o WAXING ELDA B. ESGUERRA Many crops possess a wary coating on the surface that ‘can be easily damaged or lost, by as much as 50%, dur ing harvest and subsequent handling. Waxing is the ap- plication ofa thin film of surface coating to fruits and Vegetables. Coatings are intended to replace the eommodity”s natural wax removed during handling or Supplement it. The coating may or may not be wax as defined chemically but usually, the term wax is used syn- ‘onymouisly with surface coatings or protectiveskin coat- ings, Ths commercially available coatings are approved by a regulatory body as food adkitives, 9.1. APPROPRIATE COATINGS + Transparent visible renders the commodity surface clearly + Glossy ~ gives shine or luster to the commodity sur- face and adds to the visual appeal of the commod- ity + Odorless ~ does not give any off-ador to the com- ‘modity + Tasteless — does not impart any peculiar taste + Biodegradable — breaks down usily when the com- modity or coating is discarded Safe - should not contain any substance injurious to people. Edible films and coatings are usually pre~ pared from proteins, polysaccharides, resins, waxes ‘roils (Cagri etal. 2004), White edible, they are not necessarily eaten with the treated fruits and yee- tables. For commodities with a peel, the coating is ‘removed with the peel. ithe coating is water-soluble, ‘itis removed by washing. If not, it may be rubbed at permeability Ww gases and impermeable permeable to water. Low permeability will condition while too high perme- ify the internal atmosphere. “most traders in developing sly available, affordable and waxing will be profitably ly priced, transported OFELIA K. BAUTISTA ‘ver long distances or exported, and th themselves well to waxing, Produce waxed in developed countries formed on citrus, apple, cucumber, pepp: ado, sweet potato, passion fruit, and to a limited extent, ppaya and some cutflowers like anthuriums Produce waxed in Southeast Asian countries Philippines — pineapple exported by some companies; pummelo and Satsuma mandarin for local markets. Indonesia — ayocade and ripe tomato have been shown to be responsive to waxing wheres mangosteen, pine- apple and sapota (chico) were not (Tranggono and Suhardi 1996), The production of ethylene in avocado and ripe tomato was drastically reduced Thailand all tangerines are waxed (Sardsud 2005, per sonal communication); durian may be waxed (Siripantch 1996). Growers and traders can have their tangerines ‘waxed by enterprises that will do the waxing. ‘Commodities that should not be waxed leafy vezetables. bunched roots, cabbage, cauliflower, rambutan and okra. are not waxed. Coating dors not dry fast enoush and the wax tends to accumulate in spots or where leaves or roots touch each other. 9.3. MATERIALS FOR WAX FORMULATIONS: ‘Most commercial coatings are mixtures of different waxes: to take advantage of their properties (Table 9-1), Some ‘coatings are especially formulated for specific commodi- ties. To these may be added other components such as plasticizers to improve film flexibility. Lies Coatings based on natural resin, carnauba and other ‘waxes are used to alter gas exchange in harvested com modities but their main effects are reduced water loss and improved gloss (Amarante and Banks 2001; Nisperos and Baldwin.1996), Carnauba ~ commonly used wax from, palm (Copernica cerifera) native to Brazil, Tt is more permeable 10 CO, and, O, than cellulose and shellac (Baldwin et al, 1997). It ‘imparts an attractive and permanent luster but has poor 127lations and the ‘Table 9-1. Materials used in conting formulations a [Material fi Bove: Gps | NatiralyonesComouba Candela Beeswax Petroleum-ased Paraffin polyethylene wax Vegetable ails Coconut, soybean, palm Mineral oil Resin (rosin) _| Shellac Polysaccharide- | Chitosan hhased coatings Carboxymethy| cellulose (CMC) Proteins Zein | | Properties perenne control of water 1058 Vue to low concentration ofpolar | Lowest Pypqh duet0 compounds; lowest Po," Highest p,,, due to high eoncenteation of fatty iy alcohols: P, greater than and candelila and carnauba Good control of water loss Poor luster Poor luster Poor luster Imparts gloss, effective barrier to gas and water Biffective CO, and O, barriers but not in preventi water foss and enhancing gloss Reduced water loss; internal atmosphere modification; forms strong film Good CO, and O, barriers at low RH; high p,,, “Sure: Amarante and Banks 2001, Krochta