Quick Check Design Methods: 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved

16
Quick Check Design Methods
1 INTRODUCTION
The design of pneumatic conveying systems is usually carried out on the basis of
scaling data obtained from the pneumatic conveying of the material to be trans-
ported. If previous experience of conveying a given material is not available, data
is generally derived for the purpose by conveying the material through a test facil-
ity, as discussed in detail in the previous chapter. Most manufacturers of pneu-
matic conveying systems have such test facilities for this purpose.
If it is required to make a quick check on the potential of an existing system,
or to provide a check on design proposals, there is little information readily avail-
able for the engineer to use. Pneumatic conveying does not lend itself to simple
mathematical analysis, and it is likely that many engineers would not be able to
undertake such a task easily, particularly if it were a low velocity dense phase sys-
tem.
Since pneumatic conveying systems tend to have high power ratings, particu-
larly for conveying in dilute phase suspension flow, it is useful to be able to obtain
a rough estimate of air requirements at the feasibility stage of a project. Most of the
operating cost of a pneumatic conveying system is in the drive for the air mover. If
an estimate can be made of the system air requirements, it is a simple matter to
evaluate the operating cost in Cents per ton conveyed to see if it is at an acceptable
level before proceeding further.
Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

448 Chapter 16
1.1 Methods Presented

A number of straightforward methods are presented that will allow a check to be
made on the design of a pneumatic conveying system in a very short space of time,
whether for a new or an existing system. Horizontal and vertical sections of pipe-
line and bends can all be accommodated, as well as dilute and dense phase convey-
ing in some cases. For high pressure systems the influence of stepped pipelines can
also be incorporated.
Three different methods are presented. One is based on the value of the air
only pressure drop for the pipeline, but this is strictly limited to dilute phase con-
veying only. Another is based on the use of a universal set of conveying character-
istics and the third uses the steady flow energy equation as a basis. Both of these
can be used for dilute and dense phase conveying.
1.2 Potential Accuracy

It must be emphasized that all three of these methods are strictly quick check
methods and will provide only a first approximation solution. Although some of
the methods may appear to be mathematically correct, do not be lulled into a false
sense of security. There is no reference to conveyed material anywhere in any of
the procedures. In this respect reference to Figures 4.16 and 4.18 will bring any
engineer back to reality with regard to the potential accuracy of these methods,
whether for dilute or dense phase conveying.
For a given material to be conveyed it is possible that the accuracy of some
of these quick check methods could be improved quite considerably. If conveying
data is available for a particular material, fine tuning could be undertaken. Con-
stants relating to individual pipeline features such as bends, vertical lift and pipe-
line bore could be changed or added. Once again it must be emphasized that the
resulting models would only provide more reliable system design and checking
information for the material being considered, and only for that particular grade of
the material.
2 AIR ONLY PRESSURE DROP METHOD
This method uses the value of the air only pressure drop for a pipeline as a basis for
evaluating its conveying potential. This resistance due to the air is related to the
additional resistance resulting from the conveying of material. The pressure drop
due to the air can be readily measured, or simply calculated for any pipeline by
means of the equations presented in Chapter 6.
2.1 Basic Equations

The Ideal Gas Law relates the volumetric flow rate of the air to the pressure and
temperature of the air, as considered in Chapter 5. The volumetric flow rate can
also be expressed in terms of the conveying line inlet air velocity and the pipeline

Quick Check Methods 449
bore. In most conveying situations the volume occupied by the conveyed material
can be neglected in comparison with that of the air.
These models, therefore, can be used quite reliably in gas-solid flow situa-
tions. Material flow rate can be introduced in terms of the solids loading ratio of
the conveyed material. The solids loading ratio is a parameter that is often known
approximately, and in these cases quite simple equations can be derived equating
the variables.
2. /. / Solids Loading Ratio

Solids loading ratio, $, is defined as the ratio of the mass flow rate of the material
conveyed, to the mass flow rate of the air used to convey the material and this was
first presented at Equation 4.5:
m
(j) = (dimensionless) - - - - - - - (])
m
where « „ = mass flow rate of material - Ib/h
and ma = mass flow rate of air - Ib/h
It is a dimensionless ratio and is a particularly useful parameter since its

value remains constant along the length of a pipeline, regardless of the air pressure
and conveying air velocity.
2.7.2 Ideal Gas Law

Air mass flow rate is not always a convenient parameter with which to work, and
air flow rate is more usually expressed in volumetric terms. From the Ideal Gas
Law, for a steady flow situation, however, one can readily be evaluated from the
other, as first illustrated at Equation 5.4:
1 4 4 p V = ma R T - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
where p = absolute pressure of gas - Ibf/in 2

V = volumetric flow rate of
gas at pressure ;P - fVYmin
ma = mass flow rate of gas - Ib/min
R = characteristic gas constant - ft Ibf/lb R
and T = absolute temperature of gas - R
= / ° F + 460

450 Chapter 16
2.1.3 Volumetric Flow Rate

Volumetric flow rate is given by:
V = velocity * area
and for a circular pipe
n d2
ft'/min - - - - - - (3)
576
where C = conveying air velocity - ft/min
and d = pipe bore - in
This is the actual volumetric flow rate. Since air and other gases are com-
pressible, volumetric flow rate will change with both pressure and temperature. It
also means that the conveying air velocity will vary along the length of a pipeline.
A full explanation and analysis of this was included in Chapter 5 on Air Require-
ments.
2.2 Working Relationships

The three equations presented above are exact equations, and so any combination
of these equations will similarly produce precise relationships. Although these
equations include all the basic parameters in pneumatic conveying, they will not
produce design relationships. This is because they do not include the necessary
fundamental relationships between material flow rate, pressure drop and conveying
air velocity. Combinations of Equations 1 to 3, however, will produce equations
that can be usefully used to check system designs. They will also provide a good
basis for the inclusion of design relationships.
2.2.1 Material Flow Rate

By substituting Equation 3 into 2 to eliminate V , making ma the subject of the
equation and substituting this into Equation 1 gives:
9
n d p C
mpn = <p x x ib/h
4 RT
By putting R = 53-3 ft Ibf/lb R for air gives:
p Cr d/2
mn = v6 x ib/h - - - - - - - (4)
P 61.9T

2.2.2 Pipeline Bore

For a given material flow rate and conveying conditions, the diameter of the pipe-
line is generally required. An alternative arrangement of the equations gives:
nO-5
d = 8'24
1
PT
' P
2.2.3 Conveying Line Pressure Drop

An alternative arrangement, in terms of the pressure required to convey the mate-
rial gives:
mp T
p = 67-9 —-^— Ibf/in 2 a b s - - - - - (6)
z
C d 6
2.2.3.1 Reference Conditions

The variables in these equations can be taken at any point along the pipeline. In
the case of air pressure and velocity, however, these are generally only known,
with any degree of accuracy, at the very start and end of a pipeline. Since the con-
veying line inlet air velocity is probably the most critical parameter in system de-
sign it is generally conditions at the material feed point, at the start of the pipeline,
that are used for this purpose.
2.3 Empirical Relationships

It will be seen from Equations 4 to 6 that, for a given material and pipeline, there
are six variables relating the main conveying parameters. Of these, the conveying
air temperature will be known; solids loading ratio is a function of the conveying
air velocity, pipeline bore and material flow rate; and either the material flow rate
required, pipeline bore to be used, or conveying line pressure drop available will
be specified. This means that there are three basic variables in each of these equa-
tions.
It will be possible to provide solutions to Equations 4 to 6, therefore, if two
further relationships can be provided. These will, by necessity, be empirical, and
so the accuracy of any expressions developed will ultimately depend upon the
accuracy of the empirical relationships used. The first of these is a relationship or
suggested value for conveying line inlet air velocity. The second is a relationship
for solids loading ratio and this is in terms of conveying line pressure drop pa-
rameters.

