveys
They are surveys made for determining the shape
of the ground, and the location and elevation of
natural and artificial features.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Development of Surveying
Instruments
1. Astrolabe 8. Libella
2. Telescope 9. Vernier
3. Transit 10. Diopter
4. Semicircumferentor 11. Compass
5. Plane Table 12. Gunter’s Chain
6. Dioptra 13. Chorobates
7. Roman Groma 14. Merchet

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Surveying Measurements
Measurement
 It is the process of determining the extent, size or
dimensions of a particular quantity in comparison to a
given standard.
 It was concentrated on angles, elevations, times,
lines, areas, and volumes.

Note:
– Measurements are never exact and they will always imperfect no
matter how carefully made.
– The physical measurements acquired are correct only within
certain limits because errors cannot be totally eliminated.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Types of Measurements
1. Direct Measurement
 It is a comparison of measured quantity
with a standard measuring unit or units
employed for measuring a quantity of that
kind.
2. Indirect Measurement
 The observed value is determined by the
relationship to some other known values.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 The Meter
 The international unit of linear measure
 It was defined as 1/10,000,000 of the earth’s
meridional quadrant.
The International System of Units ( SI )
 It was promulgated by the International Bureau
of Weights and Measures in 1960.
Units in SI of major concern to Surveying
1.Meter (m) – linear measure
2.Square Meter (m2) – areas
3.Cubic Meter (m3) – volume
4.Radian (rad) – plane angles
GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Units of Measurement
Prefixes
Giga - 1x109
Mega - 1x106 - 1 000 000
Kilo - 1x103 - 1 000
Hecto - 1x102 - 100
Deca - 1x101 - 10
Deci - 1x10-1 - 0.1
Centi - 1x10-2 - 0.01
Milli - 1x10-3 - 0.001
Micro - 1x10-6 - 0.000 001
Nano - 1x10-9 - 0.000 000 001

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
1. Linear, Area, and Volume Measurements
Linear units:
1 kilometer (km) = 1 000 meters
1 meter (m) = 1 000 millimeters
1 millimeter (mm) = 1 000 micrometers
1 micrometer (um) = 1 000 millimicrometers
1 millimicrometer (mu) = 1000 million micrometers
1 meter (m) = 10 decimeters
1 decimeter (dm) = 10 centimeters
1 centimeter (cm) = 1 0 millimeters
The common units for length are:
1. kilometer
2. meter
3. centimeter
4. millimeter
Length may also refer to other linear dimensions such as width, depth, thickness,
height, or distance.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
2. Angular Measurements
 Radian
 The SI unit for plane angles.
 It is defined as an angle subtended by an arc of a circle having
a length equal to the radius of the circle.
2ᴫ rad = 36 deg, 1 rad = 57 deg 17 min 44.8 sec or 57.2958 deg
0.01745 rad = 1 deg

 Steradian
 It is the supplementary unit of a solid angle.
a. Sexagesimal Units (degree,minute, and second )
b. Centisimal Units ( grad )

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Significant Figures
It is the number of significant
figures in any value includes the
number of certain digits plus one
digit that is estimated, and
therefore, questionable or
uncertian.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Some general rules regarding
Significant Figures

Rule 1: Zeroes between other significant

figures are significant.
Rule 2: For values less than one, zeroes
immediately to the right of the
decimal are not significant.
Rule 3: Zeroes placed at the end of
decimal numbers are significant.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Rounding off Numbers
 It is the process of dropping one or more of the final
digit so that the values contains only the significant
figure required.

Procedure of Rounding Off Numbers

1. Digit is less than 5. When the digit to be dropped is less
than 5, the number is written without the digit.
2. Digit is equal to 5. When the digit to be dropped is
exactly 5, the nearest even number is used for preceding
digit.
3. Digit is greater than 5. When the digit to be dropped is
greater than 5, the number is written with the preceding
digit increased by one.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Errors and Mistakes
Errors
It is defined as the difference between the true
value and the measured value of a quantity.

Mistakes
They are inaccuracies in measurements which
occur because some aspect of a surveying
operation is performed by the surveyor with
carelessness, inattention, poor judgment, and
improper execution.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Types of Errors
1. Systematic Errors
 It is one which will always have the same sign and
magnitude as long as field conditions remain
constant and unchanged.
2. Accidental Errors
 They are caused by factors beyond the control of
the surveyor and are present in all surveying
measurements.
 The occurrence of such errors are matter of chance
as they are likely to be positive or negative.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Sources of Errors
1. Instrumental Errors
 These errors are due to imperfections in the
instruments used either from faults in their
construction or from improper adjustments between
the different parts prior to their use.
2. Natural Errors
 These errors are caused by variations in the
phenomena of nature such as changes in magnetic
declination, temperature, humidity, wind, refraction,
gravity, and curvature of the earth.
 They are beyond the control of man.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
3. Personal Errors
 These errors arise principally from
limitations of the senses of sight, touch, and
hearing of the human observer which are
likely to be erroneous or inaccurate.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy
 It indicates how close a given
measurement is to the absolute or true
value of the quantity measured.
It implies the closeness between related
measurements and their expectations.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Accuracy and Precision
Precision
It refers to the degree of refinement and
consistency with which any physical
measurement is made.
It is portrayed by the closeness to one
another of a set of repeated measurements
of a quantity.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
• Good Precision but • Good Accuracy but
Poor Accuracy Poor Precision

