applied

sciences
Article
Design of a Road Simulator for
Motorcycle Applications
Daniel Chindamo 1, *, Marco Gadola 1 ID
, Dario Armellin 1 ID
and Felipe Marchesin 2
1 Department of Industrial and Mechanical Engineering, Automotive Group, University of Brescia,
Brescia I-25123, Italy; marco.gadola@unibs.it (M.G.); dario@armellin.org (D.A.)
2 Departamento de Engenharia Mecanica, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 05508-010, Brasil;
felipemarchesin@yahoo.com
* Correspondence: daniel.chindamo@unibs.it; Tel.: +39-030-371-5663

Received: 16 October 2017; Accepted: 23 November 2017; Published: 25 November 2017

Abstract: Four-wheeled vehicles are often tested on indoor, four-poster road simulator rigs. Road
loads are simulated with the use of servo-hydraulic systems for suspension set-up optimisation,
NVH analysis, and fatigue life cycles. The use of a road simulator is not such a common practice for
two-wheeled vehicles despite problems to be faced being extremely similar. The paper presents a
device for testing motorcycles on a Servotest® four-poster. A dedicated restraint system had to be
devised in order to support the motorcycle without altering its inertial characteristics. Additional
pneumatic actuators with a purposely developed instrumentation have been designed to reproduce
braking and power thrusts.

Keywords: motorcycles; road simulator; indoor testing; ride testing

1. Introduction
Developments in mechanical engineering and design require increasingly more effort in terms of
computing and modelling, especially in the automotive industry where advanced computer models
can help to reduce expensive and time-consuming track/road tests, and save time and resources.
In order to be successful, this approach should rely on validated models which are proven to be
effective and reliable.
A four-poster test rig is a servo-hydraulic road simulator that excites an unrestrained road vehicle
through its tyres to determine some of the dynamic characteristics of the vehicle, with particular regard
to the suspension system. The excitation can be:

• Fed in terms of heave, roll, and pitch

• Aimed at resonance frequency tracking
• Aimed at reproducing an acceleration/load history vs. time as recorded in road testing.

The so-called four-poster can be used to validate models of a generic four-wheeled vehicle with
regard to vertical dynamics, fatigue durability and suspension tuning [1–3]. Activities like NVH
testing, comfort evaluation [4–6], and the search for natural frequencies and vibration modes can be
carried out as well. Automotive engineers consider the four-poster a key device in developing their
product and the same considerations can be made for the motorcycle industry [7–9].
Indoor suspension testing and development can be an effective support to either simulation or
outdoor testing, thus reducing vehicle time-to-market. Test techniques give a valuable insight into a
range of parameters that would normally take significant road testing effort to achieve.
Very similar needs are in focus when it comes to motorcycles; in this case, the unrestrained
condition is not so easily achievable since the vehicle is not self-supporting.

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220; doi:10.3390/app7121220 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

 Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220  2 of 12 

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220 2 of 12

A survey showed that similar works in the literature present systems that are mainly focused 
on  human‐machine  interfaces,  comfort  characterization,  and  riding  simulation  over  different 
A survey showed that similar works in the literature present systems that are mainly focused on
scenarios, with the aim of improving road safety [1,10–15]. They are conceived to evaluate the rider’s 
human-machine interfaces,
subjective  feeling  comfort
or  to  train  characterization,
riders  and
to  face  various  riding simulation
situations,  over different
from  normal  riding  to scenarios,
emergency 
with the aim of improving road safety [1,10–15]. They are conceived to evaluate the rider’s subjective
manoeuvres and, except for [1], they are not able to employ a real‐world motorbike. The proposed 
feeling or to train riders to face various situations, from normal riding to emergency manoeuvres and,
system has been conceived as an engineering tool and it is aimed at the evaluation of the motorcycle 
except for [1], they are not able to employ a real-world motorbike. The proposed system has been
vertical dynamic behaviour and its interaction with the road. It is, therefore, based on the use of a 
conceived as an
real‐world  engineering
motorcycle,  so tool
that and it is aimed
subjective  at the evaluation
feedback  coming  from  of the
the motorcycle
rider  can  vertical dynamic
be  integrated  with 
behaviour
objective and its interaction
data  coming  from  with theinvestigation 
the  road. It is, therefore, based
of  natural  on the use wheel 
frequencies,  of a real-world motorcycle,
hub  acceleration  and 
so displacement, 
that subjective chassis 
feedback coming from
movement,  the ridercharacterisation, and 
suspension  can be integrated with objective
fatigue  data coming
testing, and  from from
NVH 
theanalysis in general. 
investigation of natural frequencies, wheel hub acceleration and displacement, chassis movement,
To  date 
suspension very  few  research 
characterisation, and  development 
and fatigue testing, and fromfacilities 
NVH in  the  world 
analysis feature  a  system  able  to 
in general.
perform the above‐mentioned activities on a free‐standing motorcycle. A search for similar test rigs 
To date very few research and development facilities in the world feature a system able to perform
thegave  no  results  in activities
above-mentioned Southern onEurope,  hence,  the 
a free-standing University 
motorcycle. of  Brescia, 
A search and  the 
for similar test Department 
rigs gave no of 
Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, in particular, decided to retrofit a four‐poster test rig with a 
results in Southern Europe, hence, the University of Brescia, and the Department of Mechanical and
custom‐designed fixture to perform tests on two‐wheeled vehicles as well. In this case the motorbike 
Industrial Engineering, in particular, decided to retrofit a four-poster test rig with a custom-designed
(bike) 
fixture tois  resting tests
perform on  two  of  the  four  actuators 
on two-wheeled vehicles and  an  aluminium 
as well. In this case structure 
the motorbikein  such  a  way 
(bike) that  the 
is resting
ondynamic response is not affected. 
two of the four actuators and an aluminium structure in such a way that the dynamic response is
The motorcycle is restrained so that it is free to move around the centre of gravity, i.e., in pitch 
not affected.
as well as along the vertical direction in order to enable interaction between longitudinal and vertical 
The motorcycle is restrained so that it is free to move around the centre of gravity, i.e., in pitch as
dynamics, which is of particular interest on motorbikes. Two pneumatic actuators have been added 
well as along the vertical direction in order to enable interaction between longitudinal and vertical
with the specific intent to simulate longitudinal forces due to acceleration and braking and replicate 
dynamics, which is of particular interest on motorbikes. Two pneumatic actuators have been added
suspension, as well as fork/chassis, deflections. 
with the specific intent to simulate longitudinal forces due to acceleration and braking and replicate
The  as
suspension, fixture 
well ashas  been  designed 
fork/chassis, with  a  modular  approach  using  extruded  aluminium 
deflections.
components so that it can be easily modified to accommodate vehicles with different geometry. The 
The fixture has been designed with a modular approach using extruded aluminium components
so bike is connected by means of a set of adjustable connecting rods (at least three per side) to a sledge 
that it can be easily modified to accommodate vehicles with different geometry. The bike is connected
byproviding both vertical and pitch degrees of freedom. 
means of a set of adjustable connecting rods (at least three per side) to a sledge providing both
vertical and pitch degrees of freedom.
2. Materials and Methods 
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Support System Requirements and Design 
2.1. Support System Requirements and Design
As stated in Section 1, the support system should leave the motorcycle unrestrained to simulate 
As stated
riding  in Sectionthe 
while leaving  1, the support system should
vehicle/rider mass and  leave the
moment  motorcycle
of  inertia  unrestrained
unaltered as  to simulate
much as  possible. 
riding while leaving the vehicle/rider mass and moment of inertia unaltered as much
Such an issue is critical since the rider mass is about 35% of the total vehicle system. Moreover, the  as possible. Such
an rider bends forward to reduce drag along the straights, then raises himself while braking and leans 
issue is critical since the rider mass is about 35% of the total vehicle system. Moreover, the rider bends
forward to reduce drag along the straights, then raises himself while braking and leans into the corner,
into the corner, thus moving the centre of mass and varying the moment of inertia. The location of 
thus moving the centre of mass and varying the moment of inertia. The location of the centre of mass was
the centre of mass was measured for the bike alone, as well as with rider in the straight and braking 
measured
positions for(see 
the bike alone,
Figure  as well
1).  The  as withof 
moment  rider in the
inertia  straight
was  and braking
accurately  measured positions (see well‐known 
with  the  Figure 1).
The moment of inertia was accurately measured with the well-known pendulum
pendulum system [16] and, consequently, an equivalent rider mass was devised to obtain a realistic  system [16] and,
consequently, an equivalent rider mass was devised to obtain a realistic mass distribution.
mass distribution. 

 
Figure Centre
1. 1. 
Figure  of of 
Centre  mass location:
mass  motorbike
location:  only
motorbike  (Cm),
only  with
(Cm),  rider
with  in in 
rider  straight (Cr),
straight  andand 
(Cr),  braking
braking 
position (Cb).
position (Cb). 
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220 
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220 33 of 12 
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Due  to  a  relatively  high  centre  of  mass  in  conjunction  with  a  short  wheelbase  and  high 
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220  3 of 12 
Due to a relatively high centre of mass in conjunction with a short wheelbase and high
power‐to‐weight ratio, the interaction between the vertical and longitudinal dynamics is another key 
power-to-weight
Due  to  a  ratio, the interaction between the
in vertical and longitudinal dynamics
parameter to be taken into account. The chain tension in particular can heavily affect the response of 
relatively  high  centre  of  mass  conjunction  with  a  short  wheelbase is another
and  high key
parameter to be taken into account. The chain tension in particular can heavily affect the response of the
the rear suspension under power (see Figure 2) while the front fork can show a tendency to stick up 
power‐to‐weight ratio, the interaction between the vertical and longitudinal dynamics is another key 
rear suspension under power
thus  (see Figure 2) while the front fork can show a tendency
in  parameter to be taken into account. The chain tension in particular can heavily affect the response of 
heavy  braking  [17],  jeopardising  the  ability  to  cope  with  small  to stick
amplitude,  up in heavy
high‐frequency 
braking
road  [17], thus jeopardising the ability to cope with small amplitude, high-frequency
bumps.  Therefore,  the  test  system  should  be  able  to  apply  power  or  braking  torque 
the rear suspension under power (see Figure 2) while the front fork can show a tendency to stick up  road bumps.
while 
Therefore,
leaving 
in  heavy  the
the  test system
tyres 
braking  free  should
[17], to  leave 
thus  bethe 
ableground 
to apply
jeopardising  power
as  to orcope 
they 
the  ability  braking
with torque
occasionally  do while
small  leaving
under  heavy 
amplitude,  thelongitudinal 
tyres free to
high‐frequency 
leave thebumps. 
road  groundTherefore, 
as they occasionally
acceleration or on severe bumps.  do under
the  test  system  heavy
should  be longitudinal acceleration
able  to  apply  or on severe
power  or  braking  bumps.
torque  while 
leaving  the  tyres  free  to  leave  the  ground  as  they  occasionally  do  under  heavy  longitudinal 
acceleration or on severe bumps. 

