Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 42 (2006) 683 – 697

www.elsevier.com/locate/finel

Finite element analysis of prestressed structural membranes

Antonio J. Gil∗ , Javier Bonet
Civil and Computational Engineering Centre, School of Engineering, University of Wales Swansea, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK

Received 24 November 2004; received in revised form 24 August 2005; accepted 30 October 2005
Available online 20 December 2005

Abstract
A very powerful approach by means of the Nonlinear Continuum Mechanics theory is introduced for the analysis of prestressed membrane
structures. This strategy will allow to develop more accurate stiffness matrices for cable and membrane elements, as nonlinearity will be taken
into consideration when deriving not just the equilibrium equations, but also the compatibility and constitutive equations. The consideration of
moderate strains whilst maintaining large rigid body movements is the key aspect for the success of the derivation. Membranes and cables in taut,
wrinkled or slack state are considered adequately in the numerical procedure. A finite element approximation along with a Newton–Raphson
numerical scheme provide a very elegant and accurate way to solve the structural problem. To reveal the flexibility and robustness of the
procedure, a complete assemblage of fabric textile, reinforcing cables and rigid members will be analysed from its initial design stage to its
final loaded configurations. Pseudo-static analysis will be run for snow and wind conditions according to Spanish standards.
䉷 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Hyperelastic Saint Venant–Kirchhoff material; Prestressed membranes; Total Lagrangian formulation; Direct core congruential formulation; Wrinkling

1. Introduction remain in a moderate range. On account of this reason, a hyper-

Among the wide variety of tension lightweight structures de-
signed in Architecture and Civil Engineering, both prestressed
membranes and cable networks constitute a very remarkable
group. Numerous recent examples can be found in [1–4]. These
structural models as in Fig. 1 are achieving an increasing ac-
ceptance level in our society, because of their implicit and valu-
able traits: nice aesthetic shape, fast installation, the reduction
of construction costs and decisive characteristics for a sustain-
able development, as pointed out in [5,6].
The mechanical behaviour of a prestressed membrane relies
on the fact of its in-surface rigidity. The fundamentals of non-
linear continuum mechanics—see [7–10], applied to this kind
of structures provide an interesting framework of resolution.
Membrane analysis for rubber-like materials based on updated
Lagrangian formulations have been fully studied in diverse ref-
erences: [11–15]. A key issue pertaining to the kinematics of
prestressed membranes is that considerable rigid body rota-
tions along the deformation path are developed whereas strains
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 1792 295902; fax: +44 1792 295903.
E-mail address: a.j.gil@swansea.ac.uk (A.J. Gil).
0168-874X/$ - see front matter 䉷 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.finel.2005.10.009
elastic Saint Venant–Kirchhoff constitutive law can be adopted
to describe the material in an adequate manner as well as a total
Lagrangian formulation.
Another topic of major concern in the actual design of this
sort of structures is the correct treatment of the wrinkling phe-
nomenon. Numerous authors have worked intensively in this
field, some examples are: [16–23]. However, by following pre-
vious work by [24], a simple and efficient technique can be
introduced.
Most tensioned membranes are reinforced by means of inte-
rior and perimeter cables. At the same time, compressive rigid
members as masts, are assembled to the global structure in order
to provide the adequate stability. As a consequence of this, an
analysis which considers membrane elements, cable elements
and compressive members in an interactive manner is essential.
This argument has been recently verified by [25,26].
Along the direction set up by the previous arguments, this
paper will attempt to present a very comprehensive method-
ology to accomplish the design of these type of structures.
The following discussion is split into six sections. Section 2
presents an overview of the basic equations from a Nonlinear
Continuum approach. The kinetic and kinematic equations of
motion are expressed in a Lagrangian format with respect to
684 A.J. Gil, J. Bonet / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 42 (2006) 683 – 697

Perspective view Plan view

10

5
4

OY axis (m)
OZ axis (m)

2 0

0
-5
10

0 5
0 -10
-10 -5
OY axis (m) OX axis (m) -5 0 5
OX axis (m)

Lateral view Lateral view

5 5

4 4
OZ axis (m)

OZ axis (m)

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0

-10 -5 0 5 10 5 0 -5
OY axis (m) OX axis (m)

Fig. 1. Cable reinforced prestressed membrane 3.

an intermediate prestressed configuration. To define the con- Bpret

stitutive law of the material, a specific prestressed hyperelastic
Saint Venant–Kirchhoff model will be presented. To account B0 Ωpret
for the wrinkling phenomenon over the tension membrane, Bt
Ω0 ∂Ωpret
an efficient technique will be used in terms of modifica- Ωt
e3 ∂Ω 0 ∂Ωt
tions on the Helmholtz’s free energy functional. Sections 3 pret
u
x
and 4 will focus on the implementation for cable and mem- e2
X
brane elements, respectively, of the aforementioned strong
x
formulation according to a finite element basis. Section 5
gathers the calculation of a complete example by means of
the described technique. Finally, some conclusions are briefly e1
pointed out.
Fig. 2. Motion of a prestressed body.