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
• Good Precision and • Poor Accuracy and
Good Accuracy Poor Precision

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
• Good Precision and • Poor Accuracy and
Good Accuracy Poor Precision

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Theory of Probability
Probability
 it is defined as the number of times something will
probably occur over the range of possible
occurences.
Most Probable Value (MPV)
 it is the arithmetic mean or the average.
it refers to a quantity which based on available
data has more chances of being correct than
has any other.
MPV X  X /n(X 1X 2  X 3.. Xn)/ n
GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Sample Problem 1
• A surveying instructor sent out six groups
of students to measure a distance
between two points marked on the ground.
The students came up with the following
six different values: 250.25, 250.15,
249.90, 251.04, 250.50, and 251.22
meters. Assuming these values are
equally reliable and that variations result
from accidental errors, determine the most
probable value of the distance measured.
 Sample Problem 2
• The angles at point Q have the following
observed values. 1300 15’ 20”, 1420 37’
30”, and 870 07’ 40”. Determine the most
probable value of each angle.
 Quiz (10 pts each)
1. The observed interior
angles of a triangle are A=
350 14’ 37”, B= 960 30’ 09”,
and C= 480 15’ 05”.
Determine the discrepancy
for the given observation
and the most probable
value of each angle.
2. Measurement of three horizontal
angles about point P are: APB=
120 31’ 50”, BPC= 370 29’ 20”,
and CPD= 470 36’ 30”. If the
measurement of the single angle
APD is 970 37’ 00”, determine
the most probable values of the
angles.
D C
P
 Residual
 It is sometimes referred to as the deviation and
defined as the difference between any measured
value of a quantity and its most probable value.

vx x
where:
v is the residual in any measurement.
X is the measurement made of a particular quantity.
is the most probable value of the quantity
x measured.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Probable Error
 It is a quantity which, when added to and
subtracted from the most probable value,
defines a range within which there is a 50
percent chance that the true value of the
measured quantity lies inside ( or outside )
the limits thus set.

PEs   0.6745
v 2

n 1
GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Probable Error
PEs   0.6745
v 2

n 1

PEm   0.6745
v 2

where: n(n  1)
PEs is the probable error of any single
measurement of a series.
PEm is the probable error of the mean.
 v 2 summation of the squares of the residual
n is the number of observation.
GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Relative Precision
 It is expressed by a fraction having the magnitude of the
error in the numerator and the magnitude of a measured
quantity in the denominator.

PE
RP 
MPV
where:
RP is the relative precision.
PE is the probable error.
MPV is the most probable value.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Sample Problem
The following values were determined in a series
of tape measurements of a line : 1000.58,
1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40, and 1000.46
meters. Determine the following:
a. most probable value of the measured length.
b. probable error of a single measurement and
probable error of the mean.
c. final expression for the most probable length.
d. relative precision of the measurement.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Weighted Observation

1. The weight is directly proportional to the

number of observation.

W  kn W1  kn1 W2  kn2
W W1 W2
k  
n n1 n2

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Weighted Observation
2. The weight is inversely proportional to the
square of the error.

k k k
W  2 W1  2 W2  2
E E1 E2
k  WE  W1 E1  W2 E2
2 2 2

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Interrelationship of Errors
1. Summation of Errors

PEs    PE1  PE2  PE3  ...  PEn

2 2 2 2

where:
PEs is the probable error of the sum.
PE1, PE2, etc are the probable error of each
measurement.
n is the number of values added.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
2. Product of Errors

PEp   ( Q1  PE2 )  ( Q2  PE1 )

2 2

where:
PEp is the probable error of the product.
Q1 and Q2 are measured quantities.
PE1 and PE2 are the probable error corresponding
to each quantity measured.
GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
EXAMPLE PROBLEM

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Example (Weighted):
Four measurements of a distance
were recorded as 284.18, 284.19,
284.22, and 284.20 meters and given
weights of 1, 3, 2, and 4 respectively.
Determine the weighted mean.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying
 Example # 3:
Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a
point are run over four different routes. The
observed elevations of the point with probable
errors are given below. Determine the most
probable value of the elevation of the point.
Line Observed Elevation Probable
Error
1 219.832 m. ±0.006 m.
2 219.930 m. ±0.012 m.
3 219.701 m. ±0.018 m.
4 220.021 m. ± 0.024 m.

GE 100 Introduction to
Elementary Surveying Surveying