Automation in Construction 18 (2009) 164–172

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Automation in Construction
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / a u t c o n

Web-based conceptual cost estimates for construction projects using Evolutionary

Fuzzy Neural Inference Model
Min-Yuan Cheng, Hsing-Chih Tsai ⁎, Wen-Shan Hsieh
Department of Construction Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, #43, Sec. 4, Keelung Rd., Taipei, Taiwan, ROC 106

A R T I C L E I N F O a b s t r a c t

Article history: Conceptual cost estimates, the basis of project evaluation, engineering design, cost budgeting, and cost
Accepted 12 July 2008 management, not only play an essential role in construction project feasibility studies, but are fundamental
to a project's ultimate success. As practiced today, construction cost estimates generally rely on experts'
Keywords: intuitive experience. Scientific methods should be developed and employed during project planning and
Construction cost
design stages in order to raise conceptual cost estimate accuracy. This study proposes the use of an artificial
Conceptual estimates
Genetic Algorithms
intelligence approach, the Evolutionary Fuzzy Neural Inference Model (EFNIM), to improve cost estimation
Fuzzy Logic accuracy. The advantages inherent in Genetic Algorithms, Fuzzy Logic and Neural Networks are incorporated
Neural Networks into the EFNIM, making this model highly applicable to identifying optimal solutions for complex problems.
Furthermore, this paper presents Evolutionary Web-based Conceptual Cost Estimators (EWCCE) obtained by
integrating EFNIM, WWW, and historical construction data to assist in project management. The developed
EWCCE provides two kinds of estimators that can be deployed to estimate conceptual construction cost more
precisely during the early stages of projects.
Crown Copyright © 2008 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Cost estimates are fundamental to all project-related engineering
and greatly influence planning, design, bidding, cost management/
budgeting and even construction management. Such estimates allow
owners and planners to evaluate project feasibility and control costs
effectively in detailed project design work. Due to the limited
availability of information during the early stages of a project,
construction managers typically leverage their knowledge, experience
and estimators to estimate project costs, i.e., they usually rely on their
intuition. Researchers have worked to develop cost estimators that
maximize the practical value of limited information available in order
to improve cost estimate accuracy and reliability, which should
improve the suitability of resultant designs and subsequent project
execution work.
Traditionally, cost estimating models have been developed using
statistical methods [26]. Regression analysis represents a traditional
alternative [5,16], an inherent disadvantage of which is its
requirement of a defined mathematical form for cost functions. In
addition, traditional methods are hampered in estimating accurate
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +886 2 27376663, +886 2 27301277; fax: +886 2
27301074.
E-mail addresses: myc@mail.ntust.edu.tw (M.Y. Cheng), tsaihsingchih@gmail.com
(H.-C. Tsai).
project costs due to the large number of significant variables and
the interactions thereof. Thus, traditional methods have limited
applicability.
Artificial intelligence approaches are applicable to cost estimating
problems related to expert systems, case-based reasoning (CBR),
Neural Networks (NNs), Fuzzy Logic (FL), Genetic Algorithms (GAs),
and derivatives of such. Many research studies have been done in this
area. For instance, an integrated knowledge-based system for
alternative design decisions, materials selection and cost estimating,
used mainly in pre-design analysis, was proposed by Mohamed and
Celik [23]. Serpell [25] proposed a model of this problem based on
existing knowledge and demonstrated how the model was used to
develop a knowledge-based assessment system. Arditi and Suh [3]
developed an expert system to present decision criteria developed to
classify available cost estimating packages. An et al. [2] developed a
case-based reasoning model, where an analytic hierarchy process was
employed to incorporate experience. Yau and Yang [29] applied CBR to
estimate at the preliminary design stage the construction project
implementation duration and costs. NNs represent the most fre-
quently applied approach in this type of application. Wilmot and Mei
[27] developed an NN model to estimate highway construction cost
escalation over time. Adeli and Wu [1] also employed NNs to estimate
highway construction cost and identified noises in the data. Williams
[28] used NNs to predict change in the ENR construction cost index
and concluded that the back-propagation neural network model
cannot accurately predict cost index movement due to the complex-
ities involved.

