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As a sciencestudentin highereducation,you needto write scientificreportsof experiments
and field work. You will need to write these reportsin a way that is clearenoughfor other
scientistsand readersto follow and repeatyour experiments,if necessary.This meansyou
will need to organiseand structureyour reportin a conventionalway, usingconventional
style,languageand layout.The aim of this moduleis to help you learnthe conventionsand
skillsrequiredto write a good scientificreport.

Unit 1 looks at how to organiseyour reportand timetableyour work up to your submission

deadline.In Units2and3 you will learnconventionsforwriting the Methodand Materials
and Resultssectionsof your repod.Theseskillsincludeusingthe passiveand past tenses,
and presentingand writingabout tablesand figures.In Unit 4,you will reviewconventionsfor
writingnumbersin scientificpapers.Unit 5 dealswith the Discussionsectionof the report,
as well as the Bibliography,Title and Introduction.Editingand revisionare essentialto good
writing,and you will developtheseskillsby doing the exercisesin Unit 6. In addition,the
editingcheck list presentedin Unit 6 will be a usefulguidewhen you come to writingfull
scientificreports.
SlrillsMap
$tructureand sehedule
Find out how to structure and timetable your report in a logical way.

The Materialsand ltfeffisds section

Learn how to include appropriate content and write in a suitable style.

The Flesulfssection
Learn how to write a Results section, including how to present and describe
tables and figures.

Writingnumber$and abbreviatians
Familiarise yourself with conventions for writing numbers and abbreviations
in scientific repods.

The Discussion, Introduction, Bibliography

and Title section$
Findout how to write the other sectionsof a reporteffectively.

Editingand revisingyour report

Practiseeditingand revisingyour report usingan editingcheck list.

3
 Slruclureand schedule
I At the end of this unil you will be able to:
. stuctlrre your report and include appropriate scientific report sections;
. organise your tirne appropriately.

a scientificreport
T==k ? Organising
When you do laboratoryor field work, you will be askedto wriie a scientificreportof your experimentor
Scientificpapersand reportsare typicallydividedinto five sections.
investigation.

'i.:
*i=':r..:s::'li:*€.::il*=i=5*'":**ti*** i*: s*:*li G.+*FE.t3** y*r.lr *ftsw*i's t **r:rpl*t* i1'l*{**{e h*i*ery.

a) What are the sectionsin a repod?

b) What order do the sectionscome in?
c) What questionsshouldbe answeredin each section?

i ,;{ f***=**3 =* = *l;:sc. *!s*r:** 1$t* r****m*E {*r g*ul" *$:*4**r*.

yourtime
-€rcWkffi Organising
Whenyou writeyour reporl,you will not only needto write each section,but also allowtime for additional
revisionand possiblydiscussion
research, with yourpeers.Youwill probablyhaveto do allthisby a set deadline.

=.: T+ :::==i *==rji:c*s. i: r*qiinF*rtani i* *':anage your time. l*:agi*e y*u *r:d y**n q*mrtr:*rl'wEw*'lt"*
:=.r.:==i:lj;)rit r*f ,.:r!;<j:: s*ve* *ays tixe. r,E*rx!:.:g:::iji'.,1e!**ii,v.
i=** thr*ar#fu {{":* *t*F:* h+l*r-v :l*#
=-i i=+=: ::::= = :=;i**i +r**r. ****- g*1.:*=s* ii*isi:e*, =-*r::*=r* y*ur w*rk uvlt* g*mxrPfsF[n*r""s.

Task:ScienlificWriling- *=!: I - €!r*cir::=e=* s=he*r:l*

 a) Revisefirst draft
b) Write first draft of the lntroduction
c) Hand in reviseddraft
d) Revisefirst draft
e) Hand in reviseddraft
fl Write first draft of the Discussion
g) Write first draft of Ihe Material and Methods
h) Researchbackgroundinformation
i) Meet with anotherstudent to discuss peer review(havea writing conference)
j) Start Bibliography
k) Give first draft to anotherstudentto review,using list of 'Pointsto check'
l) Completepracticallaboratorywork
m) Writefirst draft of the Resu/fs(do galculations,draw up tables,graphs,charts)

2"9 Now th*t y*u have decid*d cn a E*gi*a!ordencf *teps, think

ahcut haw to tinne eseh step. Writ* your Gnswers in the d*fruify
*olunrrnct the table below and give a resson fon your"ti*ming,
wherever possible, in the ffeascn column" Wcrk 9nddvidu*!Ey.

Remember,you can adjustthe time frame accordingto your own deadlines.

{JnilI - Slruslsress$ Ffl?r*d$le- Task:ScienlificWriling

EI
2.3 Discuss your tables in small groups. You may have your own reasons for doing things in a
difterent way from others in the group. Give reasons for your choice.

Sludenlnslesfsr UnitI

E ffi ScEft WfliE-LHl-tndnrdd:tt

 :.==
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TheMalerialsand
= MethodsseElion
At the end of this unit you will know:
o what to include in the Materials and Methods section of your report;
. how and why to write in the passive voice.

'€ffi#H.$
wnat do I include?
The first section of your report is Materialsand Methods. In this section
you answerthe questions:What did I do? Where?When? How?

You shoulddescribehow you did the experiment,writing in sufficient

detailfor anotherscientistto repeatyour experiment.

: : l t tlt-ijili:i.,- i,:i:t1r-c+i*ril: i.l';i;, f':.:iir.';;+t*ij i::i:rii-:'i:, *::,=::-tr:+-:;j: i::r'e::i.ia:

:;ii r,a..,f,i'::'il:r..a.:_-rn::.:Il::
.:r,::,:lil-t,.'r.,: lilt_jal,i: :;:].-:,.i.j:t,tt. ;.:+ir.

a) Examplesof informationthat shouldbe includedin a good

Materialsand Methods section, e.9., temperature,volume.
b) Examolesof informationthat does not need to be included
in a Materialsand Methods section. fhink about your
reader:what does everyonein your subjectarea know about
the everydayequipmentand techniquesthat you use?)

Inctude Do not inotude

+*rl E - ?=s L"{stFrEst.*i

*s:* F,**iiT*:*==::ii!*Fr - Task: Scienlific Writing
=e
't"2 Repcrt back ts the wlrole class.

LS Whi*h twe cf tfr* follorrying staternents do you agree with?

a) Evenif well-knownproceduresor equipmenthave been used,it is necessaryto describeit in detail.

b) All equipmentused shouldbe listed.
c) lt is imporlantto includeclear referencesto publishedprotocolsand methods.
d) The methodshould be explainedusing numberedpoints,as in a set of instructions.