 
 
Figure 2. How chain force can affect the suspension ride response. 
Figure 2. How chain force can affect the suspension ride response.
Figure 2. How chain force can affect the suspension ride response. 
Again,  as  mentioned  in  Section  1,  a  standard  four‐poster  rig  has  been  retrofitted  with  a 
Again, asas 
Again, 
custom‐designed  mentioned
mentioned inin Section
fixture  able  hold 1,1, 
Section 
to  aa  standard
the  standard  four-poster
four‐poster 
motorcycle  rig has 
rig  hasposition 
in  the  upright  beenretrofitted 
been  retrofitted witha  a
without with 
adding 
custom-designed fixture able to hold the motorcycle in the upright position without
custom‐designed  fixture  able  to  hold  the  motorcycle  in  the  upright  position  without  adding 
unnecessary restraints.  adding
unnecessary restraints.
unnecessary restraints. 
Three different layouts were considered at first, as shown in Figure 3. 
Three different layouts were considered at first, as shown in Figure 3.
Three different layouts were considered at first, as shown in Figure 3. 

   
Figure 3. The three considered layouts. 
Figure 3. The three considered layouts. 
Figure 3. The three considered layouts.

Layout 2 was discarded due to its asymmetric shape with the resulting lateral scrub between 
Layout 2 was discarded due to its asymmetric shape with the resulting lateral scrub between 
Layout 2 was discarded due to its asymmetric shape with the resulting lateral scrub between
tires and actuator pads during system motion. Layout 3 was discarded for stiffness reasons and the 
tires and actuator pads during system motion. Layout 3 was discarded for stiffness reasons and the 
tires and actuator pads during system motion. Layout 3 was discarded for stiffness reasons and the
resulting longitudinal movements during system operation. Furthermore, the two long connecting 
resulting longitudinal movements during system operation. Furthermore, the two long connecting 
resulting longitudinal movements during system operation. Furthermore, the two long connecting
rods 
rods  can 
can  affect 
affect  system 
system  inertia hence 
inertia  hence dynamics. 
dynamics.  Therefore, 
Therefore,  the  proposed  layout  is  the  first  one  in in 
rods can affect system inertia hence dynamics. Therefore, the 
the proposed 
proposed layout 
layout is 
is the 
the first  one 
first one in
Figure 3, since it is able to hold the motorcycle without affecting its dynamic response. Moreover, the 
Figure 3, since it is able to hold the motorcycle without affecting its dynamic response. Moreover, the 
Figure 3, since it is able to hold the motorcycle without affecting its dynamic
connecting rods are very short and stiffness and inertia issues can be avoided.  response. Moreover,
connecting rods are very short and stiffness and inertia issues can be avoided. 
the connecting rods are very short and stiffness and inertia issues can be avoided.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220  4 of 12
4 of 12 

Such a layout is based on two low‐friction, recirculating ball linear guides along the vertical axis. 
Such a layout is based on two low-friction, recirculating ball linear guides along the vertical axis.
These are off‐the‐shelf components deemed to reduce undesired side effects like slip‐stick friction, 
These are off-the-shelf components deemed to reduce undesired side effects like slip-stick friction,
resonances,  and  additional  inertia.  Their  mass  is  close  to  the  average  rider’s  weight  and  can  be 
resonances, and additional inertia. Their mass is close to the average rider’s weight and can be adjusted
adjusted by adding or removing ballast. 
by adding or removing ballast.
The  main  structure  supporting  the  twin‐sledge  system  was  then  designed  using  commercial 
The main structure supporting the twin-sledge system was then designed using commercial
extruded aluminium modular components instead of a more traditional welded steel structure. The 
extruded aluminium modular components instead of a more traditional welded steel structure.
advantage of this solution is that the structure is lighter and easier to build in‐house, and the need 
The advantage of this solution is that the structure is lighter and easier to build in-house, and the need
for machined components was almost completely avoided. FEM (Finite Element Method) analysis 
for machined components was almost completely avoided. FEM (Finite Element Method) analysis
was  employed  to  ensure  that  natural  frequencies  of  the  structure  are  well  beyond  the  typical 
was employed to ensure that natural frequencies of the structure are well beyond the typical frequency
frequency range of vehicle ride dynamics. Moreover, bolted junctions can help to dampen vibrations 
range of vehicle ride dynamics. Moreover, bolted junctions can help to dampen vibrations more
more efficiently due to friction in the contact area. The schematic picture reported in Figure 4 shows 
efficiently due to friction in the contact area. The schematic picture reported in Figure 4 shows the
the final layout of the road simulator. 
final layout of the road simulator.