2. Basic equations for wrinkled reinforced prestressed

membranes An incremental displacement field u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) may be
introduced to define the geometry transition between the last
The kinematic of prestressed membranes structures can be two states Bpret and Bt as
described by means of three successive configurations, namely,
pret pret
an initial undeformed state B0 , a prestressed state Bpret and a xi = x i + ui ⇒ xi,A = xi,A + ui,A
final in-service state Bt , for the time instants t 0 , t pret and t, pret pret
respectively, according to Fig. 2. = xi,A + ui,j xj,A , (1)
 A.J. Gil, J. Bonet / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 42 (2006) 683 – 697 685

where Hence, combining Eqs. (3) and (8) and after a push forward
pret Piola transformations of the stress tensor from SAB to Sij , the
jui pret jxi
ui,j = pret , xi,A = . (2) constitutive law turns out to be
jxj jXA
Sij = ij + Cij kl Ekl

pret
. (9)
In the above formula, capital and lower case indices have been pret
written in order to clearly distinguish the initial unstressed con- In the above formula, ij represents the Cauchy stress ten-
figuration B0 with any other, namely, Bpret or Bt . The differ- sor at the prestressed state, whereas Cij kl is the fourth order
ence between the Green–Lagrange strain tensor measured at tangent moduli constitutive tensor. Eventually, the Helmholtz’s
the in-service state and at the prestressed state can be carried free energy functional per unit of volume of the prestressed
out to obtain, after some tedious algebra, state can be deduced to be
pret
pret pret pret
EAB − EAB = xi,A xj,B eij + 21 ui,A ui,B wint = ij Eij + 21 Cij kl Eij Ekl . (10)

In the above formula, the super index ( ) has been avoided

= xi,A xj,B Eij ,
pret pret
(3)
for the sake of simplicity. Another physical feature that has
where to be taken into account when analysing tension membrane
structures, is the likelihood of developing wrinkles. The latter
eij = 21 (ui,j + uj,i ). (4) are manifestations of localized buckling regions which can ap-
pear across the membrane’s spatial domain on account of an
Thus, a nonlinear incremental Green–Lagrange strain tensor
unexpected combination of the prestress load with a certain
has been introduced for the sake of convenience as
in-service load situation. When any of the eigenvalues of the
Eij = eij + 21 us,i us,j . (5) Cauchy stress tensor  becomes null, the membrane does not
offer any resistance to be deformed any further along the cor-
Furthermore, the conservation of linear momentum of the ma- responding principal direction. Therefore, an additional con-
terial body in the in-service state may be as well depicted with straint must be imposed on the mechanical behaviour of the
respect to the description Bpret according to a Lagrangian for- membrane to account for this aspect. As a consequence, it can
mat as follows: be argued that the above energy functional (9), acts as an ad-
Pj i,j +
bi = 0 in
pret , equate potential for the stress tensor in case of a pure tension
material, otherwise it cannot be taken as valid. The reason for
fi = ti d = Pj i nj d on j
pret . (6)
this, it is based upon the fact of its lack of capacity to represent
In this case, Pj i represents the nominal stress tensor or the efficiently wrinkling conditions whatsoever.
transpose of the well known first Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor. Denoting the principal stresses by 1 and 2 , with 1
2 ,
The cited stress tensor can be related in a straightforward man- the three states of a wrinkled membrane can be summarized as
ner to the second Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor Sst by means follows:
of a Jacobian transformation. The latter is expressed in a pre-
stressed configuration too: (1) Taut state:

Psj = xj,t Sst . (7) 1 > 0, 2 > 0. (11)

(2) Wrinkled state:
Apart from the equilibrium and compatibility equations, for-
mulae (6) and (3), respectively, the constitutive equations to ac- 1 > 0, 2 = 0, (12)
count for the hyperelastic Saint Venant–Kirchhoff constitutive
model must be included. According to the physical definition of (3) Slack state:
a hyperelastic material, the Helmholtz’s free energy functional 1 = 0, 2 = 0. (13)
behaves as a potential for the stress field. Therefore, a Taylor
expansion of the former in terms of the Green–Lagrange strain By following previous work by [24,27], for each one of these
tensor yields different membrane states, a distinct and modified Helmholtz’s
jwint jwint j2 wint
 free energy functional can be introduced. Particularizing for a
pret
SAB = = + ECD − ECD . (8) membrane with Young modulus E and a Poisson ratio , the
jEAB pret
jEAB jEAB jECD
following formulae are obtained:
In general, the truncation of the above series is reasonable when
pret (1) Taut state:
the strain range ECD − ECD can be assumed as moderate,
which would result in some mathematical simplifications. Fur- E(1 + 2 )2
pret pret
thermore, for the particular case of a Saint Venant–Kirchhoff wint = 1 1 + 2 2 +
2(1 − 2 )
material, the above truncation is accurate—as no further non-
zero terms can be obtained—and it will be taken as the con- E(21 + 22 )
+ . (14)
stitutive law employed throughout the remainder of the paper. 2(1 + )
686 A.J. Gil, J. Bonet / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 42 (2006) 683 – 697