TaSk t How do I write a good Materialsand

Methodssection?
You shouldincludeall appropriateinformationin your report.lt is also importantto use the most appropriatestyle.

r^r6idh 1n^ rir Ariad 2mm sieved soil into a 50ml centrifuge tube. Using an automatlc

riisncnqer
v f s v s r r o e f add 25ml ru rt el fl gr a nrrre
y q l v wal-Fr Can fhc frthc and nface on the shaker for 15 minutes

pH determination

Teng of soil wasplacedin a 50ml centrifugetube.Twenty-fiveml of ultra purewaterwasaddedandthe tube

usinga calibratedpH meter.
placedon a shakerfor t hour.The pH wasthenmeasured

g.: **n:plet* ?h* p*ragraph b*lor*, using an apprspriate vytlrd frgln th= iist which follows. There
' ara ff!$re $rords tha* g*ps, sG y{}u Fiill nat *eed tn ilse theni =ll.

Laboratoryschedulesare usuallywrittenin the as a list of instructions.

However,when you write your report, you must summarisewhat you did in full
and well-develooed . You will usuallywrite in the tenseand
use the voice.

="? *i=c*ss these questions about the advice in 2.1 as a class.

a) Why is there a differencein grammar between laboratoryschedulesand reports?

b) Why is informationdivided up into paragraphsin a report?
c) Why is the passive voice so common in the Materials and Methods section of a report?

lask:Sctsrillk WdiE -lJra e - I?t Laaertsasrd l!ffi *ttaet

 As indicated ahove, fte !f,afenals and lfieffrods seGtion of your report, ls red1r uritbn h lfte
passive voice. The passive is used because the prccedure is more imporffitar fip perssl
who canied it orrt Look at the tollowing sentence.

I removedthe skinsfrom the onions and homogentisedthemin the btender.

In a scientificrepoftthis should be written:

The onions were skinned and homogenised.

In the secondsentencethere is no mentionof the blender.Which of the followingis the most

likelyreason?

a) lt has been mentionedin a previouspaft of the text.

b) Only non-standardequipmentshould be mentioned.
c) The next sentencewill state: This was carried out in a blender.

TaSk 3 usingthe passive

The followingtwo sentencesdescribethe same event.

Active:
Jahn conducted the analysis. (the analysis is the object)

Passive:
The analysis was conducted by John. (fte anafysrb is the subject)

The analysis(or the methods, materialsand procedures)is more impoftant

informationfor the readerthan who conducted the analysis(John).The
analysisis thereforeusuallymade the grammaticalsubject of the sentence.

3.1 Complete tre following rule.

The object in the active sentence, the analysis,becomes the -- in the passive
sentence. The subject in the active sentence, John, changes position in the passive sentence as it

$ome verb$, sueh asgrre* haye twe obiec*.

Active:
We gave the caterpillars 6ne dose every three hours.

l.E a - ll: lfrl"a rd fffi dln - Tark: Sderilflc WrfltFng I

 Wecanthereforechoosewhichobjectwe wantto makethe subiect-Wechoosethe one we thinkis
mostimportant.
Passive:
a) The caterpitlarsweregiven one doseevery threehours.
oi
b) One dose urasgiven to the caterpillars everythree hours.

In the active sentenceabove, the two objects are and . One or the
other can become the subject in the sentence.

Othercommonverbsthat can havetwo objects are:bring,send,offer,ask,pay,lend, sell.However,

you are lesslikelyto usethesein scientificrepofts.

3.3 Readthe explanationabout the use of tenses,Then completethe followingsentencesin the

past simple.

You write the Materialsand Methods section of a scientificreport in the past tense. This can be the
pastsimple, the pasf perfect or the past continuous.Each tense works the same way in the passive.
It is only the verb to be which changes,accordingto the tense chosen.

Pastsimple
Theplantwas taken. Theplants taken.
A pot made. Thepotsweremade.
Theimagewasshown. Theimages

Past perfect
Thesolutionhadbeenshaken. The solutionshad been

The animal been fed. The animals been fed.

Themixturehad beenkept. The mixtures

Past continuous
A recordwas beingmade. Recordswere -
An attachmentwas beingfitted. Attachments being fitted.

The resultwas beinganalysed. The results

Note: In all passivesentences,to be b singularif the subject is singulariand plural if the subject is plural.

The box was being built. The boxes were being built.

l0 Task: ScienlificWriling - Unll E ,lh: Mr|:rlrlr rrd llrtlrodr trcllon

?.4 Loak at the following draft of a student's Materials and Methads section and the tutor's
comments on it. ln small groups, discuss what changes the student should make in response
to the tutor? comments. Make a note of the points you discuss in your group.

I startedmy field work recordingson 12 February,2007, andendedthem on 12 March, 2007.My partnerused

digital camerato recordthe animalsfound on the beachand I markedthe animalswith quick-drying non-toxic
paint. We were making recordingsof environmentalconditions,including the temperature,the salinity and
the substrate,at the sametime. I beganthe laboratoryexperimentsat the sametime as the field work. Each day
I collected 10 animalsfrom beachand placedthem in the controlledconditionsin the laboratoryuntil
experimentsbegan.

We setup the apparatusas shownin Figure I and I placed 1 crab in eachspecimentube. By the time an
experimentstarted,we had acclimatisedthe crabsfor at least2 days.I had fed crabsdaily. I had preparedtheir
food in advance.My partneruseda digital cameraat the end of eachexperimentto record the appearanceof the
animals.We had printed the photographstaken at the beachfor comparison.We were analysingresults
continuouslv.We analvsedour resultsusing statisticaltests.

You could improveyou. w"l,rg by:

overall,a clea,descaplionof you. rrrelhods.
focusinq lhe reader's al*enl,on on lhe me1\od,rafhe.lhan whoused lhe melhods
.
?aragra?hirEnare accuralely
aleck;ng yau, ar*icles*he, a, ard

3.5 Write the final version of the $ection, using the tutcr's comments and the note$ you made to
help you.

UnitE - The Malerialsand Methodsseclion - TaskrScientificWriling

 SludenlnsleEfnr UnilE

E fa*: Scbdf: YrliE - lJtf e - llr llrr3 r! 5ffi ffn

 TheHesullsseElion
E3 At the end of this unit you will know:
o what to include in the Resu/ts section;
. how to present and describe tables and figures;
. how to write about your results.

Tagk Ewnatto inctude

The Resu/fssection of your repod enablesyou to presentyour data (findingsor results)to show what you
found and whetherit matchedyour expectations.