452 Chapter 16
2.3.1 Conveying Line Inlet Air Velocity

The conveying line inlet air velocity to be employed depends upon the m i n i m u m
conveying air velocity at which the material can be successfully conveyed. This
depends very much upon the material to be conveyed and the solids loading ratio
at which it is to be conveyed.
A graphical representation of this relationship between minimum conveying
air velocity and solids loading ratio for typical powdered and granular materials is
presented in Figure 16.1. These relationships for different materials were first in-
troduced in Chapter 4.
For a material that is capable of being conveyed in dense phase, such as a
material having good air retention properties like barite, fine fly ash or cement, the
conveying limits are defined approximately by:
Cmin = 2300 for ^ < 10
Cmin = (7330 $T°-3 - 1370) for 10 < </> < 80 ft/min - - (7)
Cmin = 600 for <f> > 80

where Cmm = minimum conveying air velocity - ft/min
and <b = solids loading ratio - -
3000
Material having dilute phase
conveying capability only
2000
>
Material with dense phase
conveying capability
g 1000
u
20 40 60 80 100
Solids Loading Ratio
Figure 16.1 Relationship between minimum conveying air velocity and solids loading
ratio for different materials.

For a material that is not capable of being conveyed in dense phase, such as
granular materials having both poor air retention and poor permeability, the con-
veying limits are defined approximately by:
Cmm = 2300 to 3200 ft/min (for all (8)
A graphical representation, for typical materials, of these relationships be-

tween minimum conveying air velocity and solids loading ratio is also included on
Figure 16.1. For most purposes, the use of this graph probably provides the quick-
est means of determining the necessary value, but for anyone wanting to program
the analysis, Equations 7 and 8 are offered for this purpose.
Design would generally be based on a conveying line inlet air velocity, C/,
20% greater than the minimum conveying air velocity, C,,,,,,:
C, = 1-2 ft/min (9)
2.3.2 Solids Loading Ratio

An approximate relationship between pressure drop and solids loading ratio, for
dilute phase conveying, is presented in Figure 16.2. The relationship is based upon
the assumption that the curves on Figure 16.2 are equi-spaced with respect to con-
veying line pressure drop. For many materials conveyed in dilute phase this is a
reasonable approximation.
Air Flow Rate - V0

Figure 16.2 Influence of solids loading ratio and air flow rate on conveying line pres-
sure drop for dilute phase suspension How.

454 Chapter 16
A mathematical expression for this is:
(10)
where Apc conveying line pressure drop - Ibf/irT

and Ap,, air only pressure drop - Ibf/in 2
2.3.3 Material Flow Rale

Now from Equation I :
mP
m.
Directly equating these two expressions for solids loading ratio gives:
mp = Ib/h (11)
If air mass flow rate, ma , is not a convenient parameter, Equation 11 can be

expressed in an alternative form, in terms of air pressure, p, and velocity, C, by
substituting a combination of Equations 3 and 5 to give:
p nd C
mP Ib/h
4 RT
Another alternative is to substitute solids loading ratio, </>, from Equation 10

into Equation 4, which gives:
p C d2
mp = Ib/h (12)
67-9 T
Pipeline inlet conditions are the most convenient to use here.

2.3.3.1 Negative Pressure Systems
For vacuum systems the pressure, p, will be atmospheric.

2.3.3.2 Positive Pressure Systems

For positive pressure systems the pressure, p, in Equation 12 will be equal to the
conveying line pressure drop, A/?c, plus atmospheric pressure, which is:
where A/? r = conveying line pressure drop - lbf/in 2

and paln, = atmospheric pressure - lbf/in 2
2. 3. 4 Pipeline Bore
By substituting the solids loading ratio, (/), from Equation 10 into Equation 5, the
expression can be in terms of the pipeline bore required:
A/?,,
d = 8-24 in (13)
P
The situation for both positive and negative pressure systems is the same as
above.
2.3.5 A ir Supply Pressure

Alternatively, the expression can be in terms of the pressure required to convey the
material. Substituting the solids loading ratio, 0, from Equation 10 into Equation 6
gives:
T
p = 67-9 lbf/in 2 abs - (14)
C d'
Pipeline inlet conditions are again the most convenient to use.

For negative pressure systems the pressure, p, will be atmospheric and hence Apc
can be determined, which is the value required in this case. Re-arranging Equation
14 and expressing in terms of pipeline inlet conditions for this case gives:
m .
67-9 d
~ + 1 | lbf/in 2 (15)

456 Chapter 16

For a positive pressure system:
A/7C = Pa,
Substituting this into Equation 14 and expressing in terms of pipeline inlet

conditions gives:
mp
PllPl = 67'9
This is a quadratic equation, the solution to which is:
2 212mpTl&pa
P Palm \Patm (16)
Note:
This will give the correct root.
2.3.6 Air Only Pressure Drop

Since the air only pressure drop, Apa, features prominently in all of these models,
a convenient expression for this pressure drop is required. An expression that will
give the air only pressure drop in terms of conveying line inlet, or exit, air velocity
is needed. These models were derived in detail in Chapter 6 on The Air Only Da-
tum.
For negative pressure systems the expression also needs to be in terms of the inlet
air pressure, p / , since this is generally known (usually atmospheric). Such an ex-
pression was developed at Equation 6.20 and is:
,05
j_
lbf/in- (17)


For positive pressure systems the expression needs to be in terms of the exit pres-
sure, p2, since this is generally known (usually atmospheric). Such an expression
was developed at Equation 6.17 and is:
,0-5
1+ -1 Ibf/irT (18)
Pipeline Features
This quick check method does not take pipeline features such as vertical sections
and bends into account very well. Bends are a particular problem because the
equivalent length with material flow increases by an order of magnitude above the
air only value. This is where the accuracy of the method can be improved, if con-
veying data is available, and constants are applied to the component parts of the
pipeline for fine tuning.
2.3.7.1 Vertical Conveying
The models presented so far relate essentially to horizontal pipelines. Most pneu-
matic conveying systems, however, will include a vertical lift and so this needs to
be taken into account. The pressure drop in vertical conveying over a very wide
range of solids loading ratio values, is approximately double that for horizontal
conveying. Sections of vertical conveying in a pipeline, therefore, can most con-
veniently be accounted for by working in terms of an equivalent length and allow-
ing double for vertical lifts. This equivalent length needs to be incorporated in the
actual pipeline length in the preceding equations.
2.3.7.2 Pipeline Bends
A model to give the equivalent length of a bend in terms of straight pipeline was
presented in Chapter 6 at Equation 9:
k d
(19)
487
For a radiused 90° bend, k is typically about 0-15 (see Figure 6.6) and an av-
erage value of friction factor,/, is about 0-004 (see Figure 6.3). For a 6 inch bore
pipeline, therefore, the equivalent length of a bend is approximately 4-7 ft. The
performance of bends within pneumatic conveying systems was considered in
Chapter 8 and equivalent lengths were presented in Figure 8.18. From this it is
evident that a constant needs to be applied to the bend loss coefficient and a multi-
plying factor of three is suggested by way of compromise. With conveying data
for a particular material this is a particular area for fine tuning.