(2) Wrinkled state: 3. Cable elements

pret pret
pret pret E(1 + f (1 ))2 Let us establish a fixed local coordinate system OX 1 X2
w
int = 1 1 + 2 f (1 ) + pret pret
2(1 − 2 ) X3 . The direction OX 1 is adopted to move along the lon-
E(21 + f (1 )2 ) gitudinal axis of the cable, according to Fig. 3. According to
+ . (15) this criterion, the linear one-dimensional shape functions are
2(1 + )
pret pret
(3) Slack state: pret X1 pret X1
N 1 (X1 ) = 1 − , N 2 (X1 ) = , (18)
Lpret Lpret
1
pret2 pret pret pret2

w
int = − 1 − 21 2 + 2 , (16)
2E
where Lpret stands for the initial prestressed length of the cable
element. The displacement field and the final spatial coordinates
where f (1 ) is a function defined in terms of the maximum may thus be interpolated in a standard manner as follows:
eigenvalue 1 of the Green–Lagrange strain tensor according
to an expression which is given as
ui = N 1 u1i + N 2 u2i , xi = N 1 xi1 + N 2 xi2 ,
pret
E1 + 2 (1 − 2 ) i = 1, 2, 3. (19)
f (1 ) := − . (17)
E
The deformation gradient tensor Fij may be composed as the
If temperature effects are wanted to be considered, these can sum of the displacement gradient tensor Gij and the second
be taken into account by means of a modified Green–Lagrange order identity tensor ij as
temp
strain tensor, where i can be replaced by (i − i ). For the
particular case of cables under tension, whenever the Cauchy jui
stress tensor along its axis reaches a null value, the wrinkling Fij = Gij + ij , Gij = pret
onset happens. After that moment, the cable does not contribute jXj
to the global stiffness of the overall assemblage any longer. This
 
1j
= u2i − u1i , i, j = 1, 2, 3. (20)
implies that stress and constitutive tensor are taken as zero. Lpret
Once the modified Helmholtz’s free energy functional has
been properly defined for the different membrane states, con- By employing the DCCF, the vectorized displacement gradient
sistent derivations for the second Piola–Kirchhoff and Cauchy tensor is given in its transpose form as
stress tensors, as well as for the fourth order tangent moduli
tensor can be formulated. For the latter of the above cases—see  
(16)—the observed constancy of the functional entails null u 21 u 21 u 21
gT = 1 2 3
000000 ,
value for each and every one of the above cited tensor entities. Lpret Lpret Lpret
A total Lagrangian formulation, a displacement-based iso-
parametric finite element formulation and a Newton–Raphson u21
i = ui − ui .
2 1
(21)
numerical scheme will be adopted for the solution of the over-
all structural problem. Two-noded and three-noded linear finite By realizing that only the first three components of the former
elements will be employed to describe appropriately cable and vector g are not null, define a particularized displacement gra-
membrane elements, respectively. The implementation of the dient vector gc for a cable finite element as: gcT = (g1 g2 g3 ).
discrete nonlinear system of equilibrium equations will be car- This vector may be related with the nodal displacement
ried out by means of a very elegant procedure termed direct
core congruential formulation (DCCF). The 1993 paper—see
[28]—along with [29] show an extensive explanation of the lat- 2
ter. The objective of the DCCF is establishing the set of global
equilibrium equations in a parallel space, named core space, X2pret
pret
comprised of the components of the displacement gradient ten- L
1
sor. As it will be observed, the most interesting feature of this pret pret
implementation technique is its independence with respect to X3 O X1
G
the geometry of the structure, the adopted discretization crite- x 2

rion and the selected shape functions. At the same time, the
consideration of only translational degrees of freedom for the O x1G
nodes of the Lagrangian mesh makes the DCCF specially sim-
ple and easy of being implemented. For the derivations what fol- x3G
lows, the kinematic and kinetic Voigt rule will be employed—
see [7,9]. Fig. 3. Cable element description.
 A.J. Gil, J. Bonet / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 42 (2006) 683 – 697 687