This sectionneedsto includea short paragraphor two describingand analysingtrendsand results,as well
as any relevanttables or figuresthat support your findings. lt may be the shoftest section of your report, but
it is also the most impoftant.

'E.1 fVlatcheaeh of the diagr*ms b*E*w t* tl'r* e*rre*t r:arn* in the b*x.

6
o c)
- .N
o
Cost (8 millions) in2OO7 o
a 4
s o
z

. t 4
t.& Dlscuss the f*lSowingquestions with anoth*r *tud*r:t.

a) What is the differencebetween a table and a figure in a scientificreport?

b) Should the Resu/fssection always includetables or figures,or can the resultsbe expressedby
text alone?
c) Shouldthe title of the figureor table be above or below it?
d) What do you think maketablesand figureseasierto interpret?

tinit 3 The FlesullsFeclien- tark: ScientifiEWriling 13

 YA*k X Preparingtablesand graphs
lf you have a large quantity of data to present,or are comparingseveraldifferentthings, a table can show it
more clearlythan a graph.Graphsand otherfigures,on the other hand,are a good way of illustratingand
emphasisingtrends,particularlyif they are dramatic.

*"'l?*b!**!and3be***.gg:r****tt*:es*s?3*i*fgrrg]*ti*!.tb*,ltindiff*re*tfcrrnais.Dis*l':*swith
ar:**fu*r *tud*r:t:

a) the differencesbetweenTables1 and 2:

b) which of the tables is betterorganised,easierto read and makesit easierto compareresults;
c) whetherit is appropriateto show this informationin a graph.

Yf*rk i* gr*{:p* *r:d d**id* rs:':*t f**tures *:ck* * g**d t*fo|e.

Think about how to:

a) show your data to make it easyto comparesignificantinformation;

b) give units,arrangenumbers,use abbreviations;
c) give table and figurenumbers,and titles.

Tahle 1. Characteristics of three populations of Daphnia species

collected at Rye Meads Pond on 3 June, 1981

Average number nveragenumberof

Species Average length (mm)
of eggs animalsper L

Daphniamagna 5.01 15.3 112.5

D. obtusa 2.33 8.2 68.7

D. longispina 2.77 6.8 40.4

Table 2. Characteristics of three populations of Daphnia species collected at Rye Meads Pond

Species Daphnia magna D. obtusa D. longispina

Av. length 5.01 2.33 2.77

Aver. no. of eggs 15.3 8.2 6.8

Av. no. of animals 112.5 68.7 40.4

t4 Task:ScienlificWriting- U*t 3 - Tie Sesdls se*isn

 0-9
t4
zo

20 30 40 50
Tempratur in oC

Unit 3 - ThEFesufis sedign - Tark: Scienlilic Writing l5

 As you prepareyour graph, you should considerthe following questions.

a) Which is the independentvariable(the one the investigatorcan control or manipulate)?

b) Which is the dependentvariable(the one that changes in responseto the independentvariable)?
c) Are the axes organisedcorrectly?(Note:The conventionis that the independenivariableis
usuallyplotted on the verticalor x- axis, and the dependentvariableis plotted on the horizontal
or y - axis.)
d) Are the scales appropriate?
e) Are the axes labeledcorrectly,with units?
f) Are the data plotted accurately?
g) Are the abbreviationscorrect?
h) Does the graph have a figure number and a title that enablesthe readerto understandwhat the
graph represents?

Note: You will usuallyproduce graphs using a computer package (SeeTASK Module 7: Introduction
to lT Skills).

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TASk 3 Writingthe text of the Resultssection
After you have presentedyour resultsgraphically,you must describeyour findings in the rest of your Besu/fs
section.As you are now describingwhat the resultswere, ratherthan what you did, you will usuallyuse the
past tense in the activevoice.

Start with a sentencethat states each importantfinding and which refersto the table or figure that supports
this finding.Next,write about the specificdetailsof the data shown in the figure.

The following example is a paragraphtaken from a Fesu/ts section of a repoft.

n v\/dan n raArraf inn rr:riad d qnlrrl-

v^lYura ylvsuvulvrr u va
y vnga
v +nr d
r Yi n c nn fha nT{ ^f l-ha inn /F-icrrra 1l Aj- nH ? ny\/dan

production was 3m1, whereas aL pH 7 it increased to a maximum of 6mI. At pH values above

7 nvrrnon nrnrlrr4lj6n decreased and was aL a minimum of 1ml at pH 10.

3.= *is*a":sswith *r:*t&rer etu**rlt what p*int* y*r.l w*uld incEudein a d***ripti** *f tlre results
presented In the graph yeu dr*w EnTask 2" Th*n werk individ*aliy and write * panagrapht*
d*s*ribe the d*tc.

*"9 When y*u and y+*r partr:er have e*mpEetedbrsurparasnaphs,*valuat* each *ther's w*rk.

a) Work in a group of 3-5. Discusswhat you feel arethe mainfeaturesof a good descriptionof results.
b) Writea check list givingadvicefor writingthe Resu/fssection.
' -...
." .. a.'

The Restrtts section

lJnit3 - ?he *asults s€Elisft- lark: ScientifiEWriling 17

53

SludentnslEsfsr Unlt=

l8 fask:Scienffr WrliE -l.lrt t -ll:HttsGr

ff
*re
rlWrilinq numbersand
ffi

ffi alabbreViaHons
&

i'fr"ii::::T:H1"il:li'ffilii""lTlTffi
.'[,"scientif
icreports;
. how to use very large and very small numbers;
o the conventionsfor using abbreviations.

It is essentialto use numberscorrectlywhen writinga scientificreportto ensurethe readeris providedwith

an accurateaccount of what happened.Even if the numbersshown in a report are correct, it is easy for the
readerto be confused or overwhelmedif thev are not used in a clear and conventionalwav.

YremkEwritingnumbers
The guidelineson page 2Ofor writing numbersare accordingto the Modern ScientificNumber Style
recommendedby the Councilof Scienceeditors(updated2000).

'F.t **= p*#* ** aatd€€*dxr.:*x*mpl* *f th* feslE*wir:g.

ffie*S th* ga*F**Fdrres

a numeral

an ordinal

a fraction

a decimalform

'!.9 M*t*[t tFr* f*s* w*rd* fr*rc'!the Srla$*t;*e* witls th*ir r*ea*ing.

a) adjacent i) exact

b) non-quantitive ii) worthy of attention

c) fraction iii) next to each other

d) precise iv) not a whole number

e) significant iv) not describinga specificamount

4 - 1#ritlr':g
EJ*E* - lask: ScienlificWriting
cr,;r:t*=rsEsr*€bbrey*F€ic*E 19
=4
a) Numerals are used to express quantities and mathematical relationships. This makes them
stand out in the text.