et al, 1999) "Pree conitol of water loss It is considered a Generally Re- garded As Safe (GRAS) chemical and is permited for we in most fils and vegetables. Tangerines in Thai- and are waxed with a camauba-based wax. Paraffin — petroleum-based wax used mainly for making candles, Itis becoming unpopular as a coating not only because itis petroleum-based but also because it gives poor luster: Its, however, still used in formulations due _ {0 its good contro} of water loss, It is banned in several ‘European countries for direct food contact. Beeswax ~ secreted by honeybees and is also consid= ered as a GRAS chemical; gives good control of water loss but provides poor luster, ‘Candelilla ~ an exudate of candelilla plant (Euphorbia cerifera aud E, antisphyittica) that grows mostly in Mexico, i Vegetable is examples roils om pans, com and soybean, the main effect of waxing being to reduce war Ss 8 {0 reduce wa. ‘Mineral oil ~ a mixture of paraftini icand i drocarbons. Soe epenic hy = partial pressure of water vapor (a measure ofthe concentration of water in gaseous Form); p,, partial pressure of RESINS ‘Also ealled rosins, these are solid or semisolid o substances soluble in ether or alcohol prepared from tuatural ur synthetic suuives, These ate the iain Coat components used to enhance gloss. However, treated ‘commodities develop whitening of the skin due t0 con densation brought about by transfer from low to ambi ent temperature (Amarante and Banks 2001). Solutions of one or more alkali soluble resins or resin-tike materials are called resin solution waxes and these include shellac and syood resin Shellac ~ a solution used in high-gloss fruit coatinss that come from the exudate of an insect (Laccifer lace ‘This makes it difficult to obtain, unlike synthetic resins that are available in large quantities, This resin is not GRAS substance so it is considered as indirect f004 additive in coating formulations. Itis known to slow dow fuitrespiration and to Keep the fruit firm (Garcia 2001). However, itis not suitable for mandarin since it tends 1° have low oxygen permeability thus affecting Maver (Hagenmeir2602), Polyvinyl acetate - new edible coating made from the?” ‘moplastie synthetic polymer. This is effective in preven!” ‘ng postharvest fruit decay without causing whitenit{tis usually cheaper and more powersul than shellac (Gareia 2001). Polyethylene wax — permitted for use a5 a coating com ponent for commodities that are eaten without the peel or skin such as avocado, banana, mango, melon, pine apple and squash POLYSACCHARIDE-BASED COATINGS These coatings have very effective selective permeabilities CO, and ©, but do not prevent water loss nor enhance the wloss of the commodity. Addition of resins, oils, waxes and emulsifiers however. imparts ‘gloss and prevents water loss ‘Carboxymethy! cellulose - the most important cellulose derivative for food application, This is an anionic cellu- lose ether that is stable at p11 7-9. Commercially available formulations based on carboxymethyl cellulose and su- ‘erose esters (containing sucrose fatty acid ester with mono- and di-glycerides, and sodium carboxyl methy|- cellulose) are TAL Prolong (now called Pro-long) and lately, Semperfresh, an improved formulation Chitosan (2-amino-2-deoxy-, D-slucan) -water soluble, igh molecular weight polysaccharide coating obtained as by-product of the seafood industry by alkaline ‘deacetylation of chitin from the shell of crab and shrimp This can form a semi-permeable coating that can modify the internal atmosphere of the produce and reduce ‘weight loss of commodities (Amarante and Banks 2001), It is non-toxic. Besides delaying ripening, chitosan was also reported to reduce postharvest decay in tomato, bell pepper, cucumber and strawberry due to Botrytis cinerea and Rhizopus stolonifér (E\Ghaouth etal. 1997). tiseffective against anthracnose ofbell pepper (Bulacso 2003), Its disadvantage lies in its inability to provide the Juster expected from coatings. In ‘Carabao™ mango, use of 2% chitosan retarded only peel color change but the fruit softened and pulp was light yellow orange with fermented odor (Esguerra etal 2000), The onset of decay was likewise not prevented. = good barriers of oxygen and carbon ity but not when the mois~ is high duc to its suscepti- and swelling (Gontard et al ‘compounds into the films bet- cay monvesters, and acetylated monoutycerides resolve this drawback (Gennadios