vector as follows: cartesian reference system OX G G G

1 X2 X3 :

gc = B c · u G T S11 Apret
⎡ jN 1 ⎤ fint =
jN 2 Lpret
0 0 0 0  
⎢ jX pret jX1
pret ⎥ G G G G G G
⎢ 1 ⎥ × −x121 − x221 − x321 x121 x221 x321 , (26)
⎢ ⎥
⎢ jN 1 jN 2 ⎥
=⎢
⎢ 0 pret 0 0 pret 0 ⎥
⎥ where
⎢ jX1 jX1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ G G G G G
⎣ jN 1 jN 2 ⎦ xi21 = Xi21 + u21
i = x2 − x1
0 0 pret 0 0 pret G G G G
jX1 jX1 = X 2 − X 1 + u2 − u1 . (27)
⎡ ⎤
u11 The constitutive equation according to the prestressed Saint
⎢ u1 ⎥
⎢ 2⎥ Venant–Kirchhoff hyperelastic material may be represented as
⎢ 1⎥
⎢ u3 ⎥
×⎢ ⎥ pret
⎢ u2 ⎥ , (22) S11 = 11 + E(E11 − E11
0
), (28)
⎢ 1⎥
⎢ 2⎥ where the initial Green–Lagrange strain component E11 0 may
⎣ u2 ⎦
be considered as a possible thermal effect which depends upon
u23
the dilatational coefficient, the initial and final temperatures as
where the new matrix Bc has been introduced for the sake of E11
0
= 
T = (T end − T ini ). (29)
convenience. Because of dealing with a cable element and by
neglecting the transversal effects of the deformation, just the The linearization of the equivalent internal forces vector is fun-
component E11 of the Green–Lagrange strain tensor is of main damental to solve the geometrically nonlinear equilibrium prob-
concern. This term may be described in terms of the components lem. After carrying it out, the so-called total tangent stiffness
of the vector gc as matrix appears as the key feature of this technique. By means of

 the DCCF, an interesting relationship may be obtained whereby
E11 = g1 + 1
2 g12 + g22 + g32 the latter matrix can be related to the one expressed in terms of
the components of the displacement gradient tensor as follows:
= h1T · Bc · u + 21 uT · BTc · H1 · Bc · u, (23)
K =
tan
BTc · Mtan · Bc dV , (30)
where H1 stands for the second order identity tensor and h1 V pret
represents the first column of the latter. By adopting s1 to sym- where the matrix in terms of the displacement gradient variables
bolize the component S11 of the second Piola–Kirchhoff stress can be developed easily as
tensor, the vector of local equivalent internal forces may be
represented as well by means of the DCCF as follows: Mtan = [h1 + H1 · gc ]C11 [h1T + gcT · H1 ] + s1 H1
= Mmat + Mgeo . (31)
fint = BTc · int dV = Apret Lpret BTc · int
V pret A detailed explanation of Eqs. (30) and (31) can be found
  in Ref. [28,29]. By substituting (31) back into (30) and after
−I3
= Apret · int , (24) performing the necessary algebraic operations, the geometrical
I3 and material submatrices corresponding to nodes I and J can
be deduced as
where Apret stands for the cross-sectional area of the cable in
IJ
the prestressed configuration, I3 is the 3 × 3 identity matrix and Kgeo = BIc · Mgeo · BJc dV
T

int is presented right below as V pret

pret
⎡ ⎤ Apret (11 + EE 11 )
s1 (1 + g1 ) = (−1)I +J I3 , (32)
Lpret
int = s1 (h1 + H1 · Bc · u) = ⎣ s 1 g2 ⎦ ,
mat I J
BIc · Mmat · BJc dV
T
s1 g3 K =
V pret
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
u21
1 x121
1 ⎣ u21 ⎦ . EApret
gc = (25) = (−1)r+s ⎣ x 21 ⎦ · [x121 x221 x321 ], (33)
Lpret 2
Lpret 2
u21
3 x321
By combining Eqs. (24), (25) and by premultiplying by the where E stands for the Young modulus for a particular consid-
correspondent rotation matrix, it is feasible to accomplish ered cable element and xi21 represents the difference between
the global vector of internal forces with respect to a global the ith spatial current coordinate of the extreme nodes of the
688 A.J. Gil, J. Bonet / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 42 (2006) 683 – 697

element. To obtain the final total tangent stiffness matrix, it is K

only required to add Eqs. (32) and (33) and to perform the cor-
responding rotating transformation from the local to the global
reference frame. Γ
pret

J
The total incremental internal strain energy of the structure pret
X2
can be formulated as
I
Wint = wint dV x 2G
X3
pret pret
X1
V pret O


Nelem   O x G1
pret 1
= A pret
L pret
E11 11 + EE 11 .
2
(34)
2 x G3
i=1

Relationship between the second Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor Fig. 4. Membrane element description.
and the Cauchy stress tensor is accomplished by means of a
push forward operation  = J −1 F · S · FT . Once obtained the pret J pretK pretK pret J
a I = X1 X2 − X1 X2 ,
deformation gradient tensor and its Jacobian:
⎡ ⎤ pretJ pret K
u21 b I = X2 − X2 ,
⎢ 1 + Lpret 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ pret K pretJ
⎢ v 21 ⎥ c I = X1 − X1 ,
F= ⎢ ⎢ 1 0⎥ ⎥ ⇒ J = det(F)
⎢ L pret ⎥ 1

