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 1

National general context

Geographically, Scotland occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It is bounded by

England to the south and on the other three sides by water: by the Atlantic Ocean on the west and north

and by the North Sea on the east. Scotland is divided into three physical regions - the Highlands; the

Central Lowlands, containing two-thirds of Scotland’s 5.1m population (including the major cities of

Edinburgh and Glasgow) and the Southern Uplands. A quarter (24.9%) of the Scottish population is

under 20 years old and three quarters (74.7%) of adults of working age are in employment. The Gross

Domestic Product (GDP) per head of population in 2002 was £14, 651 (21,536 euros). The Scottish

school education system costs around £4.5bn (7.8bn euros) in public expenditure. When cost towards

higher education are added this represents about 8% of Scottish GDP (Paterson, 2003).

Politically and institutionally, England and Scotland have shared a monarch since 1603 and a

Parliament since 1707, but in May 1999 Scotland elected its own Parliament for the first time in three

centuries. The new Scottish legislature was, in part, the result of British Prime Minister Tony Blair's

campaign promise to permit devolution and the transfer of local powers from London to Edinburgh. In

a September 1997 referendum, 74% of Scots voted for their own Parliament, which controls most

domestic affairs, including health and education and has powers to legislate and raise taxes.

School education provision contains two large sectors – primary schooling from 5-12 years and

secondary schooling which lasts for all students until 16 years old, with just over half of students (51%

in 1998) opting to stay in secondary schools until 18 years old. Education is free and compulsory for all

children between 5 and 16 years. Over 95% of primary and secondary schools are in the public sector

and are governed by thirty-two locally elected education authorities, the remainder of students being

educated in independently run schools. By 2004, there were 2217 primary schools and 386 secondary
 2
schools run by local education authorities, the Scottish Executive and the Minister for Education and

Young People (Scottish Executive, 2005).

Pre-school education for three and four-year-old children has expanded in recent years. By 2000, 97%

of four-year-old and 80% of three-year-old children received an education programme. Thereafter, a 5-

14 years programme covers primary school and lower secondary school years, and, typically Standard

Grade and Higher Still awards cover the middle and later years of secondary schooling. Since

devolution there has been a review of most public services. Therefore, education is under current

scrutiny, and while there are no major structural changes planned there is an increased emphasis on an

all through 3-18 curriculum. Sport provision is under the governance of ‘sportscotland’, the National

Agency for Sport whose mission is to increase participation in sport through working in partnership

with public, private and voluntary organisations to achieve such goals.

3093

Physical Education and its relationship to the national educational system

There are a number of key stakeholders in the education community. Learning and Teaching Scotland

(LTS) advises on curriculum matters for 3-18 and produces support materials. The General Teaching

Council for Scotland (GTCS) controls and regulates entry to the teaching profession and completes the

assessment of probationary teachers. The Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) is the national

examination body and Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Education (HMIE) complete school inspections

visits and identifies good practice. Each of these stakeholders operates independently but under the

overall control of the Scottish Executive. In 2000, the new Scottish Parliament identified five national

priorities for education with a collective emphasis on improving equality and inclusion. Subsequently,
 3
integrated Community High Schools in which health, education and social work professionals worked

together to improve the life chances of students have been introduced (Scottish Executive, 2003a).

Currently there are around 1550 PE teachers in secondary schools, based on similar numbers of male

and female teachers. The numbers of teachers has remained static over the last fifteen years despite an

ongoing drop in the birth rate. There are far fewer primary PE teachers (only 10% of the equivalent

secondary figure) and the majority of such posts are on a part time basis (Scottish Executive, 2005).

However, the Scottish Executive has recently supported plans for the addition of at least 400 teachers

with a specialism in PE. Generally, PE teachers are employed within specific schools in local

authorities and do not have wider community based remits for sports development and coaching.

Accordingly, with increased development in community-based sport and physical activity it has been a

challenge for PE teachers to organise and work alongside other professional colleagues. Furthermore,

Brewer (2003, pp. 592) cites ‘the lack of a professional association to voice its concern’ as a limitation

when seeking to purse ‘joined-up policies’ for PE and youth sport. Only one group, the Scottish Local

Authority Network of Physical Educationalists (SLANOPE) attempts to fulfill such a remit at present.