0926-5805/$ – see front matter. Crown Copyright © 2008 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2008.07.001
 M.-Y. Cheng et al. / Automation in Construction 18 (2009) 164–172 165

2. Brief introductions of Genetic Algorithms, Fuzzy Logic, and

Neural Networks

2.1. Genetic Algorithms

Genetic Algorithms (GAs), which imitate parts of the natural

evolution process, were first proposed by Holland [14]. GAs are
stochastic search approaches inspired by natural evolution that
involve crossover, mutation, and evaluation of survival fitness. Genetic
operators work from initial generation to offspring in order to evolve
an optimal solution through generations. Also, its relatively straight-
forward and simple implementation procedure gives the GA excep-
Fig. 1. EFNIM architecture. tional flexibility to hybridize with domain-dependent heuristics to
create effective implementation solutions tailored to specific pro-
blems. Based on its merits, the potential of using GA in optimization
Furthermore, hybrid models have also been developed to estimate techniques has been intensively studied [8]. However, simple GA is
construction costs. Rao et al. [24] developed a hybrid neural-expert difficult to apply directly and successfully to a large range of difficult-
system approach to obtain conceptual cost estimates for construction to-solve optimization problems [22].
projects. Hegazy and Ayed [13] used NNs to develop a parametric cost
estimating model for highway projects, with optimal NNs weightings 2.2. Fuzzy Logic
optimized by GAs. Kim et al. [17] applied hybrid models of NNs and
GAs to residential building cost estimation in order to predict Zadeh [31] first proposed Fuzzy Logic as a tool with which to
preliminary cost estimates. In the two models which they developed, describe uncertainty and imprecision. Because FL imitates the high-
one used GAs to optimize back-propagation network parameters and order mode in which the human brain makes decisions in the face of
the other employed GAs to determine NNs weightings. Elhag [4] uncertainty or vagueness, it provides an effective way for automated
developed a neurofuzzy system to predict construction project cost systems to describe highly complex, ill-defined, or difficult-to-
and duration. Yu et al. [30] proposed a web-based intelligent cost analyze subjects. In general, Fuzzy Logic is composed of a fuzzifier,
estimator that incorporated a neurofuzzy system. rule base, inference engine and defuzzifier [6]. The FL approach still
In past research work, NNs, GAs, and FL have been employed for has certain problems to overcome such as membership function
their powerful abilities to estimate construction costs. They are widely configuration, composition operator determination, and application-
applied as well to other topics and even to fields unrelated to the specific fuzzy rule acquisition [21]. Although the FL parameters can be
construction industry. NNs provide the ability to learn from past data determined using the experience and knowledge of experts,
and generalize solutions for future applications; FL allows tolerance of determining these parameters in the absence of such experts remains
real world imprecision and uncertainty; and GAs can be applied difficult for particularly complex problems [10].
toward the global optimizations of parameters. The feasibilities of
these three approaches have already been evidenced, although none
represent an ideal solution when applied alone.
Various critical factors must be identified in order to estimate
construction costs effectively. Factors that impact on various project
stages (i.e., conceptual, design, tendering, and preconstruction stages)
should be identified individually to improve estimation accuracy [20].
Because preliminary estimates greatly influence subsequent cost
management, the accuracy of preliminary estimation work is of
critical importance. Therefore, conceptual cost estimate accuracy at
the early stage of construction projects has been a major concern and
focus of study for the past four decades.
This study applied the Evolutionary Fuzzy Neural Inference Model
(EFNIM) [7], which joins together Genetic Algorithms (GAs), Fuzzy
Logic (FL) and Neural Networks (NNs) to obtain conceptual cost
estimates for construction projects. Within the EFNIM, GAs optimize
NN topology/weightings and distribute FL membership functions