458 Chapter 16
2.4 Procedure
To illustrate the method it is proposed to use the same example as employed in the
previous chapter to demonstrate the procedure with regard to scaling parameters
for dilute phase conveying. This was to investigate the conveying potential of the
pipeline system illustrated in Figure 15.12 of 8 inch bore for the conveying of
granular coal. The pipeline routing included a total of 570 feet of horizontal pipe-
line, 80 feet of vertically up pipeline and eight 90° bends.
It was proposed that a conveying line inlet air pressure of 12 psig should be
used, with atmospheric pressure at 14-7 psia. The minimum conveying air velocity
for the coal was given as 2600 ft/min and with a 20% margin the conveying line
inlet air velocity was taken as 3120 ft/min. It will assumed that the temperature of
the air and coal are 520 R (60°F) throughout.
2.4.1 Air Only Pressure Drop
The starting point in the process is to evaluate the air only pressure drop, Apa, for
the pipeline and potential conveying parameters. Possibly the best equation for the
air only pressure drop for the given situation is Equation 18 presented above, and
this is repeated below for reference:
P2 Ibf/in" - - - (20)
The terms in this equation are as follows:
...i P2 = 14-7 Ibf/in 2 absolute. This is the conveying line exit air pressure,
which is atmospheric pressure.
C? = 5660 ft/min. This is the conveying line exit air velocity. The con-
veying line inlet air velocity is given above as 3120 ft/min and C2 can be
calculated using Equations 5.1 and 5.5.
P R = 53'3 ft Ibf/lb Rand is the characteristic gas constant for air. See Ta-
bleS.l.
ij T2 = 520 R. This is the absolute value of conveying line exit air tempera-
ture, given above.
gL. = 32'2 ft lb/lbfs~. This is the gravitational constant.
\y = the constant relating to pipeline geometry:
The pipeline head loss coefficient, i//, was presented in Chapter 6 with Equa-
tion 6.1 1 and is presented below for reference:
W = -- 1 -- (dimensionless) - - - - (21)
9-375 d 450

/ = 0-004. This is the pipeline friction coefficient. This is derived from

Figure 6.3, having evaluated the Reynolds number for the flow (see Chap-
ter 6 section 2. 1 .4) in the usual way.
! L = 730 feet. This is the equivalent length of the straight sections of
pipeline, comprising 570 ft of horizontal pipeline and 80 ft of vertically up
pipeline. [Lf = Lh + 2Lt]
d = 8 inch. This is the diameter of the pipeline.
Zk = 3-6. This is the loss coefficient for all the bends in the pipeline. For
an individual bend the value of k for air is about 0-15 (see Figure 6.6).
There are 8 bends in the pipeline and it was recommended above that this
loss coefficient should be multiplied by a factor of three.
Substituting the above set of values into Equation 21 gives \$i = 0-0469.
Substituting this value for if/ and the previous set of values into Equation 20
gives:
0-0469x5660 2
= 14-7
8x53-3x460x32-2
= 1-65 lbf/in 2
2. 4. 2 Material Flow Rate

Since the diameter of the pipeline is specified as 8 inch and the system is to oper-
ate with an air supply pressure of 12 psig, it is the material flow rate that needs to
be evaluated. This is given by Equation 1 1, and requires a value for the air mass
flow rate in Ib/h. This can be determined by re-arranging Equation 5.4 and substi-
tuting V from Equation 5.2, since a value for volumetric flow rate has not yet been
evaluated:
p n d2Cx60
m = Ib/h (22)
4RT
Taking conveying line inlet air conditions and substituting the above values
gives:
26-7x^x82x3120x60
-
4x53-3x520
= 9065 Ib/h

460 Chapter 16
Substituting these values into Equation 11 gives:
m - 9065 [ —-1
" 11.65
= 56,900 Ib/h
In the case study presented in the previous chapter, using conveying data and
scaling parameters, a material flow rate of about 71,600 Ib/h was evaluated for the
conveying of granular coal. Since the method used here makes no reference to the
type of material being conveyed, a 20% error is to be expected.
3 UNIVERSAL CONVEYING CHARACTERISTICS METHOD
The pressure required to convey a material through a pipeline can be divided into a
number of component parts. The most important are the straight pipeline sections
and the bends. For each of these elements there are a multitude of sub variables
that can have an influence, but their incorporation necessarily adds to the compli-
cation of the process. A compromise is clearly needed in order to provide a Quick
Check Method [1|.
3.1 Straight Pipeline

Figure 16.3 is a graph of material flow rate plotted against air flow rate, which is
the usual form for presenting conveying characteristics for materials. In this case
the family of curves that are drawn are lines of constant pressure gradient in Ibf/in 2
per 100 ft of pipeline. The data was initially derived from conveying trials with
barite and cement, but has since been found to be reasonably close to that for
many other materials. Data in this form has been presented for both horizontal and
vertical pipeline runs in earlier sections, notably in Chapters 8 and 15.
3.1.1 Horizontal Pipeline

The data in Figure 16.3 represents the pressure gradient for conveying material
through straight horizontal pipeline of 2 inch bore. As will be seen, it covers both
dilute and dense phase conveying, with a smooth transition between the two. This
Quick Check Method is based on the use of this data and so it will be seen that
there is no specific reference to material type.
It must be recognized, therefore, that this is also strictly a first approxima-
tion method only, but it will provide an entirely different means of obtaining a
quick check solution. To the pressure drop for conveying the material must be
added the pressure drop for the air, and this will be considered later. The effect of
pipeline bore must also be considered, and this, of course, is also related to the air
flow rate.