Through National Lottery and Scottish Executive funding sportscotland invests in sport, primarily

through local authorities and sport specific National Governing Bodies (NGB’s). This investment has

increased in recent years with an emphasis on improving local facilities and providing activity based

programmes. Thus, while still recognizing the value of building a pyramid of improvement towards

achieving excellence ‘Sport 21 2003 – 2007: National Strategy for Sport’ now more clearly targets a

goal of having 60% of Scots taking part in sport at least once a week by 2020 (sportscotland, 2003a).

This is reflected in the structure of the organization with its major departments of ‘widening

participation’ and ‘developing potential’. Consequently, programmes like the Active Schools initiative
 4
anticipates primary and secondary schools working more closely with both education and sport

communities in future years (Scottish Executive, 2003a).

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Physical Education systems

At the end of the Second World War what characterized PE were different versions of gymnastics

(Swedish, Educational and Olympic) competing for teaching time. However, by the end of the 1950’s

for the first time there were more male than female PE teachers. One consequence of this change was a

long running and often heated discourse in which male teachers typically argued for the greater

inclusion of games and sport related analysis of skill learning, whereas female teachers tended to

promote the merits of educational gymnastics and movement education (Kirk, 2002).

Additionally, during this time (1950’s-1970’s) the subject-centered focus within PE did little to lessen

teachers’ ongoing anxieties about the marginal status of their role (Hendry, 1976), as PE teaching

continued to exist ‘in a world of its own’ (Thomson, 1993, pp. 6). Such status anxieties were however

not without reason. A noted Scottish education historian, James Scotland, summed up through six

propositions the essential characteristics of Scottish education, and, one proposition was that ‘the

training of the intellect should take priority over all other facets of the student’s personality’ (Scotland,

1969, pp. 275). This proposition was influenced by the earlier writings of Peters (1966) and Hirst

(1974), two prominent philosophers of education whose preference for an intellectually based account

of knowledge was a challenge for teachers of all practical subjects.

 5
However, in more recent years PE like other subjects has been required to reconsider its aims and

intentions in light of changing political, social and economic circumstances, which have begun to

impact on education policy and schooling (Anderson, 1999). These curriculum reviews began in the

late 1970’s with analysis of the middle years of secondary schooling (15/16 years old). Until such times

PE had been relatively free from central government guidelines. However, by 1988 optional

examination awards had been introduced (SEB, 1987) and for the first time curriculum were now ‘more

closely prescribed by the assessment agenda outwith the formal control of the school Physical

Education department’ Brewer and Sharp (1999, pp. 541). This increased centrist control of the

curriculum has been extended since the early 1990’s to cover arrangements for the 5-14 age group

(SOED, 1992), and for a further range of examination awards introduced in the 1990’s (SEB, 1993;

SQA, 1999) to cover the senior secondary school years, where successful students could demonstrate

readiness for entry to higher (tertiary) education. Thus, in recent times what defines PE teaching has

been an increased responsibility for teaching specific awards.

Currently, within primary schools there are only 37 full-time and 105 part-time PE teachers for nearly

400,000 students (Scottish Executive, 2005). Such a marginal role appears certain to change as the

subject shifts from an expressive arts remit to one framed more closely by healthy lifestyles imperatives

(Scottish Executive, 2004a). Arguably, the policy process which began with the middle secondary

school years, and was then followed by review of the primary and lower secondary school years before

finally addressing the upper secondary school years has ill-served the subject and led to a lack of overall

policy coherence. Most notably, there is a shift from PE as part of a 5-14 expressive arts curriculum to

an examination curriculum in the upper secondary school (16-18 years old) where performance

improvement and analytical enquiry goals define policy (SQA, 1999; Thorburn and Collins, 2006).

Overall, the minimal attention to primary PE relative to secondary PE (Jess, 1992; Kirk, 1992) appears
 6
set to change with consequent improvements in the amount of time devoted to PE within the education

programmes of trainee teachers (Scottish Executive, 2004a). To date, while teaching in secondary

schools is undertaken by subject specialist teachers who have completed either a four year

undergraduate or one year post graduate programme, the same pattern of provision is not replicated for

primary PE teachers. Until this occurs it is unsurprising that the quality of teaching continues to be a

concern (HMIE, 2001).