 
Figure 4. Schematic picture of the restraint system. 
Figure 4. Schematic picture of the restraint system.

A pivot mounted on low‐friction bushings is placed on the two previously‐mentioned sledges. 
A pivot mounted on low-friction bushings is placed on the two previously-mentioned sledges.
The pivot—whose axis requires careful alignment with the bike centre of gravity—is then connected 
The pivot—whose axis requires careful alignment with the bike centre of gravity—is then connected to
to the motorbike chassis via three conrods with ball‐joint ends to provide an isostatic restraint, so 
the motorbike chassis via three conrods with ball-joint ends to provide an isostatic restraint, so that
that pitch oscillation around the CG (Center of Gravity) is free (see Figures 4–6). 
pitch oscillation around the CG (Center of Gravity) is free (see Figures 4–6).
The  use  of  modular  aluminium  components  for  the  support  structure  makes  it  versatile  and 
The use of modular aluminium components for the support structure makes it versatile and
suitable for further developments. It can accommodate motorcycles of any size and geometry. 
suitable for further developments. It can accommodate motorcycles of any size and geometry.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220 5 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220  5 of 12 

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220  5 of 12 

 
 
Figure 5. Three conrods connect the bike main frame to the pivot on each side, providing an isostatic 
Figure 5. Three conrods connect the bike main frame to the pivot on each side, providing an isostatic
restraint. The centre of gravity of the bike is aligned with the pivot. 
Figure 5. Three conrods connect the bike main frame to the pivot on each side, providing an isostatic 
restraint. The centre of gravity of the bike is aligned with the pivot.
restraint. The centre of gravity of the bike is aligned with the pivot. 

 
 
Figure 6. The actual system with a test bike performing a frequency sweep test. 
Figure 6. The actual system with a test bike performing a frequency sweep test. 
2.2. Power and Braking Torque Application 
Figure 6. The actual system with a test bike performing a frequency sweep test.
2.2. Power and Braking Torque Application 
As stated in Section 2.1 and in [17] the interaction between vertical and longitudinal dynamics 
2.2. Power and Braking Torque Application
is not negligible, especially on sports and racing motorbikes. Since the target of the whole system is 
As stated in Section 2.1 and in [17] the interaction between vertical and longitudinal dynamics 
the simulation of ride characteristics when the vehicle is running in a straight line—from corner exit 
is not negligible, especially on sports and racing motorbikes. Since the target of the whole system is 
As stated in Section 2.1 and in [17] the interaction between vertical and longitudinal dynamics
under  power,  to  the  following  braking—a  device  which  simulates  the  application  of  power  and 
the simulation of ride characteristics when the vehicle is running in a straight line—from corner exit 
is not negligible, especially on sports and racing motorbikes. Since the target of the whole system
braking 
under  torque is 
power,  required. Such a system  should  not  provide  any additional  unsprung  mass and 
ofto ride
the  following  braking—a 
whendevice 
is theshould also leave the vertical wheel motion unaffected. 
simulation characteristics which 
the vehicle simulates 
is runningthe 
in application  of  power 
a straight line—from and 
corner
braking  torque is  required. Such a system  should  not  provide  any additional  unsprung  mass and 
exit underA cable system was purposely conceived (see Figures 4 and 7) which is compatible with small 
power, to the following braking—a device which simulates the application of power and
should also leave the vertical wheel motion unaffected. 
braking torque is required. Such a system should not provide any additional unsprung mass and
wheel displacements; the cable is tensioned by a pneumatic actuator controlled in closed‐loop force 
A cable system was purposely conceived (see Figures 4 and 7) which is compatible with small 
should also leave the vertical wheel motion unaffected.
mode. A fast response of the pneumatic actuators is not required since the rider input commands in 
wheel displacements; the cable is tensioned by a pneumatic actuator controlled in closed‐loop force 
acceleration and braking can be assumed as low‐frequency signals. This force (F1 in Figure 7) is then 
A cable system was purposely conceived (see Figures 4 and 7) which is compatible with small
mode. A fast response of the pneumatic actuators is not required since the rider input commands in 
wheeltransmitted  through 
displacements; thea cable
pulley isto  a  belt  made 
tensioned byof  Mylar®,  a  composite 
a pneumatic actuator material 
controlledcommonly  used  for force
in closed-loop
acceleration and braking can be assumed as low‐frequency signals. This force (F1 in Figure 7) is then 
mode. manufacturing high‐performance sails. The belt is bonded to the tyre tread as shown in Figures 8 
A fast response
transmitted  through of the pneumatic
a  pulley  actuators
to  a  belt  made  is not
of  Mylar required since the rider input commands
®,  a  composite  material  commonly  used  for 

and 9. The results of a shear force test, performed on the bonded components using an Instron
manufacturing high‐performance sails. The belt is bonded to the tyre tread as shown in Figures 8 
® test 
in acceleration and braking can be assumed as low-frequency signals. This force (F1 in Figure 7) is
and 9. The results of a shear force test, performed on the bonded components using an Instron
then transmitted through a pulley to a belt made of Mylar® , a composite material commonly  test 
®
used for
manufacturing high-performance sails. The belt is bonded to the tyre tread as shown in Figures 8 and 9.
The results of a shear force test, performed on the bonded components using an Instron® test rig
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220 6 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220  6 of 12 