For example: 2 theories 7mm

22 aminoacids 0.5 nm
3 replicates 400 x magnification
378specimens l0O-fold

b) Situations in which numbers should be spelled out include the following.

When a numberis at the beginning

of a sentence,

For example: Fifteeng of peaswere placedin the tube.

qnellnr rt
When two numbersare adjacent,use a numeralforthe one that goeswith a unit of 6nsz5gpemcnr
the other numben
For example: three 25 ml samples

When a numberhasa non-quantitative

meaning.

For example: one of the specimens

was one of the most significant
the zero value

When writingordinalnumbers(numbersthat conveyorder or rank)lessthan 10.

For example: the seventhsample

a seconctlme

When a fraction is part of the runningtet.

For example: a third of the plants

Note: When a precisevalueis required,

the decimalform is used,
For example: 0.5 ml

'! **s'::*E*t* th*s* s#*.:t*ri*#s 3*y*h***i*S **d **d*rilning th* **rr**t a:Ft;** fr*:"9:*x*f: pfi*r *a'
"S
€;t-*t:*]*f wrlf{€s 3* lt**ii*s.

Example:

a) Experimentslastingone / 1 day indicatedthat temperaturewas one / 1 of the most important

factors, whereasseven/ 7 -day toxicity tests suggestedthat salinitywas crucial.
b) 5 / five gammaruswere placed in fifty / 50 ml of 0% / zero per cant, 50o/o/ fifty per cent and
100o/o / one hundredper cent sea water solutions.
c) The animalswere collected at SwanseaBay and one half / 1/z/ 0.5 were divided between3 /
three 50 / fifty ml pols.
d) After washing2 times / twice in buffer,the tissue was immersedin 2o/o/ two per cenf osmium
tetroxide in 0.25 / .25 M phosphatebuffer,for one / t hr.

e0 Tark: ScienlificWriling- *t!:t € - trFriti*gnutlb€rs and abbreviatians

 TaSk ffi Gommonscientificabbreviations
Abbreviationsare frequentlyused in scientificreports.Some abbreviationsare used for technicalor
scientificwords that occur threeor more times in the text. In this case,you shoulddefinethe abbreviation
when you use it for the first time and put it in parentheses,
e.9.,Ampicillinresistant(AmpR).Otherstandard
abbreviationscan also be used,e.9.,ml., min.,and do not need to be defined.

2.1 Wrlte th* full f*rr:: clf the st**dard *bhrewiatis::tshei*w.

,flil+
I a)s s)O
I
I
I b) rin h) MW

clh/hr i) U

d)g i)bp

e) mg k) DNA

f) pm l) UV

in
Yregk ffi Usingnumbersandabbreviations
the Resu/fs section
3"1 Lcpk at the table, then re*d t!:e extr*ct frsm tlr* S*su$fs s**ti*n hef*w" *is*:'ass tf"r*f*Ei*wing
qr:*stiens with an*th*r sturdent"

a) Are thereany mistakesin the use or layoutof numbersin the table?

b) How effectiveare the abbreviations?
c) Could anythingelse be added or changedto make the results clearer?

I
I

| Ratiosof M.L.D.sat a ratio of synergist;active ingredient of 10:1

,
. Flies Bugs
pyrethriris allethrin allethrin pyrethrins
Pip. butoxide 4.00 3.25 2.75 1.75
tN 930 "l3lq 2 .75 1.5

'10.'l
Table 3 showsthe ratios of the Median Lethal Dosesat a ratio of synergist;active
ingredient. Piperonylbutoxide is shown to be more effective as a synergistwith pyrethrins
againsthouseflies,but more effectivewith allethrinagainstbedbugs.lN 930 is almostequally
effectivewith both active ingredientsagainst both insects.

tjnit 4 - Wriainsnsfflbers snd sbbr€vitrticns- Tark: ScientificWriling el

Sludenlnsles FarUnit4

Task: ScienlificWriting - Unlt 4 - Writlqg numbers and abbrevietione

-
II
ThelliscussiEn,Inlroduclion,
tr and Tilleseclions
Bibliography
=

,;,#*** ""'
ir***#* r**r,,i#
The Discussionsectionis an importantpart of the reportthat followson from the explanationof your
methodsand presentationof your results.After you havewrittenthe Discussionit will be easierto organise
your Bibliography, lntroduction and Title.

YWWke Whatto includein the Discussion

You now have an opportunityto interpretyour resultsand explaintheir significance
in the Discussionsection.

1 = L**k at tFr* {ig*r"* **l**. 5t is * t*hE* *f +**rcl€sf*:v *rr *xp*riat=*:rtti=*t

*f *eeties rn tw* di€€*r*sttw***lands- Y8ti::k*
**rup*r*S th* r.iistrii:u.:ti*sl
s*me questi*:r* t**t y*r: *"::igl:tesk abouett€"len**uits *f th* *xperi*"r**lt.

Example:
Werethereany significantdifferencesbetweenthe two habitats?

Tabte l: Mean rumber ol beetles pe( quadraf for tuoo r.ooodlands

Mean number Per quadfat
*-ier,trfic name Cornmon name Pound tdood \'t)est tdood
Aphodius nemoralis A atrng bee+le gt ll e

Crrcutio gtandiurn hcocn Deevil 8.4 lo.9

Car;rella sefremponcfafa 1-spof tadgbird t -

@. I

Aaaha bipuncfafa L-spot ladbbird lD.5 nq

, t /

Agor,|,rn assimilie A ground beelle A| ,q/

Rkngatr:rre stf?- s faf d3i Hotlq r.ueevil A '

Ampe.du= =anguirrolenfos h clicL bee+1e L,4 5.1

bu1:rl:lus fasciafus banded pll bee+1e 4t 1 ^
L ' J

Pog$-\clc-Ye-lushig€idolug A bnghorn beetle L.@

t 4

c\ws afiet'rs kJasp bee+1e an 4n

Ampeatrs rufipennis* h clicL beetle 0.E

Carabus infric,afos* A gfound bee+1e 5.5 U
Dr3pkrtkraus cdcflc^liE* A uPevit 1 1
u
t 1
&nofimug rrobilig* Tle nobte chafec t, I

Lrranus cz6to5* &rqqlec gfaa bee+le I,E

*Spetres of cat*cvatlon importance

&ibti*gr*pig ar:d litls =€.i}cc€ - Task:ScientificWriting

iin$ 5 - Tf:eSisr*s*i*n. lfilradu€ais{:. ?3
=5
J"t YFr*p;:n*6r*ph **F*w **m==r€s** :s**t t* i**E*d* i=:ii:* *is*ecssi*F?.**a'*q***t* t5"r*g*ps aa.E€h
cry*r*sfn*vn the **-x.