(MFs) [15]; FL is used as the fuzzy inference mechanism to describe
inputs/outputs [10]; and NNs tune MF shapes and extract fuzzy rules
from training data [9]. This study further developed Evolutionary
Web-based Conceptual Cost Estimators (EWCCE) that involves WWW
and EFNIM. Two kinds of estimates – overall estimates (total cost
estimates) and category estimates (estimating respectively with
engineering categories) – were provided at the planning or pre-
liminary design stage. For each construction project, an overall cost
estimate was provided, with value of construction cost per unit area
according to in-situ conditions and preliminary design concepts. In
addition, category cost estimates were determined based on various
engineering categories (i.e., temporary, geotechnical, structural,
decorative, electromechanical, miscellaneous, and indirect construc-
tion). Category estimates offer more reference opportunities than
overall estimates due to the more detailed data involved. Fig. 2. The EFNIM adaptation process.
166 M.-Y. Cheng et al. / Automation in Construction 18 (2009) 164–172
Fig. 3. Membership functions: (a) trapezoidal MF; (b) triangle MF; (c) complete MF set.
2.3. Neural Networks
Neural Networks focus primarily on computing and storing
information within a structure composed of many neurons. Because
NNs imitate the human brain in terms of learning, recall and
generalization, they are usually designed to solve non-linear or ill-
structured problems [12]. The NN model frequently used is
multilayer perceptron learning with error back-propagation. How-
ever, appropriate NN structures and parameters are essential to
accurate problem assessment. As the optimal network topology is
highly problem-oriented, such are difficult to determine [19]. In
addition, some real world applications are hampered by lack of
training techniques able to find reliably a global optimum set of
weights [15].
3. Evolutionary Fuzzy Neural Inference Model (EFNIM)
3.1. EFNIM framework
The EFNIM developed in this paper employs Genetic Algorithms,
Fuzzy Logic and Neural Networks (see Fig. 1), the complementary
combination of which maximizes the positive merits of each and
helps compensate for inherent weaknesses in any one of the three
alone. GAs are used for optimization; FL deals with uncertainties and
handles approximate inferences; and NNs are employed in fuzzy
input–output mapping.
Although FL can describe the high-order human inference
process, making decisions regarding the appropriate distribution
Fig. 4. EWCCE system, conceptual planning.
of membership functions, operator composition and regulations is
not easy. The EFNIM introduces NNs to resolve this issue as well as
to infuse into the FL a capacity for self-learning. The combination of
the FL and NNs is regarded as a “neuro with fuzzy input–output,”
i.e., a neural network with both fuzzy inputs and fuzzy outputs. For
convenience, the term “neuro with fuzzy input–output” is called
Fuzzy Neural Network (FNN), which is a general phrase used to
express the fusion/union of FL and NNs [11]. Even if FNN is more
relevant than either the traditional FL in the inference process or the
single NN in the imitating process, determining the MF distribution
and NNs parameters (e.g., topology, training rules) remains difficult.
GAs represent an effective approach to overcoming FNN drawbacks
[10]. GAs, which is applied to optimization over wide territories,
addresses the above-mentioned problems by searching for optimal
MFs and identifying optimum network parameters. The EFNIM is
able to self-adapt, as shown in Fig. 2, where P(t) represents ξ
parents in generation t; PO(t) means that performing crossover ξ
parents yield σ children; PM(t) means τ mutant individuals. The
EFNIM can be constructed once all these constituent components
are in place.
Generally, piecewise linear approximations are frequently used
such as trapezoid MFs and triangle MFs [18] (see Fig. 3). A general way
to represent MFs is to describe MFs with independent summit points
and widths. Therefore, a Summit and Width Representation Method
(SWRM) is proposed to encode MFs herein. This study adopts
complete trapezoid MF sets (see Fig. 3(c)). As a desired number of
MFs is chosen, the MF sets, including two shoulder MFs, can be
represented with SWRM. The two shoulder MFs are all attributes of
 M.-Y. Cheng et al. / Automation in Construction 18 (2009) 164–172 167