Solids Loading
Ratio ---.
240 200 160 120 100
\ll \i 15/14 13
Pressure
50
Gradient
- lbf/in 2
per 100 ft
40
oi 30
o
20 20
10 10
0
0 40 80 120 160 200
Free Air Flow Rate - ft'/min
Figure 16.3 Pressure gradient data for horizontal conveying in 2 ineh bore pipeline.
Straight vertical pipeline sections are another element that requires to be

taken into account, but these can conveniently be incorporated with Figure 16.3, as
will be seen. Pipeline bends are a completely separate issue and will be dealt with
later.
3. 1.2 Vertically Up Pipeline

For flow vertically up, it has been found that the pressure gradient is approxi-
mately double that for horizontal conveying, as reported in Chapter 8, and that this
applies over an extremely wide range of solids loading ratios. To take account of
vertically up sections of pipeline, therefore, the pressure gradient values on Figure
16.3 simply need to be doubled for any operating point on the chart.
For flows in vertically down sections of pipeline the situation is very differ-
ent, as discussed in Chapter 8. In dense phase flows there is a pressure recovery,
such that the pressure gradient has a negative value. For dilute phase flows, how-
ever, there is a pressure loss. The transition between the two occurs at a solids
loading ratio of about 35 and at this value materials can be conveyed vertically
down with no pressure drop at all. Figure 16.3, therefore, cannot be used in this
case, as discussed in section 3.2 of Chapter 8.

462 Chapter 16
3.2 Pipeline Bore

Material flow rate varies approximately in proportion to pipe section area, and
hence in terms of (diameter)2. Air flow rate, to maintain the same velocity in a
pipeline of different bore, varies in exactly the same way. To determine the pres-
sure gradient for flow in a pipeline having a bore different from that of the refer-
ence data in Figure 16.3, both the material and air flow rates should be adjusted in
proportion to (d2/2)2, where d 2 is the diameter of the plant pipeline in inches. It will
be noted, therefore, that there will be no change in the value of the solids loading
ratio.
It must be appreciated that along the length of a pipeline, as the pressure
drops and the conveying air velocity increases, the pressure gradient is likely to
increase. In Figure 16.3 a single value is given for the entire pipeline. This value
can be taken to be an average for the pipeline, but it is another feature that rein-
forces the point that this is only an approximate method.
3.2.1 Stepped Pipelines

When high pressure air is employed it is usual to increase the bore of the pipeline
to a larger diameter along the length of the pipeline. This technique was consid-
ered in some detail in Chapter 9. By this means the very high velocities that will
result towards the end of a single bore pipeline, from the expansion of the air, can
be prevented.
By this means it is often possible to gain a significant increase in perform-
ance of the pipeline. The pressure drop in a stepped pipeline can be evaluated in
exactly the same way as outlined above. A critical point in stepped bore pipelines
is the location of the steps along the length of the pipeline. At each step in the
pipeline the conveying air velocity must not be allowed to fall below a given
minimum value. The solution, therefore, will be an iterative one since the velocity
of the air at the step depends upon the pressure at the step.
3.3 Pipeline Bends

Pressure drop data for bends in pipelines is presented in Figure 16.4. This is an
identical plot to that in Figure 16.3 and covers exactly the same range of convey-
ing conditions. The pressure drop in this case is for an individual bend in the pipe-
line and hence is in Ibf/in" per bend. The data given in Figure 16.4 relates to 90°
radiused bends in a 2 inch bore pipeline. This is also data that was derived from
conveying trials with barite and cement that has since been found to be reasonably-
close to that for other materials.
3.3.1 Bend Geometry

As mentioned earlier, it has been found that this pressure drop relationship varies
little over a range of D/d (bend diameter to pipe bore) ratios from about 5 to 30.

Solids loading
60 ratio
60
50
o
o
o
Pressure
Gradient
- tbf/in 2
per 100ft
_0
U,
13 20
10
0 40 80 120 160 200

Free Air Flow Rate - ft'/min
Figure 16.4 Pressure drop data for 90° radius bends in 2 inch bore pipeline.
It has been found that the pressure drop in very sharp or short radius bends,
and particularly blind tee bends, however, is significantly higher and so an appro-
priate allowance should be made if any such bend has to be used, or is found to be
fitted into an existing pipeline.
Little data exists for bends other than those having an angle of 90° and so it
is suggested that the data in Figure 16.4 is used for all bends, since 90° bends are
likely to be in the majority in any pipeline. In the absence of any reliable data on
the influence of pipeline bore it is suggested that the data in Figure 16.4 is used for
all bends, regardless of pipeline bore. For larger bore pipelines the material and air
flow rates will have to be scaled in the same way as outlined for the straight pipe-
line in Figure 16.3.
3.4 Air Only Pressure Drop

As mentioned earlier, the data in Figure 16.3 relates only to the conveying of the
material through the pipeline, and so the pressure drop required for the air alone
must be added. In Figure 16.5 the influence of pipeline bore on this pressure drop
for 500 ft long pipelines is presented to illustrate the potential influence of this
variable and is similar to that shown earlier in Figure 6.5.

464 Chapter 16
Pipeline
Bore - 1
Pipe!
-500
Conveying Line Exit Air Velocity - ft/min

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
40 80 120 160 200

Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin * (d 2 /2) 2
Figure 16.5 Influence of pipeline bore and air flow rate on the empty pipeline pressure
drop.
Figure 16.5 shows the influence of air flow rate and pipeline bore on con-
veying line pressure drop for a representative pipeline length of 500 ft. Since pipe
bore is on the bottom of Equation 6.3, pressure drop deceases with increase in
pipeline bore. Figure 16.5 is presented by way of illustration. The air only pressure
drop for any pipeline can be evaluated as illustrated above in section 2.4.1 and the
models presented in Chapter 6.
It will be seen that conveying line exit air velocity has been added to the
horizontal axis for reference. Conveying line inlet air velocity is the critical design
parameter, but this cannot be added conveniently because it is also a function of
the conveying line inlet air pressure. Because a range of pipeline bores are repre-
sented on this plot, the air flow rate is in terms of that for the reference 2 inch bore
pipeline x (d2/2)2.
From Figure 16.5 it will be seen that the air only pressure drop can be quite
significant, and particularly so for long, small bore, pipelines. As there are many
variables in this pressure drop relationship it is probably best to evaluate the pres-
sure drop mathematically on an individual basis, using the models presented in
Chapter 6, as mentioned above
Another graph, plotted for 4 inch bore pipelines, is presented in Figure 16.6
to illustrate the influence of pipeline length, with the pressure drop relationship
being presented for 100 and 1000 ft long pipelines, as well as the 500 ft long pipe-
line of 4 inch bore. This is similar to that shown above in Figure 16.5 and also
includes both air flow rate and conveying line exit air velocity on the horizontal
axis.