Within secondary schools compulsory ‘core’ programmes exist for most students in the lower and

middle secondary school years. However, increasingly there are anxieties about the limited curriculum

time available (Littlefield, et.al., 2003), which typically results for many students in about 90 minutes

of activity per week (Scottish Executive, 2006). This represents a reduction in overall time per student

as greater amounts of times are directed towards those students choosing examination awards. Thus,

while formalized examination courses had afforded a degree of security for a subject often concerned

about its value and status (Armour and Jones, 1999), it is debatable the extent to which the aspirations

of core programmes of activity can be achieved in the modest time available. The extent of such

concern has led Brewer (2003, pp. 592) to comment on the dangers of the profession becoming ‘trapped

by certification’.

Encouragingly, therefore, recent policy emphasis has attempted to reassert the importance of quality PE

programmes for all students between 3-18 years. The Review Group on Physical Education (Scottish

Executive, 2004a) was set up in response to a recommendation included in the ‘Let’s make Scotland

more active: A strategy for physical activity’ strategy’ (Scottish Executive, 2003b) which recognized

the specialist nature of PE and the need for high quality teaching, learning and curriculum frameworks

as the basis for tackling problems with inactivity and lack of interest among students. Hence, despite
 7
anxieties about lack of curriculum time and extra curriculum opportunities a brighter future has been

signposted. Central government has made a commitment for primary and secondary schools to have

two hours of high quality PE a week and has identified the subject as a strong contributive part of the

‘learning for life’ strand within the National Priorities in Education (Scottish Executive, 2004b), and, as

part of the new Active Schools programme (Scottish Executive, 2003a). Schools are considered pivotal

for generating improvements as they are ‘the only place where equity of access and opportunity to good

quality PE can be achieved (Scottish Executive, 2004a, pp. 27). Overall, such central government

commitment has provided the ‘biggest boost to PE for generations’ (Jess, 2004, pp. 6).

Such developments appear timely as the recent emphasis on examination awards has contributed to the

demise of PE teachers organizing and running programmes of extra curriculum activity outside of

formal school hours (Cairney, 2004). The Scottish Executive sensing that some form of intervention

was necessary has tried to increase levels of sporting participation as part of the extended school day

through involving sportscotland in working collaboratively with local authorities. Consequently, by

session 2002-2003, 85% of schools in 30 of Scotland’s 32 local authorities were part of the School

Sport Coordinator Programme (SSCP). Coordinators were mostly secondary school PE teachers (95%),

who were released from teaching duties for one day each week (sportscotland, 2003b). This programme

made some progress in interesting students in pursuing sport outside of the formal school day, and in

some respects was a first step in addressing a plethora of healthy lifestyles and obesity issues of

increasing national concern (Scottish Executive, 2003b). However, Littlefield, et.al., (2003) reports that

lack of involvement and volunteerism by teachers might represent a barrier to further progress. Such

possibilities appear to have been recognized for some time by sportscotland who increased the number

of Sport Development Officers from 20 in 1989 to 134 in 1997 in an attempt to build and support

improved school and community partnerships (sportscotland, 2003a).

 8

Consequently, what typifies the present is a period of transition as teachers are being urged to adapt and

work more closely with other professionals in the education and sporting communities in an open

positive and constructive way (Thorburn, 2005). To date, however, expanding the role of the teacher

beyond the boundaries of the school have proved demanding, and for such reasons involvements in

initiatives like the European Year of Education through Sport initiatives have been of a modest nature.

8516

Role and point of view of collective actors in Physical Education and Sport Education

Post 1945 policies in primary schools were defined by the Primary Memorandum (SED, 1965). The

progressive child-centred references embedded within the memorandum encapsulated the optimism of

the 1960’s and 1970’s with its imperatives for ‘independent learners, flexible thinkers and well-rounded

people’ even if ‘teachers remained where they always had been – firmly in charge’ (Darling, 2003, pp.

35).