⎣ ⎦ pret = cK bJ − cJ bK , I, J, K = 1, 2, 3,
w21 (39)
0 1 2
Lpret
u21 where pret is the area of the initial prestressed triangle. Note
= 1 + pret . (35) that the quantities a I , bI and cI —named Zienkiewicz’s coef-
L
ficients, see for instance [30]—are independent of the defor-
Thus mation of the membrane and are computed directly from the
 
u21 geometry of the initially prestressed shape. According to the
11 = 1 + pret S11 . (36) DCCF, the vectorized displacement gradient tensor is given in
L
its transpose form as
Or analogously
⎡ ⎡ G ⎤⎤ gT = [g1 g2 g3 g4 g5 g6 g7 g8 g9 ],
  u21
1  
⎢ 1 G G G ⎢ G ⎥⎥ bI uI1 bI uI2 bI uI3 cI uI1 cI uI2 cI uI3
11 = S11 ⎣1 + X121 X221 X321 · ⎣ u21
2 ⎦⎦
. (37)
L pret 2 g =
T
000 .
u21
G 2pret 2pret 2pret 2pret 2pret 2pret
3
(40)
4. Membrane elements As it was recognized for the cable net approach, only the first
six components of the vector g are distinct of zero. Therefore,
The textile membrane is approximated by a discrete model it is convenient to consider a particular displacement gradient
consisting of a finite number elem of flat three-node isopara- vector for the membrane case which will be named gm as
metric elements with linear shape functions. The geometry of ⎡ ⎤
g1
each element in the initial prestressed state is thus, according
⎢ g2 ⎥
to Fig. 4, defined by a plane of uniform thickness t bounded by ⎢ ⎥
⎢g ⎥
straight lines which intersects at three points called nodes. gm = ⎢ 3 ⎥ = Bm · u
⎢ g4 ⎥
Once again, apart from the global reference frame, a fixed lo- ⎣ ⎦
pret pret pret g5
cal coordinate system OX 1 X2 X3 is established for each g6
element. For the sake of simplicity, it is assumed that each el- ⎡ 1⎤
pret pret u1
ement lies in the OX1 X2 plane of its local coordinate sys- ⎢ u1 ⎥
tem. Thus, the displacement field and the current coordinates ⎢ 2⎥
⎢ u1 ⎥
can be interpolated in terms of the shape functions as ⎢ 3⎥
⎢ ⎥
 1  ⎢ u21 ⎥
ui = N 1 u1i + N 2 u2i + N 3 u3i , 1 b I 3 b I3 b I 3 ⎢
2 3 ⎥
= pret ·⎢ u22 ⎥ . (41)
2 c I3 c I3 c I 3 ⎢ 2 ⎥
1 2 3 ⎢
⎥
xi = N 1 xi1 + N 2 xi2 + N 3 u3i , i = 1, 2, 3, (38) ⎢ u3 ⎥
⎢ 3⎥
N I (X1 , X2 )
pret pret ⎢ u1 ⎥
⎢ 3⎥
⎣u ⎦
1
I I pret I pret
 2
= a + b X1 + c X2 , u33
2pret
 A.J. Gil, J. Bonet / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 42 (2006) 683 – 697 689

By neglecting the transversal deformations effects through the where the initial Lagrangian deformation tensor in Voigt nota-
thickness of the membrane—an appropriate formulation for tion may be expressed in terms of an isotropic thermal process,
prestressed membranes used in practice can be developed. Con- see [31]:
sequently, the Green–Lagrange strain tensor may be obtained    
according to the DCCF. In Voigt notation—see [7] for further 1 1
details, the first 2 × 2 minor may be depicted as e = 
T 1 = (T
0 end
−T ) 1 .
ini
(50)
0 0
eT = [e1 e2 e3 ] = [E11 E22 2E12 ], (42)
The total tangent stiffness matrix may be computed by means
ei = hiT · gm + 21 gm
T
· Hi · gm of the congruential transformation—see the already mentioned
= hiT · Bm · u + 2 u · BTm · Hi
1 T
· Bm · u, (43) Refs. [28,29]—and thus the submatrix due to the contribution
    of the nodes I and J is depicted as
I3 03 03 03
H1 = , H2 = , t
I J
03 03 03 I3 KI J = b b M11 + cI cJ M22
  4pret 
03 I3
H3 = , (44) +bI cJ M12 + cI bJ M21 , (51)
I3 03
geo
h1T = [1 0 0 0 0 0], Mij = Mij + Mij
mat
. (52)