The Discussionsection of the report will generallymove from the specific (ihe resultsof your
experiment)to the general(how your resultsfit in with otherscientificfindings).Normally,the
discussionshoulddo the following.

. Explainwhetheryour resultssupportyour original

. Considerany surprisingdata or from what you expected.
. Relateyour findingsto previousresultsin the same areaand derive about the
processyou are studying.
. Look at the practicaland theoretical of yourfindings.
. Make for extensionsof your study.

t.# g-**K*t"l!t* *i:p*:rssc**sr

*€ th* r*s*Et* in T*fo**t"t" *y: Fs*** **,

a) ldentifywhich differentelementsfrom Task 1.2 have been included.

b) ldentifywhich of the followinglanguagestructuresand forms are used in the Discussion.

a the passivevoice a modalverbs

a the past tense a the imperative
a comparativestructures a relativeclauses

Discussion
The resultsshowthat populationsof commonbeetlespecieswere similarin both woodlandsand were
foundin previous
to numbers
comparable studies. arefoundin mostwoodland
Thesecommonbeetles
As expected,it was alsofoundthat the diversityof beetle
habitatsand can be describedas generalists.
specieswas higherin PoundWood than in WestWood. PoundWood wasfoundto containa surprisingly
whicharerarein the UK and whichcan be described
highnumberof beetlespecies as specialists.

interestthanWestWood. lt is a
The resultsshowthatfor beetles,PoundWood is of moreconservation
suitablehabitatfor somebeetlespeciesthat are rarein Britainand arethe subjectof speciesrecovery
shouldtakepriorityin
their numbersin UK habitats.PoundWood, therefore,
plansthat aim to increase
management
and investment purposesoverWestWood. However,this datasays
for beetleconservation
of eitherof the woodlands.Theremay be otherspeciesof conservation
nothingof the overallbiodiversity
furtherwork
importancepresentin WestWoodthat havenot beenrecordedin this study.Therefore,
of both of thesewoodlandsbeforeany decisions
the overallbiodiversity
shouldbe carriedout to assess
are madefor either.
or investment
regardingmanagement

e4 Task:ScientificWriting- *nEt* - FFtsSies$ssi*rE,

E*Ttr***cEi*cr,
S$hBiegrephy
*frS ?5EBc
secEisrce
TaSk ffi Gitingreferencesand writinga bibliography
In the Dlscussionsectionyou may compareyour resultswith other studies.This will requireyou to cite
referencesto other reports and publishedmaterial.

You will also need to list all the referencesthat you have referredto in your report in a bibliographyat the end
of your report.(SeeTASKModule 10, Fesearchand Referencing,for more detailedinformationon citing
sourcesand writing bibliographies).lt is importantto use a standardlayoutfor this, such as the APA System.

2.1 Read the citatirn b*law *nd rnake a ncte cf ttre ord*n in whi*h th* auth*r, puhllshen d*te *nd
plaee of publicatian *re rnrrit-ten"

Southwood, T.R.E.(1984).Ecological Methods with Particular Reference to the Study of lnsect

Populations,2nd ed. New York: Chapmanand Hall.

2.2 !n scientifie writing, rylanybiblicgraphy ref*re*ces will be t* articles in scie*tifie j*ur*als. L**k
at the two citatisns belcw and snsw*r the fellolyir:g qu*stic:r*.

a) What do the numbers 13,2025-2036in the second citation referto?

b) What abbreviationsare used in the second citation?
c) What is the main differencebetweenthe two citations?

Wallace,M.J.,Newton,P.M.,Oyasu,M., McMahon,T.,Chou,WH., Connolly, J., and Messing,R.O.

(2006).Acute FunctionalTolerance to Ethanol Mediated by Protein Kinase C Varepsilon.
Neuropsychopharmacology, Publishedonline.

Yamada,K., Fukaya,M., Shimizu,H., Sakimura,K., and Watanabe,M. (2001).NMDA receptor

subunits Glurepsilon 1, GluRepsilon3 and GluRzeta 1 are encircled at the mossy fibre-granule cell
synapsein the adult mouse cerebellum.Eur.J. Neurosci.13, 2025-2036.

2.3 Conrpare your answers with another student and discuss the bibliography conventions.

It is advisableto start your bibliographywith full details and in the correct format as soon as you
start readingreferences.Then you can add referencesto your list as you go along. In this way
you will find that you avoid omissionsand errors,and will saveyourselftime.

To help you do this, always keep a detailed record of your references;for example,make notes
when readingin the librarywithouta computer.

When you have finishedthe report, give your Bibliographya final check, making sure it is
complete and presentedin the correct format.

UnitS - The Aiscursicn,lnlrsduclian,Eibiiographyand TitlesartiEns- TaskrScienlificWriting e5

 TAgk i$ Whatto includein the Introduction
Now that you have written the Materialsand Methods, Fesu/fs and Drscussionsections,you are in a position
to write an lntroductionto your report.

S.1 Lc*k at the questians *nd deeide which ones might be addressed in the Infroducfion. Discuss
your ide*s in groups.

a) When did you do your experiment?

b) What was the backgroundof your experiment?

c) What was the aim of your experiment?

d) Were there any unexpectedresults?

3.4 Lo*k at the f*llowing example of an Infrodscfion and pui the *entences in the ccrreet crder.

Beetlesin WoodlandHabitats

lntroduction

a) Manyof thesespeciesarethe subjectof speciesrecoveryplansdesignedto managesuitablehabitat

with responsibilities
and increasetheir numbers.Organisations for areasof woodlandsare often
to protectthe entirewoodlandhabitatundertheirjurisdiction.
lackingin sufficientresources

Thisdeclinehasbeenmost
b)Woodlandhabitatshavebeenin declinethroughoutBritainfor centuries.
notablesincethe IndustrialRevolutionand the mechanization
of farmingpractices.

c) Therefore,
they haveto prioritisewoodlandsthat are in needof immediateprotection.

d) Theorganisms
undermostthreatarethe plantsand the insects. tendto havelow
Theseorganisms
dispersalratesand are slow to colonisenew habitats.Many speciesof plantsand invertebrates
are now
with extinctionin Britaindue to a lossof habitat.
threatened

e) With the declinein woodland,manyorganisms

are underthreatfrom a lossof habitat.

f) Thisstudyassesses
the importanceof two woodlandhabitatsto beetleconservation.