Table 1 connections in the defuzzification layer can be treated similar to

Overall estimator impact factors weight values in the NN part.
Features Impact factors Values or units
Quantitative factors 1. Floors underground Floors 4. Evolutionary Web-based Conceptual Cost Estimators (EWCCE)
2. Total floor area m2
3. Floors aboveground Floors 4.1. EWCCE system concept
4. Site area m2
5. Number of households Households
6. Households in adjacent buildings Households Data management and convenient access are the two critical
Qualitative factors 7. Soil condition Stiff, medium, soft elements to consider when employing EFNIM to develop conceptual
8. Seismic zone Type A, B cost estimators. As above concept, database management and
9. Interior decoration Luxurious, common, basic Internet environment were used intuitively to implement the
10. Electromechanical infrastructure Luxurious, common, basic
proposed EWCCE system, the concept of which is shown in Fig. 4.
Important data, stored in the database, can be handled in the system
as developed via onscreen interface buttons. Users can access the
one independent summit and one width, and other MFs have two EWCCE system via the World Wide Web. The Evolutionary Fuzzy
independent summits and two widths. All the independent summits Neural Inference System (EFNIS), which implements EFNIM, is used
(sui) and widths (wii) will be consequently encoded into the FL part of for intelligent knowledge mapping.
a GA chromosome. The aforementioned MFs dominate the fuzzifica-
tion layer. Besides, there are hidden NN layers and the eventual 4.2. Knowledge description of conceptual construction cost
defuzzification layer remained. The NN parameters including inter-
connections, weight values, bias values, and the slopes of activation Two conceptual cost estimators, i.e. overall and category estima-
functions are all encoded into the NN part of a GA chromosome. The tors, were developed as the basis for EWCCE. Various factors should be

Table 2
Category Estimator Impact Factors

Engineering Features Impact factors Values or units

Temporary construction QT 1. Site area m2
QT 2. Floors underground Floors
QT 3. Floors aboveground Floors
QT 4. Total floor area m2
Geotechnical construction QT 1. Site area m2
QT 2. Excavation depth m
QT 3. Floors underground Floors
QT 4. Households in adjacent buildings Households
QL 5. Soil condition Stiff, medium, soft
QL 6. Bracing system Tied-back, inside bracing
QL 7. Retaining structure None, sheet-pile, soldier pile, rail pile, diaphragm wall, others
Structural construction QT 1. Total floor area m2
QT 2. Floors underground Floors
QT 3. Floors aboveground Floors
QT 4. Area of exterior wall m2
QL 5. Seismic zone Type A, B
QL 6. Soil condition Stiff, medium, soft
QL 7. Type of foundations Raft, pile
QL 8. Type of Excavation Partial-braced, top–down, bottom–up, slope excavation
Decorative construction QT 1. Total floor area m2
QT 2. Area of exterior wall m2
QT 3. Households planned Households
QT 4. Type of flooring Ceramic tile, archaized brick, quartz tile, terrazzo tile, wooden, granite tile
QT 5. Type of ceiling Emulsion paint, light rigid frame, waterproof, wood board, calcium silicate board, metal
QT 6. Interior wall decoration Emulsion paint, ceramic tile, granite tile
QT 7. Exterior wall decoration Strip tile, facial cut terrazzo, facial washed terrazzo, granite tile, curtain wall, cast plate
QT 8. Material of doors Wooden, aluminum, copper vitriol, stainless steel, fireproof
QT 9. Material of Windows Aluminum, plastic–steel, airtight, stainless steel
Electromechanical infrastructure QT 1. Total floor area m2
QT 2. Households planned Households
QT 3. Elevators Number
QL 4. Air conditioner Non-central, central
QL 5. Kitchen Luxurious, common, basic
QL 6. Shower room Luxurious, common, basic
QL 7. Fire control Common, basic
QL 8. Parking Mechanic parking system, parking lot
Miscellaneous construction QT 1. Site area m2
QT 2. Total floor area m2
QT 3. Households planned Households
QT 4. Floors underground Floors
QT 5. Floors aboveground Floors
Indirect construction QT 1. Total floor area m2
QT 2. Floors underground Floors
QT 3. Floors aboveground Floors
QL 4. Type of excavation Partial-braced, top–down, bottom–up, slope excavation