10 Pipeline 1000
Length - ft
,g
Pipeline Bfrre !
-O
T 6 - 4 inert -. 500
a
I
§4
100
Conveying Line Exit Air Velocity - ft/min

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
40 80 120 160 200
2
Free Air Flow Rate - fVVrnin x (d2/2)
Figure 16.6 Influence of pipeline length and air flow rate on empty pipeline pressure
drop.
3.5 Conveying Parameters

Many of the conveying parameters to be taken into account in the analysis are
similar to those presented above for the previous method.
5.5.7 Pick-Up Velocity

System design decisions have always to be made with regard to a value of the con-
veying line inlet air velocity to be employed. This is critical to the success of any
pneumatic conveying system. The data presented in Figure 16.1 and Equations 7
to 9 is equally valid here by way of guidance in determining a value for pick-up
velocity. Once again it must be emphasized that if the material is capable of being
conveyed at low velocity in dense phase, then the influence of solids loading ratio
will additionally have to be taken into account.
3.5.2 Influence of Distance and Pressure

The design method presented here is an iterative process, and particularly so for
dense phase conveying where the conveying line inlet air velocity is a function of
the solids loading ratio. Solids loading ratio is an important parameter in this proc-
ess, and so the potential influence of conveying distance and air supply pressure
on the solids loading ratio is presented in Figures 16.7 and 16.8. These graphs
were presented earlier in Figures 4.27 and 4.28 to illustrate the potential capability
of pneumatic conveying systems.

466 Chapter 16
150 100 80 60 40
15
I°
tx
200 300 400 500
Conveying Distance - ft
-10
100 80 60 40 30
Figure 16.7 The influence of air supply pressure and conveying distance on solids
loading ratio for low pressure conveying systems.
60 ISO 100 80 60
<U 30
I50
r
'c
§ 40
o
30
Q.
% 20
C/3
10
500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Conveying Distance - ft
Figure 16.8 The influence of air supply pressure and conveying distance on solids
loading ratio for high pressure conveying systems.

Figure 16.8 is drawn for high pressure, long distance conveying systems,
with air supply pressures up to 60 lbf/in 2 gauge and pipeline lengths of up to 2500
ft. Figure 16.7 is drawn for shorter distance, low pressure systems, up to 15 lbf/in 2
500ft.
It should be noted that dense phase conveying is possible with low pressure
vacuum conveying systems, as will be seen from Figure 16.7. This is because
dense phase conveying is a function of pressure gradient and does not depend on
distance or pressure drop alone.
Pipeline bore, conveying air velocity, and material type, will all have an in-
fluence on the overall relationship and so it must be stressed once again that these
figures are only approximations for this purpose and on no account should they be
used for design purposes alone, as mentioned earlier.
3.6 PROCEDURE
To illustrate the method it is proposed to use the same example as employed in the
previous chapter to demonstrate the procedure with regard to scaling parameters
for dense phase conveying. This was to investigate the conveying potential of the
pipeline system illustrated in Figure 15.15 for the conveying of cement. The pipe-
line routing included a total of 660 feet of horizontal pipeline, 140 feet of verti-
cally up pipeline and eight 90° bends.
It was proposed that a conveying line inlet air pressure of about 30 psig
should be used, with atmospheric pressure at 14-7 psia. It was assumed that the
temperature of the air and cement were 520 R (60°F) throughout. A cement flow
rate of 140,000 Ib/h was required and it was considered that an 8 inch bore pipe-
line would be required.
The equivalent length of the Figure 15.15 pipeline can be obtained from
Equation 15.9:
Le = Lh + 2 Lv + (N + 2 Leb)
The terms in the equation are as follows:
: Lh = total length of horizontal pipeline of 660 ft.
i ! Lv= total length of vertically up pipeline of 140 ft.
_" N = total number of bends, which is eight.
Leh= equivalent length of bends, from Figure 8.18, assuming a convey-
ing line inlet air velocity of about 900 ft/min, to be about 10 ft.
Substituting the above set of values into Equation 15.9 gives:
Le = 1040 ft
From Figure 16.8 a typical value of solids loading ratio would be about 40
with an air supply pressure of 30 psig and an equivalent length of 1040 ft. From
Figure 13.3 the minimum conveying air velocity for cement conveyed at a solids

468 Chapter 16
loading ratio of 40 is about 700 ft/min and so with a margin of 20% for conveying
line inlet air velocity, the value of 800 ft/min assumed above is satisfactory.
Since a pipeline bore and material flow rate are both specified, it is the ac-
tual pressure drop that is required to be evaluated and this comes in three elements.
3.6.1 Straight Pipeline Pressure Drop

This can be obtained from Figure 16.3. This is drawn for a 2 inch bore pipeline
and so the material flow rate needs to be scaled down by using Equation 15.12:
d,
= 140,000
= 8750 Ib/h
To use Figure 16.3 any two reference points are required and it will be seen
that for a material flow rate of 8750 Ib/h and a solids loading ratio of 40, the pres-
sure gradient is approximately 4 Ibf/in 2 per 100 ft of pipeline and the free air flow
rate is about 55 ft'/min.
The pressure drop due to the material, therefore, is simply given by the pres-
sure gradient multiplied by the equivalent length:
x [660 + (2 x 140
100
= 37-6 Ibf/in 2
3.6.2 Pipeline Bends

From exactly the same location on Figure 16.4 the pressure drop due to the bends
is given as 0-6 Ibf/in 2 per bend and so the total for the bends is:
Apb = 8x0-6
= 4-8 Ibf/in 2
3.6.3 Air Only

From Equation 6.10 the pressure drop due to the air is given by:
f L £k p C2
21,600 d 1,03 6,800

The terms in the equation are as follows:

/ = 0-004. This is the pipeline friction coefficient. This is derived from
Figure 6.3, having evaluated the Reynolds number for the flow (see Chap-
ter 6 section 2.1.4) in the usual way.
1
L = 800 ft. This is the actual length of the pipeline in this case.
; ! d = 8 inch. This is the diameter of the pipeline.
. ZA= This is the loss coefficient for all the bends in the pipeline. For an
individual bend the value of k is about 0-15 (see Figure 6.6).
i p = 0-0765 Ib/fV. This is the approximate density of the air at the end of
the pipeline.
i C = 3000 ft/min. This is the approximate velocity at the end of the pipe-
line. This is only an estimate at this stage and may have to be re-
considered if an iteration is required at the end of the calculation process.
gc = 32-2 ft Ib/lbf s2. This is the gravitational constant.
Substituting values gives:
0-004x800 8x0-15^1 0 • 0765 x 30002

1
21,600x8 1,036,800,1 32-2
= 0-42 lbf/in 2
3.6.4 Total System

The total pressure drop for the pipeline, Apc, is the sum of the three elements:
=
Apc App + Apt, + Apa
= 37-6 + 4-8 + 0-4
= 42-8 lbf/in 2
A check now needs to be made on the values obtained to ensure that they are
consistent. The free air flow rate, VQ , was 55 mVmin in the two inch bore pipe-
line. This equates to 880 ft /min in an eight inch bore pipeline. From Equation
5.11:
C = 5-19 -^2- ft/min
i . 71/ = conveying line inlet air temperature of 520 R.