h2T = [0 0 0 0 1 0], After some tedious but straightforward algebra, the geometri-
cal and material components of the stiffness matrix S can be
h3T = [0 1 0 1 0 0], (45)
developed as follows:
where again I3 stands for the 3 × 3 identity matrix and 03  geo geo   mat mat 
represents the 3 × 3 null matrix. The vector of local equivalent M11 M12 M11 M12
Mgeo = geo geo , M mat
= mat Mmat ,
(53)
internal forces is particularized for the triangular flat element M21 M22 M21 22
by using the DCCF as geo
M11 = s1 I3 , mat
M11 = C11 f1 f1T + C33 f2 f2T
fint = BTc · int dV = tpret BT int + C13 f1 f2T + C31 f2 f1T , (54)
V pret
⎡ 1 ⎤
b I3 c 1 I3 geo
M12 = s3 I3 , mat
M12 = C13 f1 f1T + C32 f2 f2T
t ⎣ 2
= b I3 c2 I 3 ⎦ int , (46)
2 + C12 f1 f2T + C33 f2 f1T , (55)
b 3 I3 c3 I 3
geo
where t stands for the membrane thickness, cI , bI have already M21 = s3 I3 , mat
M21 = C31 f1 f1T + C23 f2 f2T
been introduced above and int is presented below as + C33 f1 f2T + C21 f2 f1T (56)
⎡ ⎤
s1 (1 + g1 ) + s3 g4 geo
⎢ s1 g2 + s3 (1 + g5 ) ⎥ M22 = s2 I3 , mat
M22 = C33 f1 f1T + C22 f2 f2T
⎢ ⎥
⎢ s1 g3 + s3 g6 ⎥ + C32 f1 f2T + C23 f2 f1T , (57)
int = si hi + si Hi g = ⎢ ⎥. (47)
⎢ s2 g4 + s3 (1 + g1 ) ⎥
⎣ ⎦ where si is the ith-component of the second Piola–Kirchhoff
s2 (1 + g5 ) + s3 g2
s 2 g6 + s 3 g3 stress tensor in Voigt notation, I3 is the 3 × 3 identity matrix,
Cij is a component of the fourth order tensor of elastic moduli
By particularizing the constitutive equations for the prestressed
in Voigt notation and the vectors f1 and f2 constitute the first
isotropic Saint Venant–Kirchhoff textile in a taut state, it can
and second column of the deformation gradient tensor which
be shown in Voigt form that:
can be expressed in their transpose forms as
s = {pret } + C · e,
⎡ pret ⎤ f1T = [1 + g1 g2 g3 ], f2T = [g4 1 + g5 g6 ]. (58)
  11
s1
⎢ pret ⎥ 1 The incremental internal strain energy is obtained as
s2 = ⎣ 22 ⎦ +
s3 1 − 2
pret
12 
Nelem
    Wint = wint dV = tpret
E E 0 e1
V pret
× E E 0 · e2 . (48) i=1
)  
0 0 E(1− 2 e3 1 T
× e · { T pret
}+ e ·C·e . (59)
Thermal effects may be included into the constitutive equations 2
by means of the following modification to the above formula:
Eventually, a relationship between both Lagrangian and Eule-
s = {pret } + C · (e − e0 ), (49) rian stress tensors is accomplished through the use of a classical
690 A.J. Gil, J. Bonet / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 42 (2006) 683 – 697

push forward operation, that is: Table 1

E1: boundary conditions (m)
⎡ ⎤
1 + g1 g4 0 Node x y z
F = ⎣ g2 1 + g5 0 ⎦ ⇒ J = det(F) 1 5.0 0.0 10.0
g3 g6 1 98 6.0 −3.0 0.0
110 6.0 3.0 0.0
= (1 + g1 )(1 + g5 ) − g2 g4 . (60)
104 9.0 0.0 0.0
OY 0.0 x – –
Therefore,
⎡ ⎤
(1 + g1 )2 g42 2(1 + g1 )g4
⎢ g22 (1 + g5 )2 2(1 + g5 )g2 ⎥
1 ⎢ ⎥ Initial shape
{} = ⎢ ⎥ · s. 3 110

J ⎣ (1 + g1 )g2 (1 + g5 )g4 (1 + g1 ) ⎦ 111

112 77 109

(1 + g5 ) + g2 g4 2
115
114
113
79
78
50 76 108
116 80
(61) 82
81
53
52
51
29 49 75 107
117 54 30
1 83 31
118 32 14 28 48 74
55 15 106
84

OY axis (m)
119 33 16
85 56 13 27 47
5 73
5. Numerical example 120
121 86 57 34 17 6 105

0 122
123
87 58 35 18 7 1 4 12 26 46 72 104
88 59 36
124 19 2 103
89 3 11 25 45 71
60
The numerical example presented in what follows is a shade 125
90
61
37 8
9
10 24 44 70 102
-1 126 20
pavilion structure composed of a fabric textile. To provide a 127
91
38
39
21
22
23 43 69 101
62 40
better performance of the overall structure, reinforcing cables 92 93
63
64 41
42 68 100
94 65
-2
have been added in the interior and in the perimeter of the 95
96
66
67 99
membrane. The necessary anchorage has been achieved by 97

-3
means of pinned masts. Different perspectives of the structure 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
98
7 8 9
are displayed in Fig. 5. As it can be observed, the membrane OX axis (m)
presents symmetry with respect to the OY axis, so hereafter half
of the model is to be studied in detail provided that suitable Fig. 6. E1: initial configuration: plan view.