Notations: QT-Quantitative factor; QL-Qualitative factor.

168 M.-Y. Cheng et al. / Automation in Construction 18 (2009) 164–172
Fig. 5. EWCCE procedure applied to construction projects.
identified to describe these two construction cost estimates at the
planning (or preliminary) design stage. Key factors were identified
after a review of the literature, brainstorming, and the drafting of an
influence diagram and hierarchy of objective techniques. In the
planning stage of projects (i.e. initial design has not yet been
Fig. 6. EWCCE system architecture.
Fig. 7. System working environment.
produced), the overall estimator is identified by six quantitative
factors and four qualitative ones, here listed in Table 1. These factors
will be treated as EFNIS inputs.
Once a project design has been drafted, category cost estimators
can be employed to calculate engineering cost by categories.
Comparing with the overall estimate, the summation of all category
estimates is another alternative. Therefore, the category estimators
will be more applicable and useful to the overall estimator for project
management. One category estimate will be evaluated for each en-
gineering category according to particular factors. There were seven
types of engineering work generalized for category construction cost
estimates. Their impact factors are listed in Table 2 by categories.
The range of construction project data spans the years 1997
through 2001. Construction cost range was assigned between $373.5
and $933.7 per square meter. All 28 projects were designed using
reinforced concrete in main structural members. All but five (23) cases
were used as training cases, with the remainder (5) used for testing
the approach in this paper. As shown in Table 1, 10 inputs were set as
the overall construction cost estimator and one output served as the
overall estimate of total unit cost (i.e., construction cost per square
meter). Seven category estimates (respective outputs, i.e. unit cost by
categories) are calculated by engineering category in Table 2, where 4
 M.-Y. Cheng et al. / Automation in Construction 18 (2009) 164–172 169

Table 3 4.3. EWCCE system design

Testing results of overall estimates

Case no. Actual output ($/m2) Desired output ($/m2) Diff. ($/m2) EWCCE was developed to meet the goal of assisting construction
1 456.9 575.0 118.1 project planning and design through the use of evaluated cost
2 651.0 525.9 −125.1 estimates. The uses of EWCCE should be identified first. In Fig. 5, an
3 556.0 458.8 −97.3 overall construction cost estimator is used in the preliminary planning
4 830.3 790.1 − 40.2
stage, when detailed project plans have not yet been drafted.
5 596.9 661.4 64.5
Preliminary plans can be drafted with in-situ investigations and
Notations: Diff. = Actual − Desired. identified demands, after which the generated overall cost estimate
can be used to check the relevance and accuracy of those plans. Initial
inputs for temporary construction; 7 inputs for geotechnical con- design will be done next in the planning stage, and then demands and
struction; 8 for structural construction; 9 for interior decoration; 8 for designs will be checked against category estimates. Detailed planning
electromechanical infrastructure; 5 for miscellaneous construction; and design can be executed once all data and estimates meet project
and 4 for indirect construction. Construction costs used as training management needs. These conceptual estimates significantly influ-
targets reflect Taiwan's published price index for calendar year 2001. ence project construction and management.
Therefore, the proposed estimators are capable of dealing with unit Once the practicality of EWCCE has been confirmed, the system
price fluctuation of the wok and material items in the market. architecture can be designed (see Fig. 6). User interface should be done

Fig. 8. Model phenotype of overall cost estimation.

