A ^, ^^^

2|1
,4 ,
24,0 U- K i ovar cWSeries
. r .
Capacitor .
in a be used merely for impedance matching
purposes, to control the division of current
through parallel circuits. In such cases it
230-K v Transmission Line may be possible
containing
to de-energize thewhen
the series
circuita
capacitor
fault occurs on that portion of the cir-
R. E. MARBURY F. D.MEMBER
JOHNSON cuit. In such applications a protective
FELLOW AIEE AIEE gap may be used to protect the capacitor
and this gap will recover its insulation
during the period while the line is de-
Synopsis: The necessity for long distance capacitor has been used in a high-voltage energized. However, tests have shown
transmission of electric power has grown transmission line in the United States. that in the case of relatively large series
rapidly during recent years. Line reactance The purpose of this paper is to describe
becomes a problem of increasing importance this equipment and its method of operation. capactors the period of de-energization
when transmission distances continue to required for satisfactory de-ionization of
increase. Long lines cannot be loaded gaps is longer than can be tolerated in
sufficiently for maximum over-all economy HE USE of series capacitors for line most cases. Also, if the gap restrikes
because of limitations imposed by transient .U reactance
stablit an iremen.The kion compensation has been when the line is re-energized it becomes
most important alternative to reduction in recognized for many years as a means of necessary to extinguish the arc by the
equivalent line impedance by further in- improving regulation and eliminating closing of a by-pass switch, thus removing
crease in transmission voltage, is the use of voltage dips caused by sudden changes in the series capacitor from service during a
line reactance compensation. Such com- load. Such an installation on a 66-kv line period when it may be badly needed. In
pensation can best be obtained through
the use of capacitors operating in series was described in a paper by Johnson, view of these facts there has been a need
with the line conductors. To permit the use Marbury and Arthur.' Many other and for a more satisfactory device, not only
of series capacitors rated on the basis of smaller series capacitors have been in- for the application where stability is in-
normal load conditions, it is necessary to stalled for this same purpose during the volved but even for those where it is pos-
protect them lat1yer
during line fault last
cotios.. T effectively
e mximu use 15 years. In these applications sta- ofa sible to de-energize the line for a brief
reactance compensation with capacitors it is bility was not a problem and it was not period following each fault.
necessary to by-pass and protect them only necessary therefore to reinsert the series The protective device should not only
during line fault condition and reinsert capacitor instantly following the clearing protect the series capacitor while the line
them with minimum delay after the line of a line fault. Failure to do so merely current is excessive but should restore it
fault is cleared. Lack of means for accom-
plishing the latter has prevented the use of introduces a short period of operation to service at the instant the fault is re-
capacitors for line reactance compensation where voltage dips and lamp flicker are moved. In the case where the line is de-
where the primary objective is increasing present but can be tolerated. This fact energized, the protective device should
power transmission. While protective de- permitted the use of a by-pass switch to not function when the line is re-energized,
qucsatefueewit seriesoe whcapacors
vices have been developed which are ade-
when transfer the current from the gap circuit even though the line is de-energized for
used toimprove voltagerregulation,
theyare to a switch circuit, such that the opening only a few cycles. Such a protective
by far too slow in operation to meet the of the switch restores the series capacitor device permits the use of capacitor units
requirements when series capacitors are to service. In applications where the having a voltage rating based on the
used to increase power transmission. A series capacitor is used to increase the maximum continuous load current, and
protective means has now been developed...
wh.ic meets r eents these a power that can be transmitted, the time and also permits of a relatively close pro-
24,000-kilovar series capacitor has been required for these operations is far too tection level. This close protection
installed by the Bonneville Power Adminis- great to permit of effective use because the level may be used since the operation
tration in a 230-kv line at their Chehalis system usually becomes unstable unless of the protective device does not create
susain for
substation, fo the purpose offcmest
compensat- the
ing line reactance and increasing the power th.ups
*119series capacitor
* *iais restored promptly risks as to system stability. Oper-
limits of this line. This is the first installa- after the isolation of the fault on the line. ation of the protective device takes place
tion of this type, and the first time a series In some cases the series capacitor may only during the actual periods of excessive
Paper 51-304, recommended by the AIEE Trans- XC:25.l X0-25.I
mission and Distribution Committee and approved LI NE I _ LINE
by the AIEE Technical Program Committee for {F 1<
presentation at the AIEE Pacific General Meeting,
Portland, Oreg., August 20-23, 1951. Manuscript
submitted May i7, i951; made available for print-
ing July 9, i95i. Figure 1. Simplikied
R. E. MARBURY and F. D. JOHNSON are with schemai GAgamWP GAP
Westinghouse Electric Corporation, East Pitts- mai dagm
burgh, Pa. of series capacitors R.I.251A R-1.25.fL.