Perspective view Plan view

3
10 2
OZ axis (m)

OY axis (m)

1
5
0

0 -1

-2
2
0 5 -3
0
-2 -5
OY axis (m) OX axis (m) -5 0 5
OX axis (m)

Lateral view Lateral view

10 10

8 8
OZ axis (m)

OZ axis (m)

6 6

4 4

2 2

0 0
-2 0 2 5 0 -5
OY axis (m) OX axis (m)

Fig. 5. E1: initial configuration.

 A.J. Gil, J. Bonet / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 42 (2006) 683 – 697 691

Initial shape

10 9
9
8
8
7
7
6

OZ axis (m)
OZ axis (m)

6
5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
0
0 8
8 2
6
2
6 0 4 OX axis (m)
0 4 OY axis (m)
-2 2
OY axis (m) 2 OX axis (m)
-2 0
0
Fig. 8. E1: initial configuration.
Fig. 7. E1: initial configuration: isometric view.

Table 2
boundary conditions are set up. Figures shown in this section E1: boundary conditions (cm)
present different scale in their distinct cartesian axes in order
Node u v w
to be displayed in a more suitable manner.
To define the initial equilibrium shape, the Force density 98 1.0 −1.0 −1.0
method—see [32]—was employed for the sake of its simplicity 110 1.0 1.0 −1.0
to the detriment of other available techniques, namely, dynamic 104 1.0 0.0 −1.0
relaxation—see [33]—or updated reference strategy—see [34].
For both internal and perimeter cables, the considered force
density factor was 10 times higher than the one for the interior of all, masts are added to the structural model. This consider-
domain. The kinematic boundary conditions for nodes along ation permits tension membrane, reinforcing cables and masts
the membrane’s perimeter are depicted in Table 1. Fig. 6 shows behave in an interactive manner rather than analysing the com-
a plan view of the initial configuration, where the nodes num- pressive members separated from the membrane-cable assem-
bering of the selected Lagrangian mesh can be observed. blage. This approach is strongly supported in [25]. Therefore,
As a consequence of this shape finding analysis, it is feasible the masts will be designed to slope with a horizontal projected
to come up with an initial equilibrium shape under a control- length of 1.5 m along the OX axis, in such a way that the com-
lable prestress loading. This control is established in terms of putationally modelled structure will have the appearance drawn
the relative values for the force density coefficient among the in Fig. 8.
different components of the membrane. Roughly speaking, the The reinforcing cables are adopted to have EA = 1.2e4 KN,
uniquely obtained equilibrium shape is not dependent on the where E stands for the Young modulus and A symbolizes
absolute values of the prestress but on its relative ones, so this the cross-sectional area. The mast pinned at their respec-
permits the reduction of the absolute prestress as much as de- tive foundations are considered to have EA = 2.0e5 KN. The
sired. Fig. 7 shows the isometric view of the structure, where fabric textile is assumed isotropic with Et = 3.0e2 KN/m,
cable and membrane elements can be easily distinguished. where in this case t is for the membrane thickness. There-
fore, the materials mechanical properties are completely
5.1. Prestress loading defined.
The prestress process is carried out by means of an imposed
Once an initial referential shape has been set up, an adequate displacement on nodes 110, 104 and 98, see Fig. 6, which are
and realistic prestress can be applied to the membrane. First anchorage points for the interior reinforcing cables. As a result
692 A.J. Gil, J. Bonet / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 42 (2006) 683 – 697

Fig. 9. E1: OX displacements. (a) Prestress load. (b) Snow load.

Fig. 10. E1: OX displacements. (a) Wind load, hypotheses I. (b) Wind load, hypotheses II.

Fig. 11. E1: OY displacements. (a) Prestress load. (b) Snow load.
 A.J. Gil, J. Bonet / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 42 (2006) 683 – 697 693

Fig. 12. E1: OY displacements. (a) Wind load, hypotheses I. (b) Wind load, hypotheses II.

Fig. 13. E1: OZ displacements. (a) Prestress load. (b) Snow load.