170 M.-Y. Cheng et al. / Automation in Construction 18 (2009) 164–172

Table 4 ranged from 1 to 5. The model uses trapezoidal MFs with widths in
Testing results for category estimates the range. Five fuzzification grades were set for each input and each
Engineering Case no. Actual output Desired output Diff. Ratio of input variable used its individual complete MFs sets. The crossover
categories ($/m2) ($/m2) ($/m2) category rate for simulation was 0.9, and the mutation rate was 0.025 per bit.
cost (%) Because the output is not binary, the sigmoid function was chosen for
Temporary 1 11.9 17.4 5.5 2.12 activation, with its slope set in the range of 1 to 6. Limitation of
construction 2 24.2 26.8 2.6 4.28
generation number was set as 3000 (iterations). The population size
3 14.0 10.5 −3.5 2.78
4 15.0 16.8 1.8 2.11 is 50.
5 14.6 17.9 3.3 2.30
Geotechnical 1 31.4 49.2 17.9 5.60 5.1. Overall construction cost estimator results
construction 2 88.9 27.2 −61.6 15.72
3 32.6 41.2 8.5 6.49
4 90.2 136.4 46.2 12.69
This estimates construction cost, obtained while the project is in
5 55.9 52.8 −3.1 8.81 the preliminary concept stage, i.e. without detailed engineering plans
Structural 1 157.4 175.9 18.5 28.08 organized by category, has significant bearing on detailed planning.
construction 2 147.1 147.5 0.4 26.03 Estimation is fraught with uncertainty and vagueness due to
3 176.5 147.3 − 29.2 35.07
incomplete and complex data. As results are not easily expressed in
4 142.2 135.7 −6.5 20.00
5 180.9 166.0 − 15.0 28.52 a formula, such typically relies heavily on the intuition of engineers
Interior decoration 1 160.4 137.5 − 22.9 28.61 working on the project. EFNIM is quite applicable for this problem
2 134.8 175.1 40.3 23.85 owing to its capacity for inference. After a process of evolutionary
3 146.8 166.7 19.9 29.16 training, achieved through applying the 23 training cases, five testing
4 241.8 239.5 −2.4 34.01
results are shown in Table 3. The result model structure of this overall
5 186.2 196.7 10.5 29.35
Electromechanical 1 134.4 136.1 1.7 23.98 cost estimate is shown in Fig. 8.
infrastructure 2 105.3 87.8 −17.6 18.64
3 82.7 64.8 −17.9 16.43 5.2. Category construction cost estimator results
4 154.3 178.3 24.0 21.71
5 112.5 135.9 23.3 17.74
Miscellaneous 1 19.1 19.4 0.3 3.40 Although the overall construction cost estimator has been devel-
construction 2 25.8 26.0 0.2 4.57 oped, construction plans in each category must still be designed.
3 20.6 6.8 − 13.8 4.09 Construction costs for engineering categories should be estimated to
4 18.6 32.6 14.0 2.62 ensure costs are controlled effectively and facilitate project manage-
5 30.2 24.8 −5.5 4.77
ment. Although it is difficult to completely categorize construction
Indirect 1 46.0 39.4 −6.6 8.21
Construction 2 39.1 35.6 −3.5 6.91 work into types of engineering, such is essential in order to estimate
3 30.1 21.6 −8.6 5.99 category cost values and helpful in project planning and design. Table 4
4 48.8 50.8 2.0 6.86 not only shows estimation results, but also category cost ratios. It is
5 54.0 67.3 13.3 8.51
apparent that category cost ratios bear significantly on project
Total construction 1 560.619 575.022 14.403 100%
cost 2 565.160 525.933 − 39.227 100%
planning and design. This result allows cost management to be
3 503.268 458.768 −44.500 100% effectively implemented into construction engineering categories.
4 710.965 790.127 79.162 100% There are seven cost estimation models trained. The structural
5 634.408 661.409 27.001 100% construction cost which significantly influences the total cost is
Notations: Diff = Actual − Desired. shown in its result model structure (see Fig. 9).
Ratio of category cost = Actual category cost / Total actual construction cost.
5.3. Comparisons between overall and category estimates

through the Internet based on the developed estimators and historical
data in the host database.
4.4. EWCCE system development
The architecture of the EWCCE system involves identifying the
tools used to develop system function modules and user interfaces.
User and program interfaces for construction cost estimates are
established at three levels as follows: application user, command user,
and program data (see Fig. 7).
The primary components of the system, including Visual Basic for
EFNIS, ASP, and a database, were developed within the Microsoft
Windows environment. Through the web-based system, Projects can
be accessed, modified and updated in accordance with users' level of
authority and EFNIS conceptual cost estimates.
5. Verification and testing
As noted above, this study developed two kinds of estimators and
used 23 training cases and 5 testing cases. The capabilities of EFNIM
were employed in these estimations. However, the EFNIM is time-
consuming due in large part to its use of GAs. Therefore, experiments
should be run to set parameters to a practicable range. The number of
hidden layers varied from 1 to 4 and neurons in each hidden layer
In practice, overall estimates accurate to within 25% and category
estimates accurate to within 15% using engineers' experience are
typically considered acceptable. Estimators developed in this paper
achieve a high level of precision for construction cost estimation
during the early stages of a project (see Table 5). Estimating
construction costs more precisely will help make designs more
feasible and projects more efficient by enhancing project management.
6. Conclusions
This paper presents comprehensive descriptions of Evolutionary
Fuzzy Neural Inference System mechanisms and the process of
developing construction cost estimators, i.e. EWCCE. The EFNIM
mechanism is a fusion of GAs, FL, and NNs. GAs are used for a global
optimization, FL addresses imprecision and approximate reasoning,
and NNs are employed for input–output mapping. Therefore, EFNIM
represents a valid approach to handling complicated problems and
problems for which there is a significant level of uncertainty. The
EWCCE integrates EFNIM, WWW, and historical project data. Users
can access EWCCE via the Internet, and EFNIM advantages are
reflected in the EWCCE.
This study proposed two kinds of construction cost estimators. The
overall construction cost estimator was established to estimate a total
cost in the absence of categorized engineering plans. The category
 M.-Y. Cheng et al. / Automation in Construction 18 (2009) 164–172 171

Fig. 9. Model phenotype of structural category cost estimation.

estimators, with additional data inputs, was established to evaluate execution even when only a minimal amount of available data
engineering costs within categories. The advantages of EWCCE include: is available.
2. Category construction costs, categorized by engineering type, offer
1. A overall construction cost estimate can be provided during an alternative to overall estimates that provides results that are
the preliminary project planning stage to facilitate project more reasonable and practicable.
3. Category estimators supply useful information on the relative ratios
of engineering categories, which is essential for detailed construc-
tion cost management.
Table 5 4. EFNIM, WWW, and historical data are all incorporated into EWCCE,
Result comparisons of overall and category estimates making EWCCE a web accessible platform that can be applied to
Case no. Error of overall estimates (%) Error of total category estimates (%) various construction projects.
1 20.541 2.504 This paper presents the application of EWCCE to estimate
2 23.783 7.458
construction costs during the early stage of construction projects in
3 21.201 9.699
4 5.082 10.018 order to facilitate designer, owner and contractor for decision-
5 9.755 4.082 making. Results show that EWCCE is relevant and applicable to
Avg. 16.072 6.753 construction management in Taiwan and may be implemented
Notations: Error = [(Actual − Desired)/Desired] × 100%. worldwide with modifications to account for specific regional/
Avg. = error average. national factors.
172 M.-Y. Cheng et al. / Automation in Construction 18 (2009) 164–172

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