1951, VOLUME 70 MUarbury, Johnson-A 24,000-Kilovoar Series Capacitor 1621

Authorized licensd use limted to: IE Xplore. Downlade on May 13,20 at 1:4237 UTC from IE Xplore. Restricon aply.
L"Xa _
L | {
LINE Figure 2. Schematic
diagram showing air
AC.T.I
CT_ CT xment
C.Tblast gap arrange-
RES. RES.
ELECTRICALLY
OPERATED AIR
VALVES
LAST
RESERVOIR
currents. It is expected that since these the factors which influence a decision as
requirements have now been met the to the amount of line reactance to be com-
series capacitor will become a practical pensated by the series capacitor in a par-
means of increasing the power capacity ticular case.
of existing transmission lines, and permit
the use of longer lines. MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS LINE CURRENT
The line current is determined by line
Rating of Series Capacitors requirements and is the maximum con-
tinuous current expected to be present in
Five basic factors go to determine the the circuit in which the capacitor is in-
rating of a series capacitor as follows: stalled. The above line current when
multiplied by the reactance gives the
1. Reactance. rated voltage. The product of the current
2. Maximum continuous line current..
3. Maximum momentary line current. squared and reactance gives rated kilovar
4. Maximum fault current and duration. per phase. The number of capacitor
5. Line voltage. units required per phase may be deter-
mined by simply dividing this kilovar by
REACTANCE the rated kilovar of the standard capacitor
The reactance of each phase of a series units to be used. If the voltage obtained
capacitor is determined by the line re- from the load current and capacitor ohms
actance and the degree of compensation is close to a standard shunt capacitor unit
necessary to meet the objectives. It is rating such as 4,160, 7,200 or 7,960, then
not the purpose of this paper to discuss the standard shunt capacitor units may be
Figure 3. Schematic diagram showing by-pass switch arrangement
LINE 4 LINE
\
Figure
1 4. Schematic diagram showing
used. If this voltage is a multiple of
standard ratings, the standard units may
also be used by means of series groups.
For example each phase of a series capac-
itor may be made up of two groups of
7,960-volt standard capacitor units. Units
with standard kilovar ratings and special
voltage ratings are sometimes required
where the use of standard voltage units
involves too much sacrifice due to the
fact that the working voltage is too far
below their rated voltage.
MAXIMUM MOMENTARY LINE CURRENT
This is the maximum expected line
current associated with load fluctuations
such as motor starting. This value
should not exceed 150 per cent of the
maximum continuous working current and
no operation of the gaps should occur
under these conditions.
MAXIMUM FAULT CURRENT AND
DURATION
The expected fault current magnitude
and duration affect the design of the by-
pass gap, and particularly the current
limiting resistor which is used in con-
junction with the by-pass gap.
First Transmission Line Installation
The first installation of a series capac-
itor in a transmission line for the pur-
pose of increasing the transmission of
power was energized February 23, 1951.
This capacitor is located on the Bonne-
ville Power System at the Chehalis sub-
station, and is installed in a 230-kv line
means of detecting individual
fuse operation

AIR AIR
VALVEL - FE-
T VALVE

BLAST
RESERVOIR

REI RES.2,C,O 4= 3CPCTO NT

POSITION (I) _L_INE PRL11 EL
SWITCH

Authorized licensd use limted to: IE Xplore. Downlade on May 13,20 at 1:4237 UTC from IE Xplore. Restricon aply.
 Figure 5 (left).
One phase of
Chehalis series
capacitor during
installation,
showing the two
housed groups,
insulated from
ground