et al, 1994). Corn zein fils applied to tomatoes produced desirable changes nth produce fike reduced color change and weight loss (t etal, 1990). COMPOSITE AND BILAYER COATINGS Multiple layers of coatings merge the desirable p ties of different films to improve the permeability ch teristics, strength, Menibility, nutritional va Co zeneral performance of the coating, However, t also some disadvantages in using this technic Addition of plasticizers like polyols (e.2., sorbit telycerol) and lipids improves the properties of formula tions (oils, lecithin, fatty acids and waxes) resulting in reduced brittleness. improved mechanical properties and ease of coating ay plication but water permeability is in= creased (Amaranic and Banks 2001) Mixing protein or polysaccharide compounds with candelilla wax improves gloss but this is accompanied by decreased permeability of ©, and imereased perme- ability of CO,, Coating the produce with such compo- nents may also result in anaerobic respiration and water loss Some of the commercially available wax formulations in the market are shown in Table 9-2. Some may be avail- able in the Philippines especially those used by bis companies. With the trend towards more organic or natural prod iets, use of petroleum-based waxes and resin has been restricted, Countries such as the United! Kingdom pro Jibit the use of petroleum waxes and carnauba. Japan ‘on the other hand, prohibits only petroleum waxes Natu= rally derived waxes appear to be more acceptable. Min- eral ils likewise wil likely be replaced by vegetable oils 9.4. FORMS OF WAXES: Solvent waxes — composed of 70-80% hydrocarbons and a solyent such as acetone or ethyl acetate; itis either a synthetic resin or a natural wood resin combined with ‘one oF more plasticizers; its use has been decreasing, Bar or slab waxes—mixtures of low melting pointwaxes made into bars; mostly based on paraffin with small amount of other waxes inclucled, Paste or oil waxes — mainly composed of paraffin with oo melting points blended to the desired viscos- ‘Water waxes — emulsions or sol lution waxes commonly used noy. psSCN SEARO9,6. CONSIDERATIONS IN WAXING Formaximum efficiency of waxing, the following should bbe considered: Produce quality ~ fr jo be waxed must be mature, clean. Type of wax responds differently to different wax formula select the appropriate wax. A commun ions due to the following reasons: Coatings have different physico-chemical prop ties depending on the formulation, For exaanp and of good quality. Do not wax fruits with noticeable and shellac-based coatings are more effective in injuries; waxing Seals in microorganisms resulting in ‘ducing water loss and delaying ripening than ater devey. cethylene-based com ‘Table 9-3. Coating formulations for various commodities and their efferts Crop ‘Coating treat Beets Ben-Yehoshua 176 Lidster 1981 and peel darkening; reduced chilling injury and polyphenol oxidase activity Banana Polyethylene wax Lakshminarayana et a 1974 Citrus Candelila wax* Tag, Reduced decay amauba +-shellac Reduced water loss; no excessive | Mannheimand Softer (Primatresh 30) accumulation ofethenol 1996 Orange Beeswax emulsion: Increased levels of vol: Nisperos-Carriedo ct al Prolong, associated with favor 1990 Lime Chitosan; Semperfresh | Delayed pee! color change, Meelarp et al. 2004 relarded decay, reduced weight loss Darian Sta Fresh 7055 (petroleum | Reduced respiration rate and Tongdee etal. 1990 ethylene production; slowed down ripening rate; reduced sulphurous odor wax) Mohammed et al. 1994 York 1994; Zhang and ‘Qhantik 1997 Palmoil (20%w/v)" Reduced water loss Nature Seal; chitosan Guava Lychee Reduced pericarp browning No peeland pulp discoloration, | Diaz-Sobac et al. 1996 Carboxymethy leellulose fit ripened after washing offthe and sorbitan fatty acid “Manila ester coating “Tommy Atkins’ | Nature Seal 2020; Tropical] Delayed ripening; increased Baldwin et al. 1999. ; Fruit Coating 213 concentration of volatiles; reduced (carnauba wax) decay: improved appearance Chitosan Delayed peel color change but not | Esguerra et al. 2000 pulp ripening: fermented odor detectable Reduced moisture loss Reduced chilling injury at 8°C for 4 Yussof and Salleh 1992 Rorhbach and Paull 1982 Aung 2005 Bulacso 2003 El Ghouth etal 1992fects on + Sure owing eerie tects on ability wo gases by bloc! surface The nature of the dermal 9 teresa spaces and ws Hyer dep couticle) greatly