?5 Task:ScienlificWriling - Unit5 - T*r Glslussian.lnlrsdu*ian, Sibliagraphyand Titlesarlisnc

T=Slf *l wnat makesa good Titte?
The Title gives the readera concise and informativedescriptionof the focus
of your report. ft summarisesthe informationcontained in the lntroduction
and Resu/fssections.You may use a 'workingtitle' duringthe writing
stages,but you should reviseit when your reportis complete.

The title shouldgive the readera completedescriptionof the study and

includeimportantkeywordsand phrases.

4.1 Look at the f*lloulring titles. Wark in groups and deoide which *ne is better and why.

Title 1: Determination of metabolic rate

Title 2: The effect of temperature on oxygen consumption in mice

4"2 Discuss your findings as a claes.

4"3 Work with another student and campare the following two pairs sf titles. Think about the
different inf$rmation each pair glves the reader. Come to a clear esnclusion about the
impcrtance cf an appropriate title.

Title 1: Species composition of summer phytoplankton in Lake Windermere,Great Britain

Title 2: Sampling plankton in a lake

Title 1: Effects of pollutants on Daphnia

Title 2: Morphological and ultrastructuraleffects of sublethal cadmium poisoning on Daphniaspecr'es

Sludenlngles fur Unil5

finit 5 - The 0irrussion. Inlrsduclion,Bibliagraphyand Tille redlend - task: ScientificWriling 27

 .

t,

Edilingand.revising
your rePort
At the end of this unit you will:
. be more awaneof how to check your work for grammatical and vocabulary mistakes;
. be more aware of how to edit your work to ensure that you use full sentences
which are clear and concise.

€mmk Ewnat do I checkfor?

After you have written your report, it is importantto check for mistakesand errors.You will get into the habit
of editing more efficientlyif you are aware of the key areas in which you tend to make mistakes.

'The high temperatureeffeciedthe results.'

t.T pr*h$*m *rs#s 5'***fe*$ *t"*

W*rk*ergietgr*up*, l**k mt th* q***ti*r:* h*$*re.'*md #E*sars*wF't**l-e
ti"** c3]**t iae*::*sfea"at.

. ls the use of vocabularyappropriate?

o ls the generalvocabularycorrectlyspelt?
. How about the specialistvocabulary?Do you need to look any of it up?
. Doesthe numberingfollow the correctconventions?
. Doesyour punctuationhelp the reader?
o ls writingclearand concise?
. Can you spot any errors in grammar?

**rn:pil* = *heek list +f prchlem *reas y*u *h**ld *he*k t* r*vis* *md sdit a nep*nt"

a8 Task:ScienlificWriling - UstttS - SdiBing ys€.!rrsp&rl

tr$d r#1"*i6inff
TaSk E use of tenses
In this module,you have looked at the academicconventionsfor use of differenttenses and aspects in
scientificreports. lt is importantto rememberto use these correctlyand consistentlyin your work.

2."! The table below shows sections and topics that rnight be ineluded in a scientifie report. For
cach one, chcose whether the past or present tcnsc shcule! be used in the exan'rplescntence.

Section of report Example sentence

al The Materials and Methods section The apparatusr.s/was set up as shown.

b) Referringto a table or graph Table1 presents I presented the resultsfrom sites 3 and 4.

c) Stating(quoting)thefindingsof Cadmium is I was a highlytoxic metal to freshwaterfish

oublishedwork (Ball,1999).
d) The Fesu/fs section Oxygen production varies I varied dependingon the pH of
the solution.

e) Referringto someoneelse's work Smith (2002)finds I found that ..

f) To make a generalstatement Respirationis I was a complex seriesof chemical reactions

that resu/fs I resulted in the releaseof energyfrom food.

fr."2 ldcntifu any sentenee{s}whieh use thc passive voiee. Then diseuss why you think it *hould
he used.

THEICHXCommonmistakeswith vocabulary
The followingexerciseidentifiessome words that are commonlyconfusedwith each other in scientificwriting.

S.1 Look at the following pairs of sentenees.Ghoase the ccrreet word ta eomplete eaeh one.

a) affect / effect

1) Temperaturestrongly the rate of reaction.

2) The study investigatedthe of temperatureon rate of reaction.

b) continual/continuous

1) The tank was providedwith a supplyof nitrogen.

2l lmpuritiescan be eliminatedby heating,coolingand reheating.

Unit6 - Ediaingand rcviring y6ur reFurl - lark: ScientificWriling a9

 a ! " : -
. cl site / cite

1) Smith's study severalpreviousincidents.

2l The chosen for the experimentwas a nearby pond.

d) their/ there
1) is morethanonewayto do this.
2l Thecrabswerefed dailyand food supplywas adjustedgradually.

8.2 Now write s6nt6ncesof your own for each of the pairs of words below. Use a standard
dictionaryto check the meaningand spellingof terms.

a) fewer/ less

b) breath/ breathe

c) rise/ raise

/ concurrent
d) consecutive

a.s Compareyour id6aswith anotherstudent.

Tagk 4 Pturats
Scientificwords often have irregularplurals,particularlyif they come from Greek or Latin terms. You will
need to notice and remembercommon patterns,such as those on the next page.

You should also check that you are consistentin your use of plural nouns and that plural subjects agree with
the verb that follows them.

4,', Gomplete the followlng table of singulars and plurals of common ecientific terms.

3E Tark:ScienliflcWriling- Unlti - ldlllng rnd rrvlrlnl your nport

 Singr:lar Ptural

analSsis

bactefia

cfiferia

daf\,m

formula

hSpothesis

mediurn

fafro

Pnenomena

6+^e Som6*letet6tefolE*wEngs*nten**s"

a) Greek-or Latin-basedsingularnounsthat end in -um generallyform the pluralby changing

b) Greek-or Latin-basedsingularnounsthat end in -is generallyform the pluralby

4.S Secide wheth*r the *ubj**t* *r:d :r*rbs sgr@ein tF:* **n€*n*es &::***$s"**nn*c€ tlr*g:t if
n*c€*ssry. {N*t*; "Fwcs**t*ns*s ftfl* **rr*{:t *nd tr+vsn*ed t* he *F:*ng*d"}

a) This data is suppoftedby evidencefrom other studies.

'10
b) drops of hydrochloricacid were added to each sample.

c) The periodof immersionfor crabs at differenttimes of the tidal cycle are presentedin Table1.

d) One sourceof errorin these experimentsare the inaccuracyin recordinglight intensities.

t3*i&* - gdiEi***r:* **visdmgyn**rsepmri- lask:Scienlific Wriling 3l

 TaSk 5 ee clearandconcise
Whenwritingreports,it is importantto consideryouraudience.Unlessyou takegreatcareto writeclearly,it
is easyto confusethe reader,particularly
if you aredescribinga complexexperiment
or set of results.
Oneway to ensureclarityis to makesurethat you do not usemorewordsthan necessary.