Figure 6 (right).
Chehalis series
capacitor installa-
tion showing cir-
cuit connections

leading to the Longview Substation. The render the arc unstable so that it clears switch is a 15-kv indoor single-pole
rating of the initial installation was as at each current zero. Thus the gap re- switch, arranged to remain closed by
follows: strikes on each half cycle, and is extin- spring pressure, and to be opened by air
guished at each current zero so long as the pressure. The normal supply of air in the
1. Reactance 51 ohms, line current exceeds 250 per cent of air blast reservoir keeps the switch nor-
2. Continuous working currenit 312 ani- normal. As soon as the system short is mally in the open position. The switch is
peres. removed (by high speed relays and circuit caused to close by shutting off the air
3. Momentary working current 468 aui- breakers), and the line current is again from the switch operating cylinder and
peres. near normal the gap will cease to break dumping the air from this cylinder. The
4. Fault current 3,200 amperes; duration down and the resistor will no longer be previously mentioned operation of the
15-cycle maximum. connected in parallel with the capacitor. inverse time relay performs this function.
5. Line voltage 230 kv. The flow of air through the gap chamber Voltmeters are also provided to permit
The housings provide additional space is initiated by gap current. Termination reading the voltage across the series
for adding capacitor units to bring the of gap current de-energizes the solenoid capacitor. These are mounted so they
reactance to 31.84 ohms, for a working operated air valves and allows them to can be read from the ground. See Figure
current of 500 amperes and a 3-phase close. A time delay inherent in the design 3 for general arrangement of switches.
kilovar rating of 23,800 kilovars. of these air valves allows the air to con-
tinue to flow and complete the deioniza- FUSE INDICATION
General Requirements tion of the gap and fully restore the gap If several capacitor units are discon-
insulation value. The gap circuit con- nected from the group due to fuse opera-
FAULT CURRENT PROTECTION nections are shown in Figure 2. tion the impedance of this group in-
The operation is the same whether sys-
Since a tenfold increase in voltage oil tem relays and circuit breakers function or
the capacitor is expected corresponding if the fault is self clearing.
to a line fault of 3,200 amperes, it was
necessary to protect the capacitors from OVERLOAD PROTECTION
voltages in excess of a predetermined Since the capacitor units must not be
amount. This was accomplished by operated continuously above a predeter-
shunting the capacitor with a gap and re- mined voltage for thermal reasons it was
sistor. The gap shown in Figure 1 breaks considered necessary to provide overload
down when the voltage across the capac- protection. The capacitors may be
itor exceeds 21/2 times the capacitor con- operated continuously at the rated cur-
tinuous rated voltage. The resistor in rent of 312 amperes plus 5 per cent cor-
series with the gap is nominally 11/4 ohms responding to standard practice for shunt
and is used to limit the capacitor dis- capacitors. They may be operated for
charge current when the gap breaks down. periods of 30 minutes at 135 per cent and
This permits repetitive discharges to oc- 5 minutes at 150 per cent voltage. Means
cur for duration of the line fault without were provided to prevent operation of the
harm to the capacitors. series capacitor in excess of these estab-
After the fault current no longer exists lished limits. This was accomplished by
and the current in the line is again normal, the use of an inverse time relay arranged
the resistor must be permanently dis- to detect overvoltage across the series AIR INLET
connected. This is accomplished by the capacitor through a potential transformer.
use of a special gap designed in a manner Completion of contact by the relay ini- l
to permit the use of a constant blast of air tiates the closing of a by-pass switch
during the period current flows. The which then shorts out the series capacitor AIR EXHAUST
volume of air is made sufficiently large to until manually reset. This by-pass Figure 7. Detail construction of gap