T i V0 = volumetric flow rate of free air of 880 m 3 /min.
i d = pipeline bore of 8 in.
_! pi = conveying line inlet air pressure of 44-0 + 14-7 lbf/in 2 abs

470 Chapter 16
Substituting these values gives:
C, = 632 ft/mm
A check also need to be made on the value of solids loading ratio. For this
calculation a value of air mass flow rate is required. This can be obtained quite
simply by multiplying the value of free air flow rate by the value of free air den-
sity. Thus the solids loading ratio, $ is:
mp _ 140,000
p VH 0 • 0765 x 880 x 60
= 35
It will be seen from this check that both the solids loading ratio and the con-
veying line inlet air velocity (and hence free air flow rate) are slightly below the
input values and so it would be recommended that the procedure be repeated on
the basis of the new data. Alternatively a higher air supply pressure could be used
or a larger bore of pipeline. However, since the first estimate is very close, it is
almost certain that with a stepped pipeline the conveying duty would be achieved
satisfactorily. There are many alternatives and possibilities.
Since a wide range of pipeline bore and air supply pressure combinations
will be capable of achieving the duty, it is always worthwhile investigating a num-
ber of different options, as they are likely to lead to different system costs and
operating power requirements.
4 STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION METHOD
The steady flow energy equation, in its full form, includes a heat transfer term, as
well as a work transfer term and includes changes of both kinetic energy and po-
tential energy, as well as changes in enthalpy. In this application heat transfer be-
tween the system and the surroundings can be disregarded and so the only energy
input to the system that needs to be taken into account is that imparted by the air
mover. The appropriate thermodynamic model is presented in detail below.
The energy input to the system from the air mover is transferred to both the
conveyed material, and the conveying air, and so both must be included. It is con-
sidered that changes in enthalpy can also be disregarded, but changes in both ki-
netic and potential energy are included in the energy terms, and these are also pre-
sented in detail below.
4.1 The Model

In this model the thermodynamic work imparted to the air by the compressor, or
exhauster, W a , is equated to the energies transferred to the conveyed material, Ep,

and to the conveying air, E a . Energies in this model are expressed in terms of a
'head', h, or equivalent potential energy. Thus:
Wa = Ep + Ea hp - - - - - - - - - (23)
4.1.1 Applicability
The influence of conveying air velocity, pipeline bore, horizontal conveying, ver-
tical lift, pipeline bends and plant elevation are all taken into account. The model
can be applied equally to vacuum conveying and to positive pressure conveying
systems. It will also apply to both dilute and dense phase conveying, provided that
the conveying parameters are correctly specified. Although the model can theo-
retically be applied universally it must be stressed once again that there is no refer-
ence to material properties anywhere in the basic equations.
As with the previous methods considered, it is also possible to apply con-
stants to the models presented, at appropriate points in the equations. These con-
stants can be used to fine tune the model, for a given material, so that the model
can be applied with a reasonable degree of reliability for the design of pipeline
systems for that specific material. Ideally, actual conveying data for the given ma-
terial should be used for this purpose. By this means different sets of constants can
be determined to cater for a range of different materials, or for a number of differ-
ent grades of a particular material.
4.2 COMPONENTS OF MODEL

The three basic terms of the model, presented in Equation 16.23 are detailed be-
low. The energy input is just a single term as this relates to the work done by the
compressor or exhauster. The energy transfer to both the conveyed material and
the air are split into their component parts and it is with these than fine tuning can
be applied with the use of constants to improve the accuracy of the overall model
for a given material.
4.2.1 Energy Input to Conveying Pipeline

The compression or expansion of the air, particularly within positive displacement
machines, is an adiabatic process and the useful work imparted to the air, W a , is
given by:
m \p
v v - p v
w
Wa =
a 4 4 -; 3r 3 • .h p - - - - - (24)
2 2 9 • 2 ( n - l)
where ma = mass flow rate of conveying air - Ib/min

(see Equation 25)
p = air pressure - lbf/in 2 abs

472 Chapter 16
v = specific volume of air - ft'/lb

(see Equation 27)
and n = adiabatic index for compression of air
- 1-2
subscript 3 relates to the inlet conditions to the air mover
and 4 relates to the exit conditions from the air mover
(see Figures 16.9 and 16.10
at the end of this chapter)
4.2.1.1 Air Mass Flow Rate
The mass flow rate of the air, ma , used for conveying the particulate material can
be obtained from Equation 5.4, and is reproduced below once again:
\44pV = m R T - - - - - - - - - - (2)
The volumetric flow rate of the air, V , can be obtained from:
n d2
V = C * fr'/mjn . . . . . . . (3)
576
Substituting Equation 3 into Equation 2 and expressing in terms of convey-

ing line inlet air conditions gives:
2
P-, C, n d
mn = — Ib/min - - - - - - (25)
a
4 R T,
where p/ = conveying line inlet air pressure - lbf/in 2 abs

Ct = conveying line inlet air velocity - ft/min
d = pipe bore - m
R = characteristic gas constant - ft lbf//lb R
and TI = conveying line inlet air temp - R
4.2.1.2 Specific Volume of Air
The specific volume of air, v, is given by:
V 1
ft'/lb - - - - - (26)
m
a Pa
where pa = density of air - lb/ft 3
= 0-0765 Ib/ff for air at 'free air conditions'

and from the Ideal Gas Law (Equation 2)
R T
ftj/lb (27)
144 p
so that
R T^
etc
144 p,
4.2.1.3 Adiabatic Compression

For adiabatic processes we have the following basic relationship between/; and v.
P\v\ =
Note also that:
P\v\ _ (29)
T
i "i
'1
V
and 2 (30)
1T
">
4.2.2 Energy Transfer to Conveyed Material

As mentioned above, energies are expressed in terms of a head. For the conveyed
material, therefore, the vertical lift in the pipeline is taken as the reference, rather
than the length of horizontal pipeline, as is generally common with most other
pneumatic conveying system design methods.
The energy transfer to the conveyed material, Ep, is given by:
m g h
P P hp (31)
where trip = flow rate of conveyed material - Ib/h

g = gravitational acceleration = 32-2 ft/s2

474 Chapter 16
gt. = gravitational constant = 32-2 ft Ib/Ibf s2

and hp = total system head loss for
conveyed material - ft
4.2.2.1 System Head Loss
The total system head loss for the conveyed material, hp, is the sum of the compo-
nent parts of the energy required to accelerate the particles to their terminal veloc-
ity, hk, and to convey the material through the horizontal, h/,, and vertical, /!,,, sec-
tions of the pipeline, and the bends, Nhb. Thus:
hp = hk + hh + hv + Nhb ft - - - - - (32)
where h/, = average head loss per bend due to particles
and N = total number of bends in pipeline
4.2.2.1.1 Acceleration Loss
0-8 C 2 ]
J
hk = — ft - - - - - - - - (33)
7200 g
where C? = conveying line exit air velocity - ft/min

and g = gravitational acceleration - ft/s2
Note:
The constant (0-8) accounts for the fact that the particles will typically be
conveyed to a terminal velocity which is about 80% of that of the convey-
ing line exit air velocity, C3 (see Figure 15.10).
4.2.2.1.2 Horizontal Line Loss
hh = lhLh ft - - (34)
where L/, = total length of horizontal pipeline - ft

and /I/, = horizontal line constant - -
Note:
The constant, 1;, accounts for the fact that the head loss is in terms of an
equivalent length of vertically upward pipeline.
1
The value of this constant is clearly influenced by friction forces between
particles, and particles and pipe walls, and is likely to be affected quite
significantly by material type. It is suggested that a value of 0-5 should be
used in the first instance:

4.2.2.1.3 Vertical Line Loss
hv = 1VLV ft (35)
where L,, = total length of vertically up

sections of pipeline - ft
and A,, = vertical line constant - -
Note:
The value of the constant A,, is also clearly influenced by friction forces
between particles, and particles and pipe walls, and is likely to be affected
quite significantly by material type. It is suggested that a value of 1 -0
should be used in the first instance:
[J Vertically downward sections of pipeline can be disregarded, provided
that no individual section is longer than about 15 ft. For longer sections of
conveying vertically down refer to Chapter 8.
4.2.2.1.4 Bend Losses

Average bend loss:
C'
hh = A, (36)
7200 g
where C = root mean air velocity - ft/min

f ? -sO-5
C +C
l l ft/min (37)
2
C/ = conveying line inlet air velocity - ft/min
C2 = conveying line exit air velocity - ft/min
g = gravitational acceleration - 32-2 ft/s2
and X\, = pipeline bend constant - -
Note:
j
The value of the constant ).h will be influenced by both the type of con-
veyed material and the bend geometry. It is suggested that a value of 1 -5
should be used in the first instance:
'..• The velocity of the air increases through the pipeline from C/ to C2 and
so the head loss for every bend will be different. The root mean velocity is
taken in order to provide an average value for the head loss. In general the
bends are distributed uniformly along the length of the pipeline. Only if
there is an unbalanced cluster of bends at the end of pipeline will this bend
loss need to be reconsidered.

476 Chapter 16
4.2.2.2 Total Energy Transfer

If the individual elements of head loss are substituted back into Equation 16.32
and this, in turn, is substituted into Equation 16.31, the result gives the total energy
transfer to the conveyed material.
m NC2
8
hp (38)
xlO 7200g 7200g
4.2.3 Energy Transfer to Conveying A ir

The energy transfer to the conveying air, £„, needs to be considered in terms of
friction losses. These are pipe wall friction and bend losses. This is given by:
m g h
a a hp (39)
33,000 g
where ma = air mass flow rate - Ib/min

g = gravitational acceleration = 32-2 ft/s"
hu = total system head loss for
conveying air - ft
and gc = gravitational constant =32-2 ftlb/lbfs 2
4.2.3.1 System Head Loss

The total system head loss, /?„, is the sum of that due to the pipeline wall friction,
h/, and pipeline bends, Nhha. Thus:
+ Nh.'ba ft (40)
where hf = pipeline friction head loss - ft

N = number of bends - -
and hf,a = head loss per bend due to air - ft
4.2.3.1.1 Pipeline Friction Loss
48 / L C 2
x (41)
d
where / = pipeline friction coefficient

= 0-0045 typically for pipeline

L ~ total pipeline length - ft
= Lh + £,.
d = pipeline bore - in
g = gravitational acceleration - 32-2 ft/s2
and C = root mean air velocity - ft/min
(see Equation 37)
4.2.3.1.2 Bend Loss
d k
hba = (42)
where d pipeline bore - in

k bend head loss coefficient
0-15 typically for radiused bends
f pipeline friction coefficient
0-0045 typically
Substituting values for k and/, the total head loss due to the bends will be:
N d
Nh ba (43)
1-44
4.2.3.2 Total Energy Transfer

If the individual elements of head loss are substituted back into Equation 41 and
this, in turn, is substituted into Equation 39, the result gives the total energy trans-
fer to the conveying air.
ma g /(V^v)c 2 N d
hp - - (44)
150 g d 1-44
c
4.3 Procedure
The energy equation model presented in Equation 23 and the three components of
the equation have been presented in detail above. It is possible to equate the work
term in Equation 24 to the energy terms for the conveyed material and the convey-
ing air in Equations 38 and 44 in a single line and solve. This is not included here
as a further numbered equation since it is felt that a better understanding of the
process will be gained by evaluating the constituent parts individually.

478 Chapter 16
To illustrate the method it is proposed to use the same example as employed

earlier in this chapter to illustrate the universal conveying characteristics method
which, in turn, was used to demonstrate the procedure with regard to scaling pa-
rameters in the previous chapter. By this means the results of all three methods can
be compared, and in particular, these two quick check methods with each other,
and with the more reliable method of using scaling parameters based on the use of
actual conveying data.
To recap, a sketch of the pipeline is given in Figure 15.15 and the routing
includes a total of 660 ft of horizontal pipeline, 140 ft of vertically up pipeline and
eight 90° bends. It was proposed that a conveying line inlet air pressure of about
30 psig (pi = 44-7 psia) should be used, with atmospheric pressure, p2, at 14-7 psia.
A cement flow rate of 140,000 Ib/h was required and it was considered that an 8
inch bore pipeline would be required.
For the convenience of calculation it was assumed that the temperature of
the air and cement were 520 R (60°F) throughout, but for this particular method it
must be emphasized that the temperature of the air leaving the compressor must be
calculated, since it will be at a very much higher temperature and the value of the
specific volume of the air at this point is a function of this temperature (see Equa-
tion 27).
Once again it will have to be an iterative process, since the material is capa-
ble of being conveyed in dense phase, and so a conveying line inlet air velocity
will have to be selected in order to allow the calculation to proceed. In terms of a
solution it is proposed that the material flow rate achieved in an 8 inch bore pipe-
line and with a conveying line inlet air pressure of 30 psig should be investigated.
Any one of the three parameters can be chosen but this is probably the easiest in
terms of solving. Results can be obtained relatively quickly and so a wide range of
conveying parameters can be conveniently investigated.
4.3.1 Compressor Work

The expression for compressor work is given in Equation 24. This requires a value
for air mass flow rate and so a conveying line inlet air velocity must be specified.
This will have to be an estimate to allow the calculation process to proceed, and so
a value of 720 ft/min (20% margin on minimum value) is taken in anticipation of
the solids loading ratio being greater than about 40 (see Figure 15.16). Air mass
flow rate is given by:
n d1 p C
m = Ib/min - - - - - - - - 6.15
4 RT
Substituting conveying line inlet air values presented above gives an air
mass flow rate of 58-4 Ib/min. Specific volume values are also required in Equa-
tion 24 and these can be evaluated using Equation 27. 7j, the temperature at inlet

to the compressor can be taken as 520 R but the temperature at outlet, T4, will have
to be evaluated using the first part of Equation 30:
T4 = T; = 626 R
Substituting calculated values into Equation 24 gives:
58-4[(44-7x5-184)-(l4-7xl3-09)]
229-2x(l.2-l)
= 50-07 hp
4.3.2 Energy Transfer to Conveyed Material