5.1 Work with another student or in small grioup$.Discuss hcw you would rcvise the tollowing
sentencesto eliminate unnecessarywords"
Example:
In the experiment,the test animalswere subject to analysisfor investigationof their gut contents.

The gut contents of the test animals were analysed.

conditionsto which the zooplanktonwereshownto be affectedby was pH.

a) One of the environmental

b) The experimentsaloneare insufficientto tell what the optimumconditionsare.

c) Tentest tubes were labeledwith the followingconcentrations of sodium chlorideand 50 ml of

those solutionswere then preparedand placed in the test tubes:0%6.syo, 1oyo,15yo,2oyo,
25%, 3O%,35%o,4Oo/o, 45o/o.

TaSlg E write in completesentences

Another reasonwhy repofts are sometimesdifficultto read is that they are not written using complete,
well-formedsentences.

6.'l With another student, revise a, b and c to make complete wel!-farmed sentenees. When ycu
have written your paragraphs, compare them with other pairs in the gnoup.

Example:

In accordancewith the Law of LimitingFactors,rate of photosynthesisis affected by light intensity,

temperatureand carbondioxideconcentration.Resultingin maximumrates in optimumconditions.

ln accordance with the Law of Limiting Factors,rate of photosynthesisis affected by light intensity,
temperature and carbon dioxide concentration and maximum rates occur in optimum conditions.

3? Tark:ScienlificWriling- Unit5 - Edflingandrevbirg y:rur reft

 a) In the third set of experiments,citric acid concentrationwas doubled and at each temperature
three sets of readings.

b) Enzymesare denaturedat high temperatures.Becausemolecularconformationis aftered.

c) The reaction occurred at its maximum; copper was absent-

Sludenlnoles fEr UnilE

Uoil E - Editingand revising your reporl - Tark: ScientificWriling

Mreffiwffiw
I
Wwffiwrewk
L"Esi ==i=*-.n'*i**
:=-ql* = ;===

1ir'**i:":+sl{}latt-:'lmar,-L}**iin*/'**vp***i',:*.hin: j
hiip:,'."wr."ti.s.=*i:r-i:.::::-..::-=.'*=ii*+g!:*i"i#illa*sl**;rit,r*lli

Review
This site provides45 exercisesin usingthe passivevoice.You can check your answersand get
instantfeedback.
Task
Completeexerciseslistedon the site.

gr*;:*+
{r:t*rpr*tE*g

{::ln:Ji}*il*iiJlat+i*;,:e/* -1t'ri.* l ij i 7-7-i:.pi:i

i.:iJ=.
hi:.i:::li.rvi't'.r+.
Review
This site presentsfive exercisesin "lnterpretingGraphs".You can test your knowledgeof the use of
verbs and prepositionsin describingline graphs.The final exercisetests your skill in interpretingand
in a piechart.
information
describing
Task
Complete on the site.
the exercises

ffiwRmrew$mre
wmRmweffi$ww
ffi
W
i Beforewriting your first report, it is helpfulto study a few short papers in a major scientificjournal,
such as Ecology,DevelopmentalBiology,or Genetlcs.Choose papers in journalsfrom your own field.
You don't need to read for content, but look at the way in which the paper is crafted.
Answer the following questions.
,a) What is included in the tntroduction?

b) How much detail is given in the Materials and Methods section?

34 Task:ScienlificWriling
When you have written ihe first draft of a scientificreport, use the following check list to edit and revise
your report.

Editing check list

o ls the litle descriptiveand concise?
Does the lntroductionincludebackgroundinformation,supported by referencesfrom the literature?
. Does the tntroducfionincludethe aim of the siudy?
. fs the Materials and Methods section written in the past tense?
. . fs the Materiatsand Methods section written in the passivevoice where appropriate?
. Does the Materiatsand Methodssection contain all the informationrequiredto repeatthe
experiment?
. Does the Fesu/ts section contain tables and figures,with titles that inform and can be understood
without referenceto the texi?
. Does the Resu/fssection contain text describingresultswith referenceto each table and figure?
o Does the Drscussionexplainwhat the resultsmean?
r Does the Discussioncompare resultswith those from other studies and cite references?
. Does the Discussrbnassess errors and unexpectedresultsand suggest extensions?
. ls the Bibliography presented correctly?
a Are Referencescited in the text?
a ls writing clear and concise?
a Are numbers,abbreviations,punctuationand spellingcorrect?