1951, VOLUME 70 AMarbury, Johnson-A 24,000-Kilovar Series Capacitor 1623

Authorized licensd use limted to: IE Xplore. Downlade on May 13,20 at 1:4237 UTC from IE Xplore. Restricon aply.
 operator to determine if some fuses had reconnected for parallel operation, giving
operated before such a condition reached one-fourth the reactance and twice the
a point where the operation of the capac- rated working current. When so operated
itors was seriously affected with respect one gap is disconnected.
~; to working votg.The 3-phase lesare plcdside byside
This is accomplished by dividing the as shown in Figure 6, on 25 foot centers.
capacitor into two equal branches as The three phases of the series capacitor
gr r 0 |shown in Figure 4 and providing relays to equipment are located within a fenced
compare the current in these branches. enclosure 100 feet wide and 135 feet long.
Operation of these relays operates an air Another larger fence encloses associated
~ ~
~~~
g which in turn closes the by-pass equipment consisting of by-pass dis-
8 °Pvalve
switch, connects and air supply equipment. This
r rggE L r The closed position of the by-pass outside fence encloses an area 125 feet
switch is indicated at ground level by wide and approximately 260 feet long.
means of a pneumatically operated relay
located in the compressor station. The Compressed Air Gap
General Construction The gap consists of an inverted cup
electrode of special graphite, a cylin-
The capacitor units are single bushing, drical porcelain insulator, and a second
7,960-volt 15-kilovar outdoor units. One- graphite electrode located along the axis
half of the total quantity of capacitors of the porcelain tube. The central elec-
are standard shunt capacitor units. The trode forms a gap in the cavity of this in-
other half are of special design with ap- verted electrode, see Figure 7.
gpr . 1 iproximately 20 per cent added dielectric When a flow of current through the
to gain field experience in the event mo- gap is initiated by the breakdown of the
tality rate should prove to be high with gap, air is supplied to the bottom cham-
Figure S. Gap and air tank assembly standard units. Subsequent experience ber from which it flows into the porcelain
however indicates that the protective tubular insulating body. The only out-
equipment will adequately protect stand- let for this air is down through the hole in
creases, and the remaining capacitors in ard capacitor units. the center electrode, from which it may
the group operate at a higher voltage for Each unit is connected to the bus escape to the outside air.
the same current flowing in the line. through a fuse especially designed to in- The two portions of each phase leg of
Since the series capacitor is insulated terrupt the stored energy in the large the series capacitor are each protected by
from ground, it is not possible to inspect number of adjacent units. No fault cur- a gap as described above, with a resistor
the fuses conveniently as with a shunt rent interruption problem exists, but the connected in series with each gap. One
capacitor, so it was felt desirable to pro- stored energy is quite large. tank supplies the air to these two gaps,
vide some indicating means to enable the One hundred and sixty-six of the 15- Fi 8
kilovar units are assembled in an outdoor gure
steel housing and arranged in two groups
of 83 units each as shown in Figure 4
with a current transformer to compare the
current in each group of 83 units. These
housings have space for 288 capacitor
units to provide for later change in the
rating of the series capacitor to 23,000-
kilovars and 520 amperes line current.
X Two of these housings are mounted
on a platform 12'/2 feet wide and 80 feet
long, which is in turn supported on 24
columns of insulators. On a platform be-
tween the two housings is located a tank
for gap air supply, two gaps and two re-
sistors.
Figure 5 shows the two metal enclosures
during installation, with the compressed
air supply tank, two gaps and resistors in
the center between the housings. S The aAA
two housed groups shown are operated in
series to give the rating of 51 ohms for 312
amperes, or the contemplated rating of
31.84 ohms for 500 amperes, in which case
each group is protected by a gap and re-
sistor, with one compressed air supply for
Figure 9. Air blast valve the two gaps. The two groups may he Figure 10. Cross section of blast valve

1624 Marbury, Johnson-A 24,000-Kilovar Series Capacitor AIEE TRANSACTIONS

Authorized licensd use limted to: IE Xplore. Downlade on May 13,20 at 1:4237 UTC from IE Xplore. Restricon aply.
 r - 5 ~-172 -
Figure I1 (left.)
Air column
Figure 12 (above.)
Oscillogram of gap
operation
Air Blast Valves large valve operated by a diaphragm.
The use of a diaphragm eliminates any
One of the most important detail problem of lubrication as would be the
pieces of equipment is the air blast valves. case with a piston. The solenoid lifts a
These may be seen on either side of the magnetic member which has a slideable
assembly shown in Figure 8. These relation to a needle valve stem. The im-
rather large air valves (W1/4-inch pipe pact of this magnetic member against the
size) must be operated from a current stop on this valve pin jerks the seat open
transformer. The current corresponding and admits air to the chamber above the
to low load current in the line and even diaphragm. Air enters this chamber
light load currents, if diverted through the faster than it can escape through the
gap must pick up these air valves so as to calibrated vent to the discharge side of the