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220  6 of 12 
rig (Instron Engineering Corp., Norwood, MA, USA), are shown in Figure 10. They show that all the 
(Instron Engineering Corp., Norwood, MA, USA), are shown in Figure 10. They show that all the
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220  6 of 12 
components (bonding included) can cope with this kind of stress. 
components (bonding included) can cope with this kind of stress.
rig (Instron Engineering Corp., Norwood, MA, USA), are shown in Figure 10. They show that all the 
The  chain (on (on thethe 
rearrear 
wheel,wheel,  for  power 
for power simulation) 
simulation)
components (bonding included) can cope with this kind of stress.  or  the 
or the front discfront 
brakedisc 
(for brake 
rig (Instron Engineering Corp., Norwood, MA, USA), are shown in Figure 10. They show that all the 
The chain braking(for  braking 
simulation)
simulation) must be locked to provide adequate torque transmission to the bike chassis. With regard 
components (bonding included) can cope with this kind of stress. 
must beThe  chain 
locked to (on  the  rear 
provide wheel, 
adequate for  power 
torque simulation) 
transmission or bike
to the the  chassis.
front  disc 
Withbrake  (for tobraking 
regard Figure 7,
to Figure 7, the belt system transmits the force F1 (generated by the pneumatic actuator) to the wheel 
the The  chain  (on  the 
therear  wheel,  for  power by
simulation)  or  the  front  disc 
to brake 
simulation) must be locked to provide adequate torque transmission to the bike chassis. With regard 
belt system transmits force F1 (generated the pneumatic actuator) (for  braking 
the wheel as a tractive
simulation) must be locked to provide adequate torque transmission to the bike chassis. With regard 
as a tractive force. The wheel is locked and reacts with force F2. The vertical component on the wheel 
to Figure 7, the belt system transmits the force F1 (generated by the pneumatic actuator) to the wheel 
force. The wheel is locked and reacts with force F2. The vertical component on the wheel is negligible
to Figure 7, the belt system transmits the force F1 (generated by the pneumatic actuator) to the wheel 
is negligible for small displacements of Z, hence, the small α angles. 
as a tractive force. The wheel is locked and reacts with force F2. The vertical component on the wheel 
for small displacements of Z, hence, the small α angles.
as a tractive force. The wheel is locked and reacts with force F2. The vertical component on the wheel 
is negligible for small displacements of Z, hence, the small α angles. 
is negligible for small displacements of Z, hence, the small α angles. 

 
  
Figure 7. The steel cable/fabric belt system kinematics. F1 is the pneumatic actuator force and F2 is 
Figure 7. The steel cable/fabric belt system kinematics. F1 is the pneumatic actuator force and F2 is the
Figure 7. The steel cable/fabric belt system kinematics. F1 is the pneumatic actuator force and F2 is 
Figure 7. The steel cable/fabric belt system kinematics. F1 is the pneumatic actuator force and F2 is 
the chain/front wheel hub reaction. 
chain/front wheel hub reaction.
the chain/front wheel hub reaction. 
the chain/front wheel hub reaction. 

 
   
Figure 8. Two separate Mylar belts are used to apply tractive and braking forces. 
Figure 8. Two separate Mylar belts are used to apply tractive and braking forces.
Figure 8. Two separate Mylar belts are used to apply tractive and braking forces. 
Figure 8. Two separate Mylar belts are used to apply tractive and braking forces. 

 
Figure 9. The actual setup of the Mylar belt as bonded to one tyre. 
 
 
Figure 9. The actual setup of the Mylar belt as bonded to one tyre. 
Figure 9. The actual setup of the Mylar belt as bonded to one tyre.
Figure 9. The actual setup of the Mylar belt as bonded to one tyre. 
 Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220  7 of 12 
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Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220 7 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220  7 of 12 

 
 
Figure 10. Shear force vs. elongation of a 41 mm Mylar belt bonded to the tyre tread. The test was 
Figure 10. Shear force vs. elongation of a 41 mm Mylar belt bonded to the tyre tread. The test was 
performed on an Instron machine. 
performed on an Instron machine.   
Figure 10. Shear force vs. elongation of a 41 mm Mylar belt bonded to the tyre tread. The test was 
2.3. Power and Braking Torque Control; Data Acquisition 
Figure 10. Shear force vs. elongation of a 41 mm Mylar belt bonded to the tyre tread. The test was
2.3. Power and Braking Torque Control; Data Acquisition 
performed on an Instron machine. 
In addition to the four‐poster controller, a separate control system was deemed necessary. The 
performed on an Instron machine.
In addition to the four‐poster controller, a separate control system was deemed necessary. The 
pneumatic actuators applying power and braking torques are controlled by a dedicated Labview
2.3. Power and Braking Torque Control; Data Acquisition 
® 
pneumatic actuators applying power and braking torques are controlled by a dedicated Labview® 
application via a CAN (Controller Area Network) line. Actuators, valves and pressure regulators are 
2.3. Power and Braking Torque Control; Data Acquisition
application via a CAN (Controller Area Network) line. Actuators, valves and pressure regulators are 
In addition to the four‐poster controller, a separate control system was deemed necessary. The 
off‐the‐shelf  components  while  the  force  is  measured  through  a  purposely  developed  load  cell  as 
off‐the‐shelf 
In addition components  while  the  force  is  measured  through  a  purposely  developed  load  cell  as 
pneumatic actuators applying power and braking torques are controlled by a dedicated Labview
to the four-poster controller, a separate control system was deemed necessary.
shown in Figure 11. The force is controlled in a closed‐loop and Figure 12 shows the tractive force vs. 
® 

shown in Figure 11. The force is controlled in a closed‐loop and Figure 12 shows the tractive force vs. 
application via a CAN (Controller Area Network) line. Actuators, valves and pressure regulators are 
actuators applying power and braking torques are controlled by a dedicated Labview®
speed as computed starting from the engine torque and transmission characteristics. The closed loop 
The pneumatic
speed as computed starting from the engine torque and transmission characteristics. The closed loop 
off‐the‐shelf  components  while  the  force  is  measured  through  a  purposely  developed  load  cell  as 
control system enables the simulation of a complete corner exit/straight line/braking cycle as well. 
application via a CAN (Controller Area Network) line. Actuators, valves and pressure regulators
control system enables the simulation of a complete corner exit/straight line/braking cycle as well. 
shown in Figure 11. The force is controlled in a closed‐loop and Figure 12 shows the tractive force vs. 
The Labview
are off-the-shelf
® software (National Instruments, Austin, TX, USA) has been used in conjunction 
components while the force is measured through a purposely developed load cell as
The Labview ® software (National Instruments, Austin, TX, USA) has been used in conjunction 
speed as computed starting from the engine torque and transmission characteristics. The closed loop 
with  a  National  Instruments  acquisition  card  for  data  logging.  Unsprung  mass  acceleration, 
shown in Figure 11. The force
with  a  National  Instruments  is controlled
acquisition in card 
a closed-loop and Figure
for  data  logging.  12 shows
Unsprung  the acceleration, 
mass 
control system enables the simulation of a complete corner exit/straight line/braking cycle as well.  tractive force vs.
suspension  displacements,  and  vertical  road  loads  are  measured  on  both  front  and  rear  ends.  In 
speedsuspension 
as computed starting
displacements, 
The Labview from
and the engine
vertical  torque
road  loads and
are transmission characteristics.
measured  on  both  Theends. 
front  and  rear 
® software (National Instruments, Austin, TX, USA) has been used in conjunction  closedIn loop
addition, two linear potentiometers control the roll angle in the case a structural failure eventually 
controladdition, two linear potentiometers control the roll angle in the case a structural failure eventually 
system
with  a  enables
National  the simulation
Instruments  of a complete
acquisition  card  for corner
data  exit/straight
logging.  line/braking
Unsprung  mass  cycle as well.
acceleration, 
occurs on the motorcycle restraint system. 
occurs on the motorcycle restraint system. 
suspension  displacements,  and  vertical  road  loads  are  measured  on  both  front  and  rear  ends.  In 
addition, two linear potentiometers control the roll angle in the case a structural failure eventually 
occurs on the motorcycle restraint system. 

 
 
Figure 11. A load cell was purposely designed to measure simulated braking and tractive forces. 
Figure 11. A load cell was purposely designed to measure simulated braking and tractive forces.
Figure 11. A load cell was purposely designed to measure simulated braking and tractive forces. 
 
Figure 11. A load cell was purposely designed to measure simulated braking and tractive forces. 

 
 
Figure 12. Power torque curves and transmission characteristics used to simulate the acceleration phase.
 
The Labview® software (National Instruments, Austin, TX, USA) has been used in conjunction
with a National Instruments acquisition card for data logging. Unsprung mass acceleration, suspension
displacements, and vertical road loads are measured on both front and rear ends. In addition, two
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220 8 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220  8 of 12 
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220  8 of 12 

linearFigure  12.  Power  torque 

potentiometers controlcurves  and angle
the roll transmission  characteristics 
in the case a structural used  to  simulate 
failure the  acceleration 
eventually occurs on the
Figure 
phase.  12.  Power  torque  curves  and  transmission  characteristics  used  to  simulate  the  acceleration 
motorcycle restraint system.
phase. 
3. Results
3. Results 
3. Results 
3.1. Sweep Test
3.1. Sweep Test 
3.1. Sweep Test 
First
First  of
of  all,
all,  two
two  tests
tests  have
have  been
been  performed in order
performed  in  order  toto  verify
verify  the
the  proper
proper  functionality
functionality  ofof  the
the 
First 
designed of 
ride all,  two 
simulator. tests 
Thehave  been 
frequency performed 
response in 
has order 
been to  verify 
evaluated the 
for proper 
both frontfunctionality 
designed  ride  simulator.  The  frequency  response  has  been  evaluated  for  both  front  and  rear and rear of 
unsprungthe 
designed 
masses
unsprung  as ride 
well simulator. 
masses  as as  the The 
forwell  sprungfrequency 
as  for  mass
the  ofresponse 
a test
sprung  mass  has 
motorbike.
of  been 
a  test  evaluated 
Figure for  both 
13 shows
motorbike.  Figure  the front  and 
the  rear 
rear unsprung
13  shows  rear 
unsprung 
mass masses 
frequency as  well 
response as  for 
obtained the  sprung 
with a mass 
frequency of  a 
sweeptest  motorbike. 
at constant Figure 
vertical
unsprung  mass  frequency  response  obtained  with  a  frequency  sweep  at  constant  vertical  13  shows  the 
acceleration rear 
while
unsprung 
Figure mass the
14 shows frequency 
sprung massresponse  obtained 
frequency with 
response fora a frequency 
front wheelsweep 
with the
acceleration while Figure 14 shows the sprung mass frequency response for a front wheel with the  at same
constant  vertical 
kind of input
acceleration while Figure 14 shows the sprung mass frequency response for a front wheel with the 
(no quantitative results or comments are issued for confidentiality).
same kind of input (no quantitative results or comments are issued for confidentiality). 
same kind of input (no quantitative results or comments are issued for confidentiality). 

 
 
Figure 13. Rear unsprung mass frequency response. A piezometric accelerometer is fitted on the rear 
Figure 13. Rear unsprung mass frequency response. A piezometric accelerometer is fitted on the
Figure 13. Rear unsprung mass frequency response. A piezometric accelerometer is fitted on the rear 
wheel  hub.  “A”  is  the  sprung  mass  frequency  contribution,  “B”  and  “C”  are  the  front  and  rear 
rear wheel
wheel  hub. hub.
“A” “A” is the
is  the  sprung
sprung  mass
mass  frequency
frequency  contribution,
contribution,  “B” “B” and “C”are 
arethe 
thefront 
front and 
and rear 
rear
unsprung  mass  frequency  contributions  respectively  while  “D”  is and 
the “C” 
contribution  of  the  sprung 
unsprung
unsprung  mass frequency contributions respectively while “D” is the contribution of the sprung mass
mass  frequency  contributions  respectively  while  “D”  is  the  contribution  of  the  sprung 
mass pitch movement. 
pitch movement.
mass pitch movement. 

 
 
Figure 14. Sprung mass frequency response due to the front wheel frequency sweep. A piezometric 
Figure 14. Sprung mass frequency response due to the front wheel frequency sweep. A piezometric 
accelerometer is located at the centre of gravity. 
Figure 14. Sprung mass frequency response due to the front wheel frequency sweep. A piezometric
accelerometer is located at the centre of gravity. 
accelerometer is located at the centre of gravity.
3.2. Road Surface Reproduction 
3.2. Road Surface Reproduction 
The road surface reproduction control system has been used in order to test the system further. 
The road surface reproduction control system has been used in order to test the system further. 
The four‐poster itself features the possibility to reproduce any road surface accurately, starting from 
The four‐poster itself features the possibility to reproduce any road surface accurately, starting from 
a  real‐world  acquisition,  and  then  using  a  complex  iterative  deconvolution  process  [18–21].  This 
a  real‐world  acquisition,  and  then  using  a  complex  iterative  deconvolution  process  [18–21].  This 
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220 9 of 12

3.2. Road Surface Reproduction

The road surface reproduction control system has been used in order to test the system further.
The four-poster itself features the possibility to reproduce any road surface accurately, starting
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220  9 of 12 
from a real-world acquisition, and then using a complex iterative deconvolution process [18–21].
This controller is separate from the one employed to “play” standard waveforms and used
controller is separate from the one employed to “play” standard waveforms and used to perform 
to perform standard tests as reported in Section 3.1. Each actuator (i.e., each wheel) can be
standard  tests  as  reported  in  Section  3.1.  Each  actuator  (i.e.,  each  wheel)  can  be  controlled 
controlled independently.
independently. 
Two different tests at constant speed are shown here. The first one corresponds to a paved road at
Two different tests at constant speed are shown here. The first one corresponds to a paved road 
100 km/h, while the second one corresponds to a speed hump taken at 30 km/h. Results are shown in
at 100 km/h, while the second one corresponds to a speed hump taken at 30 km/h. Results are shown 
Figures 15 and 16. It is worth highlighting that the difference between time histories of road and rig
in Figures 15 and 16. It is worth highlighting that the difference between time histories of road and 
profiles is not visible when overlapping the two data streams because the system performance is very
rig profiles is not visible when overlapping the two data streams because the system performance is 
good. Therefore, the absolute error has been reported for each sensor as well.
very good. Therefore, the absolute error has been reported for each sensor as well. 

 
Figure 15. Test performed on smooth paved road at 100 km/h. 
Figure 15. Test performed on smooth paved road at 100 km/h.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220 10 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220  10 of 12 

 
Figure 16. Test performed on a speed hump at 30 km/h. 
Figure 16. Test performed on a speed hump at 30 km/h.