Fig. 14. E1: OZ displacements. (a) Wind load, hypotheses I. (b) Wind load, hypotheses II.
694 A.J. Gil, J. Bonet / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 42 (2006) 683 – 697
Fig. 15. E1: Shape. (a) Prestressed load. (b) Wind load, hypotheses II.
of this, the upper node 1, located at the top of the mast, see
Fig. 6, is displaced outward and in so doing the overall mem-
brane acquires the desired prestress effect. Table 2 summarizes
the applied displacements u, v and w along the corresponding
space directions OX, OY and OZ, respectively.
5.2. In-service loading
Once the structure is completely prestressed and stabilized,
different loads have been applied on it with the purpose of rep-
resenting realistic in-service conditions. Among the wide vari-
ety of possibilities, snow and wind loading have been adopted
as the most prominent ones. As a result of this, these two dif-
ferent cases will be studied in detail.
The snow load applied on the structural membrane will con-
sist of 1.0 KN/m2 distributed across a central region of the
membrane which extends up to 6.0 m2 . This whole surface is
accounted for according to its projection on a plan view ac-
cording to standards.
For the wind load calculation, the Spanish wind loading stan-
dard NBE-AE88 will be used as a valid one. This standard es-
tablishes two possible limit hypotheses, namely, I and II, that
are required to be checked independently. The applied normal
pressure which is considered to be undergone by any mem-
brane material point is the result of two factors. On the one
hand, a dynamic pressure coefficient which accounts for the
wind velocity as well as for the height of the considered loca-
tion. On the other hand, a numerical factor whose magnitude is
set up according to the angle between the wind direction and
the spatial unit normal at the particular position of the mem-
brane. Finally, pressure or suction is characterized according to
the magnitude of the former angle.
Extreme conditions based upon a wind up to 125 Km/h are
considered. The wind direction is set up along the OY axis,
where the largest exposure surface can be quantified, which re-
sults in the most critical situation. Figs. 9–14 show the displace-
ment contour diagrams for the different loading conditions.
Fig. 15 shows a comparison of the displaced shape for two
different loading conditions. Interesting conclusions can be ad-
dressed at this point.
The interior and perimeter cables act as stabilizing mem-
bers for the overall performance of the membrane and, in so
doing, they reduce notably the displacements as a result of
the different applied loads. As it can be observed, high val-
ues for the displacements are obtained as a consequence of
the wind load application, specially along the wind direction.
These results highlight the importance of a complete fluid-
structure analysis with the objective of accounting for accu-
rately the interaction between them. From the strain point of
view, it is important to emphasize that a maximum value less
than 9.0e − 3 was attained in the case of snow load whilst
a figure around 3.0e − 2 was achieved for the wind case.
This fact fulfills the moderate strain requirement for the jus-
tifiable application of the Saint Venant–Kirchhoff hyperelastic
model.
Analogously, Figs. 16 to 19 displays the contour dia-
grams for the principal Cauchy stresses I and II (see
Figs. 16 to 19). It transpires that at the prestressing stage,
the whole membrane is under pure tension, given the second
principal Cauchy stress II always presents positive values. At
the same time, it is remarkable to point out that the maximum
stress values are attained across the central region of the mem-
brane. This fact is due to the prestressed effect imposed along
the longitudinal interior cable which is suitably conveyed to
the fabric.
Moreover, the images reflect clearly the importance of in-
cluding a wrinkling algorithm to account appropriately for lo-
calized buckling regions. In all of in-service situations, a wide
zone of the membrane is affected by this phenomenon, so an
 A.J. Gil, J. Bonet / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 42 (2006) 683 – 697 695

Fig. 16. E1: Cauchy stress I . (a) Prestress load. (b) Snow load.

Fig. 17. E1: Cauchy stress I . (a) Wind load, hypotheses I. (b) Wind load, hypotheses II.

Fig. 18. E1: Cauchy stress II . (a) Prestress load. (b) Snow load.
696 A.J. Gil, J. Bonet / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 42 (2006) 683 – 697
Fig. 19. E1: Cauchy stress II . (a) Wind load, hypotheses I. (b) Wind load, hypotheses II.
adequate treatment should be used to deal with it. Furthermore,
the maximum accomplished stress will supply useful informa-
tion about possible required reinforcement and prevent unex-
pected tearing of the fabric. Results agreed to what it could be
expected in advance.
6. Conclusions
This paper has presented a complete methodological pro-
cess for the overall design of lightweight structures. The
continuum equations forr the reinforcing cables and the fab-
ric textile have been developed in terms of a prestressed
hyperelastic Saint Venant–Kirchhoff material. Possible wrin-
kling effects have been computationally incorporated into
our theoretical model by means of a modified Helmholtz’s
free energy functional. An elegant, although not extensively
used, procedure known as DCCF, was the selected instrument
for the subsequent implementation task according to a finite
element discretization basis. Finally, a numerical example in-
tending to represent a realistic structure—masts, reinforcing
cables and membrane textile altogether—was fully analysed
to demonstrate the robustness and versatility of the presented
procedure.
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