quench the arc if initiated by a surge. valve, consequently the pressure on the
In addition, the valve solenoids must not diaphragm opens the main valve.
suffer any damage on the fault current of When the current stops flowing in the
3,200 amperes through the gap. This solenoid the needle valve closes. The air
wide range of requirements was met by pressure on the diaphragm then dies down
the use of a saturating current trans- at a rate governed by the escape path,
former and surge damping resistor, with thus closing the main valve with a time
the solenoid coil designed for very low delay. The time delay used is 7 to 10
voltage. cycles.
In addition to these requirements it
was necessary to use a valve which would Insulating Air Column
open in about 2 cycles after the solenoid
is energized, and close with a delayed ac- In this series capacitor installation it
tion to insure thorough removal of ionized was considered desirable to locate the
gases following termination of the arc in compressor at ground potential and
the gap. operate it from a local 230-volt power
It was also felt necessary to provide a supply. Also it was considered desirable
type of valve that would not foul up and to be able to reset the by-pass switches to
stick if it remains in one position for long the open position from the ground, and to
periods of time. provide an indicating means to show
The valve shown in Figure 9 is a modi- whether the by-pass switches, not visible
fied form of a standard air valve. The de- from the ground, were in the closed or
tail construction of this valve is shown in open position.
Figure 10, and may be seen to consist of a These requirements necessitated an in-
1951, VOLUME 70 Marbury, Johnson-A 24,000-Kilovar Series Capacitor
Authorized licensd use limted to: IE Xplore. Downlade on May 13,20 at 1:4237 UTC from IE Xplore. Restricon aply.
sulated air column, containing three air
lines: one to supply air to the gap res-
ervoirs, one to reset the by-pass switches,
and one to operate a pneumatic relay to
show whether the by-pass switches were
in the open or closed position.
All three of these hose lines are as-
sembled in a porcelain stack as shown in
Figure 1 1. This stack has ample wet and
dry flashover to withstand the line to
ground voltage. Three outlets are pro-
vided at the bottom and top castings for
continuing these three air lines. The
bottom connections go to the compressor
house, while the top connections go to the
air tank and proper air valves. Each
hose line consists of a 3/8 inside diameter
X 3/4 outside diameter special high-pres-
sure synthetic rubber hose 57 feet long giv-
ing a stress of about 2,300 volts per foot.
The hose is coiled on a core approximately
8-feet long, and compounded into the
porcelain column. Activated Alumina
dryers are provided at the compressor
location to eliminate moisture condensa-
tion in this hose line and maintain high
level of insulation in the hose itself. The
complete assembly was given a 485-kv, l-
minute 60-cycle test.
Compressor House
Only one compressor is required for the
complete series capacitor installation.
This compressor supplies air to a reservoir
located in the compressor house. From
this reservoir air flows through a filter,
and pressure regulator and dryer. The
latter regulates the air supply to the gap
air supply tanks. Three air pushbuttons
are also located in the compressor house,
for resetting the by-pass switches pre-
viously mentioned. Interlocks are pro-
vided to prevent resetting these by-pass
switches unless the main by-pass dis-
connect is operated first to remove voltage
1625
from the series capacitor. The three air voltage on the capacitor to approximately
operated signal relays are also located in 21/2 times its rated voltage. The low arc
the compressor house. These indicate drop of the gap holds the capacitor volt-
when operation of by-pass switches has age down thereafter until the compressed
occurred. air comes on. The energization of the air
blast solenoid occurs when the gap breaks
Other Protective Features down as indicated by the trace second
from the bottom. The effectiveness of
In addition, provisions were made to the air is shown by the third trace from
automatically close the by-pass switch in the top where the discharge air from the
the event of loss of air in the reservoirs, or gap is made to operate a micro-switch.
prolonged arcing of the gaps due to inade- It will be noted that the air was dis-
quate air supply or failure of air valve to charging 21/2 cycles after the coil was
open. Also to close the switch in the energized, and the gap started to restrike
event of flashover the auxiliary back-up at this time. About a cycle later the
gaps. current through the series capacitor was
A ground switch is provided for ground- reduced to the normal value of 1,150 am-
ing the platforms of the series capacitor peres and the arc immediately went out.
and thus avoid the collection of static The termination of the arc is shown by the
charges on the large housings and plat- top trace and the de-energizing of the air
forms. blast valve solenoid as shown on the
second trace from the bottom. The air
Operation of Protective Gap actually shut off about 9 cycles later as
shown on the third trace from the top.
Figure 12 shows an oscillogram of a The model used for this test is consider-
laboratory test which illustrates the ably lower in reactance and has a much
operation of the compressed air protective higher continuous working current than
device. In this test a 31/2 ohm series the series capacitor installation described,
capacitor was connected in a circuit making the gap working conditions con-
which would produce a large current siderably more severe. Actual tests on
through the capacitor, and a current the Chehalis installation are covered by
which would develop a voltage across the an unpublished AIEE paper by C. C. Dia-
capacitor many times the breakdown mond, E. J. Harrington, and J. R. Curtin.
setting of the gap, which was 2'/2 times
the continuous voltage rating of the series Conclusions
capacitor. The bottom trace shows the
fault current which was allowed to flow The use of compressed air makes pos-
for 31/2 cycles, and then reduced to the sible a very effective type of self clearing
normal continuous current rating of this gap. With this type of gap the series
capacitor which is 1,150 amperes. capacitor will be by-passed only during
The voltage across the capacitor is the period of the fault, or when there is
shown on the trace second from the top. sufficient current to break down the gap
When the fault was applied to the capac- on each half cycle. Compressed air also
itor the gap broke down and limited the provides a means of performing other im-
Discussion from the circuit without interruption of load
in the 230-kv circuit.
I would like to suggest that the authors
describe their air column failure, its cause
E. J. Harrington (Bonneville Power Ad- and the measures they have taken to insure
ministration, Portland, Oreg.): Since its against similar failures in future equipment.
installation this series capacitor has not been
subjected to line faults other than those
during the staged tests. It has been and is R. E. Marbury and F. D. Johnson: Mr.
still being operated with the capacitor Harrington has mentioned a case of trouble
groups in parallel. with this series capacitor installation in-
We hope to soon fill the housings to the full volving the air column used to maintain air
24,000-kvar capacity and operate the groups pressure in the reservoirs mounted on the
in series thereby obtaining approximately insulated platforms. The leakage current
24 ohms of capacitive reactance compensa- through one of the air columns became ex-
tion. cessive and resulted in a failure in one air
Operation so far has been trouble free line. The air line burned open at one point
with one exception. This was a failure of permitting a low current arc which ignited
one of the air columns. This failure re- the compound in which the hose was em-
sultedl in a fire in the column which ulti- bedded. The escape of air at this point
mately caused the capacitor protective released pressure sufficient to rupture the
equipment to function. This resulted in by- porcelain casing.
passing of the capacitors and their removal At first this condition was attributed to
1626 Marbury, Johnson-A 24,OOO-Kilovatr Series Capacitor
Authorized licensd use limted to: IE Xplore. Downlade on May 13,20 at 1:4237 UTC from IE Xplore. Restricon aply.
portant operations and relaying impor-
tant information to the ground. It also
provides means of remotely controlling
switches located at high potential to
ground. Considering the over-all prob-
lem, the use of a compressed air system is
justified even for applications where it is
not necessary to quickly reinsert the
series capacitor following a fault.
Compressed air operated gaps may be
used without the necessity for supplying
air from the ground, by the use of com-
pressors operated directly from the series
capacitor voltage drop. Such an arrange-
ment is practical where the line current
remains within a range of 25 to 100 per
cent of normal. This provides a simpler
arrangement and when visible indicators
are used on the by-pass switches, the
transmission of switch position informa-
tion to the ground is no longer necessary,
unless the installation is remotely located
from an attended substation.
The series capacitor described was
energized February 23, 1951, and was
found to be quite free from noise or
visible corona. Tests were made to ob-
serve the operation of the protective de-
vices by placing faults on the circuit or
associated circuits and observing the
operation of the gaps. The gap protection
operated in a manner quite similar to the
laboratory test, Figure 12. The speed
with which air became effective at the gap
was such as to insure fast re-insertion of
the series capacitor even in the case of
faults that are cleared in very short
periods such as 3 cycles.
Reference
1 DRESIGN AND PRO 66KV TRANSOmi00N LINE,
A. A. Johnson, R. E. Marbury, J. M. Arthur.
AIEE Transactions, volume 67, part I, 1948, pages
363-68.
excessive accumulation of moisture in the
air line, but final analysis disclosed that the
trouble was entirely due to defective hose
material. The hose material receiving
engineering approval contained only small
traces of free carbon and measured well over
50,000 megohms per foot, while the ma-
terial actually used was found to contain up
to 50 per cent of free carbon and measured
10 to 40 megohms per foot. The resulting
accumulation of heat resulted in excessive
heating of the hose and the failure in service.
The rebuilt air columns were entirely
satisfactory on leakage and overvoltage
tests, with or without the presence of con-
densate.
In view of the above there is no reason to
expect future trouble and the design is
entirely adequate when manufactured as
intended. Steps have been taken to rigidly
control the manufacture in the future, and
the physical and electrical properties of the
hose itself.
AJEE TRANSACIIONS