influences the respon duce t0 the coating dermal system (pores. it deposit in th pro 1 not to thick o Amountofway they srr so tothin Te eres ose! Hiei ings determines thesfectinensis of wasng, Wass be thin enough for gas exchange, but thick enol ‘minimize transpiration, Ifit s too thin it gives litle pr re loss. Too heavy coat, tection against moist inereae decay and sue breakdown Thus) ger the development of several physiological disoners ‘and produce off os in pineapple ra Effective concentrations of coatings in pineapp (v/v) of paraffin/poivethyTene-based con fiom Oo ‘nero sal eating formulation, This concentration reduces ing injury, improves shell appearance and retards shell Panks 2001), Presence of free moisture —be sure thatthe surface of the fruit is dry since water will dilute the wax. If wax ‘emulsion is too diluted, inital gloss will be satisfactory ‘nly fora few hours. Check concentration of wax during application by checking its solid content using a refiac tometer: Most waxes contain 20% solids Dry fruit surface lot the was on the fruit surface dry thoroughly and immediately after waxing, Heating the ‘emulsion to about 38°C will cause breaking of the emul ‘Time of application — usually the sooner acommodity is ‘axed afler harvest, the greater the effect. In avocado, ‘waxing is recommended within 48 hours after harvest to maximize the benetits of wax application (Joyce et al 1995), 9.7. METHODS oF WAXING Each produce responds differently tothe method of ap- plying the wax. The brush method is not suitable for produce with trichomes because trichomes may be de- {ached by mechanical abrasion. Dipping ~ this makes use ofa dipping tank and urying sacks with a mesh size that gives only minimum contact between the fruit and the supporting mesh. The treated ‘commodity is then either conveyed to a drier orallowed 10 dry at ambient conditions. Water emulsions ae applied by dipping the commodity, ‘This method is applicable for coating small quantities of Produce. The disadvantage of ths method is that it tend {0 leave a heavy deposit on the fruit Dipping avocado in wax formulation substantially ree duces weight loss and internal concentration of oxgpeon or brushin like spraying © compat er coating, while brsbin the fruit surface nove the cuticle on th ‘roam waxing — tis is eommmonly used in packsinghou Hy nana large quanti mapplic n storage lank, a £0 " rubbing brushes and a drier, Compr foams the emulsion rollers blown into te applicator tank Hikes foam cua othe fue spinning on all excess coatings collecied by rotating sponge loc below the rollers are recirculated way is wasted with foam waxing However. a ur form coat over the commodity is difficult to ach thie method: pressure spray applicators deli Spray waxing high-pressure spray applic ing the formulation at 414-552 kPa (60-80 psi) ut squal distribution (Krochta et coating and create more ae 1, 1999), Airofomizing systems connected to meterin pumps arealso available. Spray waxing methods include + Solvent waxing the fruit receives a fine spray dis solved in a highly volatile solvent, which is then volatilized by heat or air blast drier. Fumes are drawn off by an exhaust fan, It is used in the Flayorseal process, a patented process for solvent waxing + Hotfog— hot molten wax without solvent is sprayed ‘on the fruit in a heated chamber in the form ofa f fog. The wax then solidifies on the surface of the fiuit. Ivis not a popular process Slab or brush method ~ waxes used in this method are bar orslab waxes composed of mixtures of other waxes cast into bars. Rotating brushes are first brushed against bar or slab waxes, then against the commodity to apply the wax. Drip method — emitters of different sizes discharve large croplets of varying volumes. These emitters are attached at one-inch intervals along the manifold and width ofthe bed. A metering pump regulates the release at pressure ievels not greater than 276 kPa (40 psi. The droplets are delivered either directly on the produce ot on brushes Controlled drop appliestion — low-pressure metering Bu ate uel toideliven coatinis tp a nozzle housing jereeticl rotating disc is attached. ‘This dise breaks large droplets to smaller ones, whi tothe commodities using Speeds ranging from 200 1998), ict are then scattered spray nozzle, Disc rotates at 10 t0 5000 rpm (Krochta et al REFERENCES aS HANKS NH. 2001, Postnarvet physiotopy Torta.” OF cea tuts and vegetables None eee