Task:ScienlificWriting 35
 I
M*ffireffim
ffiHmmwffitrW
An*iyse {wiTo break an issue down into parts in
orderto study,identifyand discusstheir meaning
and/or relevance.
Sib3i*grxpB:y {*} A list of referencesto sources
cited in the text of a piece of academicwritingor
a book. A bibliographyshouldconsistof an
alphabeticallist of books,papers,journalarticles
and websitesand is usuallyfound at the end of
the work. lt may also includeiexts suggestedby
the authorfor furtherreading.
#h**k 9i*t {r:}A list of tasks to do or aspectsto
considerwhen planningand preparingfor an
eventsuch as an academicassignment,journey
or pany.
Cite {v} To acknowledgesourcesof ideasin your
work. This may be done throughan in-text
referenceto an author,a referencein a bibliography
or footnoteor a verbalreferencein a talk or lecture.
*snelus$*n {n} In academicterms,the final pad of an
essayor presentation, usuallyinvolvinga summary
of your resultsor argument,and a judgment.
**r:*is* {*dj} Used to describesomethingthat is
expressedclearlyin a few well-chosenwords.
*n*t*ri* {r:}Qualities,rulesor standardson which
decisionsor judgmentsare based.
S**elline {n} The date or time by which something
needsto be completed.In academicsituations,
deadlinesare normallygivenfor handingin
essaysand assignments.
***im*! it':i{*dj} 1 A fractionexpressedusing
numbersto ihe right of a decimalpoint. For
example,one-quarterexpressedas a decimalis
0.25.2 Used to describeany numberingbased
on tens.
ff*p**d*nt vsni*hle {n} In an experimentor study,
a variablethat changesin responseto the
independentvariableor control.For example,if
the responseof insectsto a particularchemicalis
being measured,the independentvariableis the
amountof chemicalthat is administeredand the
dependentvariableis the degreeto which the
insectsresoond.
3E Task: Ssienlific Wriling
{ni A variationor movementaway from a
**cJ$stFeln
standardor exoected result.
**cEicln{n} The sectionof a scientific
*i**e"*ssi*ru
paperthat analysesthe findingsor resultsof an
experiment.
*r*f! {c-:}{v} : {*} An early versionof a piece of
academicwritingthat is used as the starting
point for further work. 2 (v)To create an early
versionof an essay,knowingthat you will go
back afterwardsto developand edit your
languageand ideas.
€*$it{v} To select, rearrangeand improve materialto
make it more suitablefor its final purpose.Editing
materialinvolvesreorganising it, correctingerrors,
improvingthe wordingor contentand changing
its lengthby addingsectionsor takingthem out.
ffwal**te {v} To assess informationin terms of
quality,relevance,objectivityand accuracy.
{n} A test undercontrolledconditions
Exp*r"inrer*t
to examinewhetheror not a hypothesisis true.
Fiele!w*rk {m}Researchor informationcollected
away from the classroom,office or laboratory
whereyou usuallydo your work.
fi*gr:r*{n} A diagram,graph or picturethat
illustratesinformationin a text.
F*rrnutre{n} An equation,fact or rule expressedin
symbolsand sometimesnumbers,for example,
nr2 (pi r squared)is the formulafor the areaof
a circle.
Fraetio* {n} The expressionof a numberas part of
a whole. lt is shown as a quotient,whereone
number(the numerator)is dividedby another(the
denominator), such as %,% and %.
Hist*gr*ry! {n} A form of graph that uses horizontal
or vefticalbars.The width (whenhorizontal)or
height(whenvertical)of the bars are in proportion
to the valuesof the data itemsthey represent.
$iyp*t*t*si* {n} An idea about, or explanationof
an observation,phenomenonor scientific
problem.Hypothesesare tested by
experimentation or analysis.
i;-':g:li**ti*::i*l Somethingthat can be interpreted
or inferredbut is not directlystated.
l;:**p*:'ld*r:t vxt-isL:i*{*; The variablein an
experimentor study that the investigatorcan
controlor manipulate.For example,if the
responseof insectsto a particularchemicalis
being measured,the independentvariableis the
amountof chemicalthat is administeredand the
dependentvariableis the degreeto which the
insectsrespond.
{r:t*rg:r*{{v} Givethe meaningor explainthe
significanceof somethingas you understandit.
H*yw*rd {n} An importantword in a text. Keywords
are often used as a referencepoint to searchfor
other words or information
Le**r*t*ry **f-r*dui* {*} A list of proceduresor
instructionsfor conductingan experimentor
operationin the laboratory.
L;iy*xt {a':iThe way that things are positionedwithin
a space;for example,the way text, picturesand
diagramsare arrangedon a page or computer
screen.
ti** g+'*ph{*} A graphthat highlightstrends by
showingconnectinglinesbetweendata points.
&4*terl*is **ej Fr4etit*dss**ii*s: tr*]The section of
a scientificreportthat givesan accountof the
procedurethat was followedin an experiment.lt
also detailsthe materialsand equipmentthat
were used.
ffir*tt:*ria{{*} A symbol used to representa number:
1, 2,3, 4, etc.,are numerals.
#r*&np${*} Symbolsthat show the positionof a
numbereditems in a series.For example,1st,
2nd, 3rd and 4th.
ilt*t {v} To mark pointson a graph or chart.
F*er r*r:i*s; {*} The process of getiing colleagues
or other studentsto check one'swork. The idea
is that peerscan identifyeach other'serrors
quicklyand effectively.
Fie ,;r',a.tii ,Agraphicrepresentation of amounts
or percentagesi.,rhichare shown as segmentsof
a circe r ke a prethat has been dividedup). lt
can be Lrsec"'rsteadoria table in the Results
sectiono$.a sc entllc ','rritl
ng report.
:=1.i'r':'i-,,';':
i,. Standarcp"cceduresand principles
that are follou'ec.fo: exa-p e ',',''ten
r"'ritinga
repodor conductrnga- exce'ment.
*::*i=ii=:-, i::: A parl of a texl .'--ll3- :r spokenby
one authorand reoroducec "'ta lex1.3 e€e or
academicwritingor talk D! a-ol-e' a-trtor.hrdhen
you quote someone'svJorcsof ceas ,o"l do r-not
changethe wordingat all and Sfou c 3-::f'ern n
invertedcommasto signalthat rt s a c-c:a: o'r.
ft;*ti* i*] The relationbetweentwo quan:: es
expressedas the quotientof one dir.':dedD. :he
other.For example,the ratioof 9 to s 9:- or 9 i.
-l
S*f*revr** {*} {v! 1 (n)Acknowledgmentof :.e
sourcesof ideasand informationthat lro-l JSe "l
2
writtenwork and oral oresentations. To
"
acknowledgeor mentionsourcesof inforrrator
ffie***r*[: {v} {a:t1 (v)To gatherinformat]on'rcr'r a
varietyof sourcesand analyseand compafe t. 2
(n) Informationcollectedfrom a varietyof sol:ces
about a specifictopic.
S*al* {r':}A sequenceof marksat fixed intena s
used to show measurements on, for exampre"a
ruler,graph or map.
Serr*r**{t"l}Something(usuallya book. arlic e or
othertext)that suppliesyou with information.In
an academiccontext,sourcesused in essa'l's
and reportsmust be acknowledged.
Tir**n*ti**n b*r*kgr***d {n} Academicideasand
informationthat must be studiedand understood
beforeconductingan experiment.and that
should be consideredand referredto in the
discussionstageof a scientificrepod.
Tr*rrd {n} The generaldirectionin which something
moves,or a suddenchangein direction.
Task:ScientificWriling 37
38 TaskrScienlificWriling
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Fhted and bound

ir Lebanon bv InternationalPress
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THSK
is a flexible learning resource that has been carefully designed to develop the keY :
l
transferable skills that promote students' success in university and college study.
Whether you are a student or a teacher; the TASK series provides a tried and
tested teaching and learning tool suitable for a broad range of academic disciplines.

The EtrmpleteTHSKseries EomPrises:

I 978 1 859@1915 2

? 978 1 859An 916 I

3 978 1 85964 917 6

4 978 I 859et 918 3

5 978 1 8598t S19 0

E 978 1 8Sl&+ 920 6

7 978 1 85964 921 3

B 978 1 859649220

9 9781 859649237

t0 978 1,8599 924 4

I 978 1 85964 S25 1

ta 978 1 859@9268

978 1 85964 927 5

978 1 8599 928 2

rsBN 978185964923-7

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