Such child-centered educational aspirations have never comfortably merged with the subject-centered

nature of secondary schools (Bryce and Humes, 2003), where following the raising of the school

leaving age from 15 to 16 in 1973, there was a need to review curriculum and assessment arrangements

for the middle years of secondary schools. The Munn Report restated, in familiar and positive (if

slightly limited) terms, the benefits of core PE for all 15/16 years old students. Thus, if PE was held in

lower esteem than other subjects then such attitudes ‘were to be deplored’ (SOEID/SCCC, 1977, 4.17).

Such support for physical activity was recognized as a positive development when curriculum time was

an increasingly precious commodity (Brewer and Sharp, 1999).

 9
Additionally, the findings of the Munn Report when implemented through the ‘Framework for

Decision’ (SOEID/SCCC, 1982) mapped out a new column structure for examination awards with the

Creative and Aesthetic column including for the first time PE (SEB, 1987). Framing curriculum in such

ways reflected the theoretical ideas of Peters (1966) and Hirst (1974) who conceived that curriculum

should be built around different intellectual modes of enquiry (forms of knowledge) which are capable

of providing reflective illumination. However, while PE had now become an examination subject for

students who wished to select such a subject, the overall value of intellectualism remained (Scotland,

1969). Consequently, teacher’s status anxieties would continue to exist if the delivery of examination

awards was unsuccessful.

Building on the positive references on the value of PE for all students in the Munn Report the

professional association and trade union the Educational Institute of Scotland attempted to develop a

‘Manifesto for Physical Education’ (Brewer and Sharp, 1999). However, such ambitions were never

fulfilled and despite much anecdotal commentary about the worthiness of non-examined (core)

programmes of activity attempts to promote the affective benefits of active participation have not been

helped by PE teachers’ apolitical nature. The Scottish Physical Education Association used to have

conferences for 500 delegates in the 1970’s (Thomson, 1993), but now the association or anything

similar does not exist. Teachers’ professional worlds are now much more closely linked to the

immediacies of their school setting. Such developments match those in other parts of Great Britain

where the insularity of teachers in engaging in discussions about the educational values of PE has often

adversely affected progress (Houlihan and Green, 2006). However, central government continues to

invest in curriculum materials and pilot projects to support policy developments (Scottish Executive,

2004a).
 10
Elsewhere evidence suggests that students and parents have been kept at arms distance from the policy

process and from influencing day-to-day schooling procedures (Gillespie, 2003). Only in the last twenty

years have formal mechanisms for consultation such as School Boards and Parent/Teacher Associations

become common. Accordingly, it is not unexpected that findings from SSCP (sportscotland, 2003b)

indicate that many SSCs did not place great emphasis on students’ opinions when planning activities

with only five per cent responding to ‘student demand’. Such findings appear a barrier to progress and

appear problematic if students’ are to be empowered for lifelong physical activity, and if teachers are to

demonstrably overcome the forces of conservatism (Capel, 2005).

3960

General overview of Physical Education programmes

This general overview of primary and secondary PE programmes focuses predominantly on analysis

and implications of the Review Group Report on Physical Education (Scottish Executive, 2004a) and

analysis of elective examination awards (SEB, 1987; SEB, 1993; SQA, 1999; SQA, 2004). Such a

review requires recognition that what characterises the policy dichotomies of recent years is an

emphasis in pre school years on physical development, followed by PE as an expressive arts subject at

5-14 years and an increasing emphasis within secondary schools on specialist elective awards.

Against this backdrop, the Review Group was set up in response to a recommendation from the

Scottish Executive’s Physical Activity Strategy (Scottish Executive, 2003b), which noted that while

young people had many physical activity opportunities, these, in themselves, did not enable them to

develop the appropriate skills and competencies needed for an active life. Data from the Scottish Health

Survey (Scottish Executive, 1998) revealed alarming levels of inactivity among Scottish children and

young people, with the problem worsening as students moved into adulthood. Thus, although HMIE
 11
(SOED/HMIE, 1995; HMIE, 2001) noted some examples of good practice, there was some disquiet

about the lack of consistency in the quality of PE provision due to the proportion of students who were

disengaged from PE, and, from the growing number of schools where there was evidence of reductions

in teaching time. It was estimated, in particular, that only one-third of girls (35%) aged 14-15 are

achieving government recommended levels of physical activity (Scottish Executive, 2004a).

Supporting aspirations for change and improvement was the announcement in June 2004 by the

Scottish Minister for Education and Young People that PE required an exceptional level of support to

address health and active lifestyles issues at an early age (Jess, 2004). Accordingly, more time, more

teachers and more choice within PE are the new objectives. Hence, within four years, schools will be

expected to provide two hours of good quality PE for each student every week and a further 400

teachers will be provided to support curriculum delivery. However, despite such laudable commitment

it appears important that policy makers and teachers gain adequate clarification about which of the

multiple and often conflicting agendas are being pursued in years to come, so that outcomes can match

investment.

Objectives within Physical Education curriculum

Since 1945 primary PE provision has reflected the spirit of the Primary Memorandum (SED, 1965)

with primary class teachers rather than specialist teachers of PE teaching programmes of educational

gymnastics, games and dance. By 1992, PE joined Art, Music and Drama as part of the 5-14 national

guidelines for the Expressive Arts (SOED, 1992). The complexity of the guidelines with its matrixes of

outcomes, strands and attainment targets proved problematic to implement, as did the rather specialist

‘space’ and ‘dynamics’ references within the documentation (SOED, 1992, pp. 57).
 12
By contrast, the Review Group (Scottish Executive, 2004a) presented in more comprehensible terms

the case that all students need PE to allow them to participate fully in 21st century life, work and leisure.

PE can, it is argued, enhance social inclusion and engagement in school life, develop confidence and

self-esteem and help students focus on learning about the body and its development. PE, in short, is the

foundation for living a physically active life, both from the perspective of excelling in sport or

participating recreationally. However, the report acknowledges that progress will require to be

underpinned by a strong scientific and educational rationale which includes the pre-school curriculum.

What was effectively being signposted was a review of the place of PE as an Expressive Arts subject.

Reporting states that early education experiences in primary and pre-school should focus on the

development of basic movement skills and the exploration of the links between physical activity, health

and well-being, for without them, ‘…students will be excluded from participation in many activities, or

may find their enjoyment compromised’ in later school years (Scottish Executive, 2004a, pp. 27).

Similar changes over time are apparent for secondary schools, where in recent years there has been a

need for PE to move beyond the specific aims of Performance, Knowledge and Understanding, and

Personal and Social Development (SOEID/HMIE, 1995) and to reflect a broader range of educational,

health and lifestyle imperatives (Scottish Executive, 2004b). The intention of the new ‘Curriculum for

Excellence’ policy is to place students at the centre of the curriculum, rather than subjects in their own

right. Accordingly, learning goals are now about preparing students to be ‘successful learners’,

‘confident individuals’, ‘effective contributors’ and ‘responsible citizens’ (Scottish Executive, 2004b).

In some senses, the optimism which accompanied the primary memorandum (SED, 1965) is

reappearing four decades on.

 13
The introduction of examination awards in PE led to many teachers having to deploy centrally

prescribed policy guidelines for the first time (Brewer, 2003). It also led to many authors (Carr, 1997;

McNamee, 2005; Reid 1996a; Reid 1996b) critically examining many of the complex conceptual issues

associated with adopting an academically inclined curriculum framework based on the ideas of Peters

(1966) and Hirst (1974). How, if curriculum value mental activity could PE move beyond intrinsic

claims for inclusion (enjoyment, health enhancing potential) and develop an instrumental justification

(powers of thought, reasoning, understanding) that highlights in effect, PE can be ‘mental’ too.

Three distinct curriculum design options appear possible. Firstly, PE could accept what Reid (1997, pp.

6) refers to as the ‘incorrigibly marginal status’ of the subject, and remain an unexamined subject.

Some authors have regarded this justification as more promising than might be expected (Carr, 1997).

Secondly, it could be argued that there are other forms of knowledge other than strictly academic forms.

Consequently, the knowledge requirement of examination awards could be met through practical

knowledge (Reid 1996a; Reid 1996b). Thirdly, it could be argued that the Peters-Hirst academic

conception of education is essentially correct, yet with some careful adjustment and redefinition PE

could be accommodated within it. This is the route which has been followed and consequently, awards

are characterised by similar practical experiential rationales, in which developing levels of practical

ability links to analysis of performance. Practical experiential learning is expected to be characterised

by ‘critical and imaginative practice’ in ‘practical workshops with a problem-solving orientation’

(SQA, 1999). Given that a further proposition from Scotland (1969, pp. 275) was that ‘experiment is to

be attempted only with the greatest caution’ the curriculum design option selected might have been

anticipated, as the process of educational advancement continues to reflect a determined conservatism

in Scotland (Humes and Bryce, 1999).

 14
Within examination awards, the emphasis on motor and physical references was an important factor in

persuading and involving teachers in introducing new examination awards (Bilsborough and McLeod,

1998), despite the cautious note, that ‘the extent to which these references (teaching) have been

informed by research into successful teaching is not so evident, (Brewer and Sharp, 1999, pp. 543).

Kirk (2002) asserts that the motor and physical references reflect a male dominated bias in the

construction of associated analytical content knowledge. In any event, one effect of the adventurous

rationale posed for examination awards is that teachers have become more assertive in requesting

curriculum support materials (Brewer, 2003) even if reliance on such materials runs the risk of

diminishing what a genuinely performance-led rationale should look like in practice.

Physical Education content: modalities of physical activities

Over a number of years, physical education within primary schools has generally been more

marginalised than in secondary schools. This has long resulted in the reporting of significant barriers to

development (Fraser, 1975; Fairweather, 1976; Pollatschek, 1979). These have included a lack of

curricular time, often due to poor facilities and resources (Jess, 1992; HMIE, 2001), limited initial

teacher education of non-specialist class teachers (Carney and Guthrie, 1999) and a decline in the

number of specialist teachers working in the primary school (Scottish Executive, 2006). Subsequently,

recent reporting indicates a number of teacher expertise issues which require improvement, the most

urgent being for teachers to more critically consider the activity content of lessons, to assess student

performance better and to integrate guidance and feedback into teaching in attempts to raise attainment

(HMIE, 2001).

Within secondary schools, one of the challenges of change is to incorporate the range of justifications

advanced for PE. Reid (1997) has long considered that ‘value pluralism’ means that PE is above being
 15
neatly re-sized to fit current government agendas. However, it is doubtful if such detachment would

dovetail with the greater interventionist agenda desired by current governments. Accordingly, for

teachers, how programmes of activity can connect with students’ expectations and interests requires

attention. Increased choice of activity through ‘more contemporary activities such as martial arts, yoga,

dance, skateboarding and flag football’ (Scottish Executive, 2004a, pp. 29) is desired and one

anticipates that delivering such experiences will make many new demands on teachers activity

knowledge and curriculum decision-making.

Similar knowledge and decision-making challenges are apparent in examination awards. The

difficulties of deploying practical problem-solving teaching approaches without recourse to practical

and classroom based models of teaching and learning being a particularly apparent problem (Brewer,

2003; Thorburn and Collins, 2003; Thorburn and Collins, 2006).

Underlying reasoning for Physical Education

An enduring challenge is to articulate how PE experiences are of educational value rather than merely

useful as part of schooling (Carr, 1997). With such intentions in mind, Penney and Chandler (2000)

consider that the dominance of named ‘activities’ within curriculum and extra-curriculum programmes

should be replaced by thematic imperatives, which explicitly emphasise movement competency,

physical literacy and co-operation and competition. In many respects, the intentions of the 5-14

expressive arts framework matched such ambitions through the thematic nature of the learning strands.

However, such was the complexity of the language used to explain such intentions that progress was

slow and accordingly the marginalised importance of PE continued. Now, however, more coherent

progress is underway in primary schools due to developmentally informed programmes such as ‘Basic

Moves’ (Jess et.al., 2004), where continuous professional development (CPD) opportunities closely
 16
match the aspirations of the Review Group (Scottish Executive, 2004a) and related research (Jess and

Collins, 2003).

However, within secondary schools balancing the requirements for student choice, while also seeking

‘good quality’ PE (Scottish Executive, 2004a, pp. 27) remains more problematic. The Review Group is

‘convinced that extending choice beyond the traditional games’ is the answer (Scottish Executive,

2004a, pp. 29). However, such choice runs the risk of marginal curriculum benefit if students

experience a ‘learning to move’ selection of new activities relative to a ‘moving to learn’ curriculum

which addresses lifelong learning priorities considered fundamental for longer term gains (Penney and

Jess, 2004). Clearly, there are more than just activity selection issues to consider here. Implicit in any

analysis of change are questions about whether teachers can adapt from directly instructional to more

participatory pedagogy practices in order that meaningful gains towards physically literate citizens are

achieved, and that a regrettable own goal is avoided (Carr, 1991).

Evaluation of Physical Education

In primary schools, HMIE reporting (HMIE, 2001) contains a sympathetic but nonetheless thinly veiled

criticism of teaching methods and the restrictive nature of many students’ learning experiences. Less

than a third of schools (30%) were ‘very good’. Better initial teacher education programmes and CPD

opportunities for teachers are highlighted as necessary.

Within secondary schools, despite the lack of ‘research associated with young peoples’ views on

physical activity’ Brewer (2003, pp. 592) there is a policy expectation that schools can design solutions

to overcome problems (Scottish Executive, 2004a). However, such anticipation assumes that teachers

can take greater calculated risks in framing curriculum and selecting pedagogy approaches. It is
 17
therefore, disappointing to note that initiatives such as Sport Education (Siedentop and Kinchin, 2003;

Penney, 2003), Teaching Games for Understanding (Griffin et.al., 1997; Kirk and MacPhail, 2002) and

Hellison’s model of personal and social responsibility (Hellison, 1995) have yet to influence practice to

any great extent.

Thorburn and Collins (2003) highlighted many of the operational problems of linking ‘critical and

imaginative practice’ (SQA, 2004) to high levels of authentic attainment. Specifically, Thorburn and

Collins (2006) noted the existence of three categories of schools, namely, ‘trying’, ‘rote’ and

‘succeeding’ schools. In the ‘trying’ schools the short-term assessment pressures were determining the

quality of student learning experiences. In these schools, overall levels of attainment were poor. In the

‘rote’ schools, prescriptive assessment answers had been developed. Finally, in the ‘succeeding’

schools there was a high level of expertise for performance-led teaching environments. In both ‘rote’

and ‘succeeding’ schools relatively high levels of attainment were realised, however, it was only in the

‘succeeding’ schools that students completed the assessment answers through the teaching and learning

approaches advocated (Thorburn and Collins, 2006).

Extra curriculum and out of school physical activities

From the 1950’s to the 1970’s local authority and independent schools provided extra curriculum

opportunities based on the volunteerism of teachers. During the 1980’s teachers in local authority

schools were involved in a protracted and often acrimonious pay and conditions dispute which curtailed

teachers support for providing out of school physical activities. Since the 1980’s little improvement has

occurred with teachers’ new contractual obligations defining professional boundaries more exactly and

with only the independent school sector persevering with offering a broad range of extra curriculum

opportunities based on the volunteerism of teachers.

 18

For these reasons evaluating the SSCP becomes important as it reflects governments’ first school-based

attempt to improve students’ interest in sport since the 1980’s. During the first four years of the SSCP

(1999-2003) weekly student participation levels increased from 17% to 25% of the secondary school

age population (sportscotland, 2003b). Such increases convinced the Scottish Executive to fund a

second phase programme (2003-2007). The target for 2007 is to have Active School’s managers in all

local authorities, plus 260 primary and 370 secondary Active Schools coordinators (ASC) in post (TES,

2004). However, for progress to meet policy aspirations PE teachers will have to work more effectively

in partnership with the wider professional community (Thorburn, 2005).

To date, findings indicate that SSC are in favour of a high degree of autonomy in interpreting the aims

of the SSCP (sportscotland, 2003b). Coordinators preferred working with other professionals, such as

teachers and sports development officers to working with volunteers such as parents or guardians.

However, increasing student participation further was problematic due to the difficulty of involving

other teachers in leading activities. While such findings can be explained through the combined effects

of an aging teaching force (SOED/HMI, 1995), payment for homework classes (but not for after-school

sport) and new conditions of service agreement (Scottish Executive, 2001) longer term sustainability

concerns remain, especially as the SSCP is viewed as a key lever for the reversing the decline in

participation in sport-related activities and for encouraging greater lifelong active learning.

Nevertheless, as Scotland still favours the comprehensive model of secondary schooling with little

competition for students (Humes and Bryce, 2003) progress still appears possible without the

difficulties Penney and Evans (1999) noted in the more competitive climate of schooling in England.

Here, PE often achieved the unfortunate distinction of being both low in status and high in marketable
 19
merit. Recently in an attempt to re-invigorate the comprehensive ideal one local authority has pioneered

an inclusive ‘sports comprehensive’ model based on the ethos of physical activity raising attainment

across the school (Brownlee, 2004).

Such local based initiatives may well be capable of achieving the types of transformative agenda

required by government. By contrast, the type of simple participation experiences students preferred

with the SSCP (sportscotland, 2003b) raise value for money and sustainability questions if something

more coherent than the sampling activities is intended. However, more optimistically, there was

evidence that with a particularly sensitive teaching approach and broader range of activity options

available SSCs could engage female students with new participation experiences (dance, exercise to

music and such like). This evidence appears to match the policy aspirations of increasing the breadth of

activities offered and achieving excellence in teaching (Scottish Executive, 2004a), and reflects Flintoff

and Scraton (2001) assertions that girls do not ‘drop out’ but rather selectively ‘opt in’ to new activity

experiences.

Training of intervention agents

A key recommendation of the Review Group (Scottish Executive, 2004a) was that every primary school

should have adequate access from a PE specialist to help outline good practice and offer CPD

opportunities to class teachers. The additional teachers graduating from teacher education programmes

should help deliver such support, however, these teachers will still be mostly based in secondary

schools. Subsequently, the Scottish Executive has recently commissioned the Universities of Edinburgh

and Glasgow to develop programmes to offer at least 400 existing primary teachers the opportunity to

develop a specialism in PE. Therefore, adequately supporting primary school PE teaching remains a
 20
longer term objective as does articulating clearly how the Active Schools initiative can support schools

in attempting to develop and deliver out of school programmes (Scottish Executive, 2003a).

Practice

Within schools, expanding student choice is the best perceived route for involving students more in the

process of planning and developing PE programmes. However, such aspirations do place a pressure on

schools to make changes, and to offer students more appropriate opportunities for participation and for

the achievement of excellence. It is expected that examples of best practice will become a feature of

future CPD programmes for teachers. However, the diverse influences upon PE continues to make the

search for a socially inclusive and flexibly managed school curriculum difficult to deploy in ways

which effectively dovetail with out of school physical activity plans.

20,063

Conclusions/General Current and future challenges

Currently, PE is as close to centre stage as it gets; a new set of health, increasing participation and sport

in the community priorities dominate Scottish Executive thinking. Given the problems PE appears to be

having worldwide (Hardman and Marshall, 2000; Kay, 2003) this is good news for the profession.

Future goals are clearly signposted; to ensure that all students have access to quality PE experiences

throughout every stage of their school life and have the opportunity to develop the foundation for

healthy and active lives. To achieve such goals teachers are challenged to change and to view the

contribution PE can make with the widest possible lens.

While headline policy messages are about ‘two hours of PE a week’ and ‘PE for all’ the three implicit

messages are improved primary PE teaching, a wider range of activities in secondary schools and closer
 21
articulation of programmes in schools with the communities they serve. In short, for student

experiences to be matched closely against national needs. In primary PE programmes ensuring that

content is developmentally appropriate should help raise ability levels. In secondary schools credible

activity choices are necessary. It is all too easy for a policy based on inclusion to represent exclusion in

a wider school and community context.

If planned investment leads to the profession showing genuine enterprise in introducing exciting new

courses, where programmes achieve a multitude of aims based on a clearly articulated view of learning

and where participation increases are sustained, then the benefits will justify the cost. There is a need

for PE to genuinely ‘raise its game’. If successful, an emerging model of professionalism which

satisfies the intrinsic beliefs of teachers and the aspirations of school communities alike can emerge.

This is most likely to occur if teachers can attempt with greater urgency and sharper political instincts

to work across school and community boundaries rather than seek to maintain them unnecessarily.

2018
 22

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