4. Discussion 
4. Discussion
Figures 13 and 14 report the frequency responses of the rear wheel and the sprung mass under 
Figures 13 and 14 report the frequency responses of the rear wheel and the sprung mass under
different constant acceleration frequency sweeps. 
different constant acceleration frequency sweeps.
Figure  13  shows  the  influence  of  unsprung  mass,  front  wheel,  and  pitch  movement  natural 
Figure 13 shows the influence of unsprung mass, front wheel, and pitch movement natural
frequencies on the rear wheel frequency response. The low‐frequency contribution to the response 
frequencies on the rear wheel frequency response. The low-frequency contribution to the response
comes from the unsprung mass (A) with the highest module, as expected. Respectively, (B) and (C) 
comes from the unsprung mass (A) with the highest module, as expected. Respectively, (B) and (C) are
are the frequency contribution due to front wheel and rear wheel natural frequencies while (D) is the 
the frequency contribution due to front wheel and rear wheel natural frequencies while (D) is the pitch
pitch movement natural frequency. 
movement natural frequency.
In Figure 14 the sprung mass natural frequency is clearly visible at the same frequency of the 
In Figure 14 the sprung mass natural frequency is clearly visible at the same frequency of the one
one reported in Figure 13 (again, A). In this case, the frequency contribution coming from the front 
reported in Figure 13 (again, A). In this case, the frequency contribution coming from the front wheel
wheel and rear wheel natural frequencies are much less visible due to the filtering action achieved 
and rear wheel natural frequencies are much less visible due to the filtering action achieved by the
by the respective suspension systems. 
respective suspension systems.
All these results are in line with the expected frequency response characteristics computed with 
All these results are in line with the expected frequency response characteristics computed with
vehicle  mass,  inertia,  and  wheel  rate  data  as  input.  They  are  also  congruent  with  the  theory  of 
vehicle mass, inertia, and wheel rate data as input. They are also congruent with the theory of
motorcycle vertical dynamics as outlined in [17], chapter 5 (In‐Plane Dynamics), proving the ability 
motorcycle vertical dynamics as outlined in [17], chapter 5 (In-Plane Dynamics), proving the ability of
of  the  system  to  reproduce  the  vertical  response  of  an  unrestrained  bike  during  its  straight‐line 
the system to reproduce the vertical response of an unrestrained bike during its straight-line motion.
motion. Similar considerations are also reported in [22]. 
Similar considerations are also reported in [22].
Figures 15 and 16 report comparisons between real‐world and rig‐generated road profiles. It is 
Figures 15 and 16 report comparisons between real-world and rig-generated road profiles. It is worth
worth highlighting that the difference between time histories of real‐world road and rig‐generated 
highlighting that the difference between time histories of real-world road and rig-generated profiles is not
profiles is not visible when overlapping the two data streams since it is very small. Therefore, the 
visible when overlapping the two data streams since it is very small. Therefore, the absolute error has been
absolute error  has  been  reported  for each  sensor  as well.  This  is an indication  of  the  effectiveness 
reported for each sensor as well. This is an indication of the effectiveness achieved with the system.
achieved with the system. 
A test performed on good quality, smooth road pavement at 100 km/h is reported in Figure 15.
A test performed on good quality, smooth road pavement at 100 km/h is reported in Figure 15. 
It shows very low acceleration and wheel displacement levels. Under these conditions the system
It shows very low acceleration and wheel displacement levels. Under these conditions the system 
can replicate real-world road data very well, with a maximum absolute error value (MAE) of 0.32% for
can replicate real‐world road data very well, with a maximum absolute error value (MAE) of 0.32% 
unsprung mass acceleration and 0.25% for suspension displacement. The RMS error is 0.20% in both cases.
for unsprung mass acceleration and 0.25% for suspension displacement. The RMS error is 0.20% in 
both cases. 
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1220 11 of 12

Results of a test performed on a speed hump are shown in Figure 16. The road input is akin to an
impulse. Under this condition the system is still able to simulate motorcycle dynamics accurately since
the acceleration MAE is 0.95%, the suspension displacement MAE is 0.98%, the pitch angle MAE is
0.98% while the RMS error is 0.45%. It is worth noticing that the pitch angle does not return to zero
after the speed hump because the motorcycle is accelerating.

5. Conclusions
A road simulator rig for motorcycles has been designed and built by the Vehicle Dynamics group
of the University of Brescia. It is based on a dedicated restraint system conceived to support a real-world
bike on a Servotest® four-poster without affecting its peculiar dynamics, since the bike mass and inertia
properties have not been altered, together with the related dynamic response. In addition to the vertical
action of the servo-hydraulic actuators a unique device for application of the braking and tractive forces
has been added. The longitudinal force reproduction device is powered by two independent pneumatic
actuators. The system has been successfully tested by performing some frequency sweep tests (among
others) that provided a realistic dynamic response, as proven by the FFT plots reported in Section 3.
As a further proof of the ability of the proposed system to accurately reproduce motorcycle dynamics
during straight running, it has been tested on different road surfaces, using road reproduction control as
featured by the original four-poster rig system. A comparison of real-world data with results obtained
with the simulator showed negligible errors, as reported in Section 4.
The proposed motorcycle road simulator can be considered capable of providing reliable and
effective reproduction of the actual motorbike behaviour in terms of vertical dynamics.

Author Contributions: M. Gadola and D. Armellin conceived and designed the experiment, F. Marchesin
performed tests and experiments, D. Chindamo analysed data and wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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