The expression for the energy transfer to the conveyed material, Ep, is given by
Equation 38. This additionally requires a value for the conveying line exit air ve-
locity which can most conveniently be evaluated by substituting Equation 9.1 into
the first part of Equation 9.3. Since it is a single bore pipeline and at constant tem-
perature the expression reduces simply to pt x C, = p2 x C? and substituting val-
ues gives C? = 2190 ft/min. With this value the root mean velocity can be deter-
mined (Equation 37) as 1630 ft/min. Substituting these values, recommended val-
ues of constants, and data required into Equation 38 gives:
mp x 3 2 - 2 (0-8x2190) •5x8xl6302
l-98x32-2x!06 7200x32-2
-0
,((, 5 x 6 6 o ) n A v 1 Af)\ _i_
7200x32-2
m,
-(13-2 + 330 + 140 + 1 3 7 - 5 )
1-98x10
= 3-13 x 10'4 m
p
4. 3. 3 Energy Transfer to Conveying A ir
The expression for the energy transfer to the conveying air, Ea, is given by Equa-
tion 44. All of the values required for this equation have been presented or evalu-
ated and so substitution gives:
58-4x32-2
Ea =
33,000x32-2 150x32-2x! 1-44
= 0-52 hp

480 Chapter 16
4.3.4 Material Flow Rate

By substituting these component parts into the basic model, Equation 23, gives:
50-07 = 3-13 x 10"4 mp + 0-52
and mp = 158,300 Ib/h
Based on this value of material flow rate the solids loading ratio, for the air
flow of 58-4 lb/min, comes to about 45. As a consequence the value of conveying
line inlet air velocity chosen is satisfactory and so the calculation is complete with
no iteration required. The flow rate of cement obtained at 158,300 Ib/h is about
13% greater than that derived by using the scaling parameters presented in the
previous chapter. If actual conveying data is available it would be recommended
that the various constants incorporated into the equation should be 'fine tuned' in
order to increase the reliability of the method.
NOMENCLATURE
Symbol SI
A Pipe section area in~ m

7
n d
= for a circular pipe
4
C Conveying air velocity ft/min m/s
C Root mean velocity ft/min m/s
2 2
C, +C 2
d Pipeline bore in m
E Energy transfer hp kW
/ Pipeline friction coefficient
g Gravitational acceleration ft/s2 m/s2
32-2 9-81
gL. Gravitational constant ft Ib/lbf s" kg m/kN s2
32-2 1-0
h Head loss or gain ft m
k Bend loss coefficient
L Pipeline length ft m
ma Air mass flow rate lb/min kg/s

mp Material flow rate Ib/h tonne/h

n Adiabatic index
A' Number of bends
p Air pressure lbf/in 2 abs kN/nr abs
P Power required hp kW
R Characteristic gas constant ft Ibf/lb R kJ/kg K
= for air 53-3 0-287
op
l Temperature °C
T Absolute temperature R K.
t°F + 460 t°C + 273
v Specific volume of air ft 3 /lb m 3 /kg
V Volumetric flow rate of air ftYmin nrYs
W Work done hp kW
Greek
Air density Ib/ft' kg/m 3

= at free air conditions 0-0765 I-225
Solids loading ratio
mp
m
X Conveying parameter constant

i// Total pipeline head loss coefficient
Superscripts
n Adiabatic index
Subscripts
a Conveying air
atm Atmospheric value
b Bends
c Material conveying
e Equivalent value
f Friction
h Horizontal
k Acceleration or kinetic value
min M i n i m u m value
p Conveyed material or particles
v Vertically up
o Free air conditions

482 Chapter 16
Pipeline inlet - material feed point

Pipeline outlet - material discharge point
Inlet to exhauster / compressor
Outlet from exhauster / compressor
These numerical reference points are illustrated in relation to a vacuum con-

veying system in Figure 16.9 and in relation to a positive pressure system in Fig-
ure 16.10.
Material In
Feeder
Material Out
Air In
Figure 16.9 Reference points in relation to a negative pressure or vacuum conveying

system.
Air out
Material In Filter,
Compressor
Material Out
Air In
Figure 16.10 Reference points in relation to a positive pressure pneumatic conveying

system.

Note:
;~ In a negative pressure system; pt will be slightly below atmospheric pres-
sure if an artificial resistance is added to the air pipeline inlet for the pur-
pose of assisting the feed of material into the pipeline;/}? and Tj will gen-
erally be equal to p3 and T3; but the mass flow rate of air at 3 might be
higher than that at 2 if there is a leakage of air across the material outlet
valve on the discharge hopper.
In a positive pressure system; p, will generally be equal \.op4 unless there
is a pressure drop across the feeding device; p2 and p3 will generally be
equal to the local atmospheric pressure; and the mass flow rate of air at 1
will be lower than that at 4 if there is a leakage of air across the feeding
device.
Prefixes
A Difference in value
1. Sum total
REFERENCE
1. D. Mills. A quick check method for the design of pneumatic conveying systems. Proc
26th Powder & Bulk Solids Conf. pp 107-124. Chicago. May 2001.
Subsequently published in Advances in Dry Processing. Cahners, pp 7-17. Nov 2001.

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16

Quick Check Design Methods

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

1.1 Methods Presented

1.2 Potential Accuracy

2 AIR ONLY PRESSURE DROP METHOD

2.1 Basic Equations

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

2. /. / Solids Loading Ratio

where « „ = mass flow rate of material - Ib/h

and ma = mass flow rate of air - Ib/h

It is a dimensionless ratio and is a particularly useful parameter since its

2.7.2 Ideal Gas Law

where p = absolute pressure of gas - Ibf/in 2

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

2.1.3 Volumetric Flow Rate

and for a circular pipe

2.2 Working Relationships

2.2.1 Material Flow Rate

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

2.2.2 Pipeline Bore

2.2.3 Conveying Line Pressure Drop

2.2.3.1 Reference Conditions

2.3 Empirical Relationships

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

2.3.1 Conveying Line Inlet Air Velocity

Cmin = 2300 for ^ < 10

Cmin = 600 for <f> > 80

Solids Loading Ratio

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Cmm = 2300 to 3200 ft/min (for all (8)

A graphical representation, for typical materials, of these relationships be-

C, = 1-2 ft/min (9)

2.3.2 Solids Loading Ratio

Air Flow Rate - V0

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

A mathematical expression for this is:

where Apc conveying line pressure drop - Ibf/irT

2.3.3 Material Flow Rale

If air mass flow rate, ma , is not a convenient parameter, Equation 11 can be

Another alternative is to substitute solids loading ratio, </>, from Equation 10

Pipeline inlet conditions are the most convenient to use here.

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

2.3.3.2 Positive Pressure Systems

where A/? r = conveying line pressure drop - lbf/in 2

2.3.5 A ir Supply Pressure

Pipeline inlet conditions are again the most convenient to use.

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

2.3.5.2 Positive Pressure Systems

Substituting this into Equation 14 and expressing in terms of pipeline inlet

This is a quadratic equation, the solution to which is:

2.3.6 Air Only Pressure Drop

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

2.3.6.2 Positive Pressure Systems

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The terms in this equation are as follows:

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The terms in this equation are as follows: