Chapter 2:

OVER-CURRENT
PROTECTION OF
TRANSMISSION LINES
 Contents:
• Introduction
• Fuses
• Thermal Relays
• Over-current Relays
• Instantaneous OC Relays
• Definite Time Over-current Relays
• Inverse Time Over-Current Relays
• Inverse definite minimum time (IDi)IT) oaer-current relay
• Extremely inverse time over-current relay
• Implementation of Over-current Relay Using Induction
Disk
 Fuse
HRC Fuse or High Rupturing
Capacity Fuse. HRC fuse or high
rupturing capacity fuse- In that
type of fuse, the fuse wire or
element can carry short circuit
heavy current for a known time
period. During this time if the
fault is removed, then it does not
blow off otherwise it blows off or
melts.
 Thermal Relays
• Bimetallic Type
• Linear Expansion
of two materials
due to heat
• Not for instant
tripping
• Prolonged
overloading
Over Current Relays

• Plug setting multiplier

• PSM < 1 , Normal current
• PSM > 1, Relay Picks up
 Instantaneous OC Relay

• The armature of the relay gets attracted towards the coil, the
air-gap becomes smaller, and hence the reluctance becomes
smaller.
• This results in increased flux which causes the force on the
armature to build up (force being proportional to the square of
the flux density).
• The armature moving quickly in an instantaneous snap action.
• The operating torque on the armature is proportional to the
square of the current
 Instantaneous OC Relay

Attracted Armature Type

Definite Time Over-current Relay
 Inverse Time Over-current Relay
• The more severe the fault is, the more faster it
should be cleared

Three types:
 Inverse Definite minimum time (IDMT) over-
current relay
 Very inverse time over-current relay
 Extremely inverse time over-current relay
Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) over-
current relay

• In the electromechanical relays the flux saturates at high

values of current and
• The relay operating torque, which is proportional to the square
of the flux, does not increase substantially after the saturation
sets in.
• Such a characteristic came about because of the limitation of
the electromechanical technology
• Ideally, we may demand that the operating time be inverse in
nature throughout the operating range.
Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) over-
current relay
Very inverse and Extreamly Inverse time over-
current relay
Implementation of Over-current Relay Using
Induction Disk
Implementation of Over-current Relay Using
Induction Disk
 Implementation of Over-current Relay Using
Induction Disk

Each Flux induces voltage in disc

gives rise to induced current
Implementation of Over-current Relay Using
Induction Disk

• Two alternating fluxes with a phase shift are needed for torque
production,
• A single alternating flux would not produce torque.
• Maximum torque is produced when two alternating fluxes are
shifted in phase by 90.
• The resultant torque is steady, i.e. it is not a function of time,
as
• Time t is not involved in the expression for torque.
Implementation of Over-current Relay Using
Induction Disk
Implementation of Over-current Relay Using
Induction Disk
 The torque thus produced by the interaction of the two fluxes,
is proportional to 𝐼 2 . This is the deflecting torque
 The spiral spring provides the control torque directly
proportional to the angle δ
 The permanent magnet provides the damping torque, when the
disc is in motion and is thus proportional to the rate of change
of angle dδldt.
 Implementation of Over-current Relay Using
Induction Disk

The operating time by finding the value of time t for which δ becomes
zero.
The value of is decided by the time-multiplier setting
Determine CT ratio, Pickup time and dial setting at
breaker 1
Standard CT Ratios
Example: Application of DTOC Relays for
Protection of a Distribution Feeder
Problem: Given the magnitudes of all the loads and the fault
currents at all the buses, how to set the DTOC relays at buses
A and B so that the entire feeder gets over-current protection
arranged as primary and back-up protection.

• Solution:
• Step1: The first step in designing the over-current
protection is to select the ratios for all the CTs.
• Step2: Next we have to do the relay setting.
1. How to select the pick-up value of the relay?
2. How to set the operating time of the relay?
1) How to select the pick-up value of the relay?
How to set the operating time of Relay?

TR,B = 0.1 s (fastest)

 Settings of Relay
R Purpose Pick up Value Time Setting
e
l
a
y
R Primary protection ILC<IpuRB<ILCmin Fastest
B of Section BC
Note: RB is at the TRB=0.1S
tail end of system

R Back-up protection (ILB+ILC)<IpuRA<ILCmin TRA=TRB+TCB,B

A of Section BC +TOS,A
Primary Protection =0.1+0.5+0.2
of section AB =0.8s
Application of IDMT Relay on a distribution
Feeder
 Steps to be followed for solving the problems

• Step 1: Deciding the CT ratios

• Step 2: Relay settings
A) Tail end relay plug settings and time settings
B) Upstream relay plug settings and time settings

Note: Relay settings should always start from tail

end then move towards upstream relays
CT Ratios
(a) Deciding the CT ratios:
(i) At relay B, the maximum load current, assuming 25%
overload is:
80 A + (0.25 x 80 A) = 100 A (current passed through CT
Primary coil)
Assuming 1A relay to be used, the CT ratio can be selected to
be 100 : 1.
(ii) At relay A the maximum load current, assuming 25%
overload is:
160+80+0.25(160+80)=300A (current passed through CT
primary coil)
Assuming 1A relay to be used, the CT ratio can be selected to
be 300 : 1 .
Plug Settings
Relay B:
The plug setting (PS) can be done at 100%, i.e.
PS = 1.0 A.:
Relay A:
The plug setting can be done at 100%, i.e. PS =
1.0 A.
Time-multiplier Settings
• Relay B:
Deciding the time-multiplier settings: Starting from the most
remote relay RB. Since RB does not have to maintain
selectivity with any other relay, it can be made to operate the
fastest. Thus the TMS of RB can be selected as 0.1.
Operating time of RB:

Where TMS=0.1s, PS = 1 and Irelay = 30

PSM= Irelay/PS
Max. Fault current at Bus B = 3000A, For CT ratio 100:1, Max.
fault current at secondary of CT is 3000/100 = 30 = Irelay
PSM = 30/1=30
TR,B= 0.2s
Time-multiplier Settings

Let TCB,B= 0.5 S. Then,

TR,B + TCB,B = 0.7 s
This value of 0.7 s is the desired operating time of RA. Assuming
overshoot time of RA to be 10% of 0.7 s, i.e. TOS.* = 0.07 8.
TR,A max fault at B=0.2 + 0.5 + 0.07 = 0.77 s

• We have, for RA, for the above condition, PSM = Irelay/PS =

(3000/300)/1 = 10
• Hence. for RA: TMS=0.26s
Selectivity Check for minimum fault
• For 2000A(minimum fault) fault Relay RB
operating time:

• For 2000A Relay RA operating time:

As TR,A,min fault at B> TR,B, min fault at B+T +Tos

CB,B

TOS,A=0.226+0.5+0.1(0.226+0.5) = 0.8s
It means selectivity is maintained between RA and RB
Variation of fault current against fault location for
IDMT relays under maximum fault condition
Generalization of solution for any large system
 Generalization of solution for any large system

• This time setting should be made with maximum

current conditions, that is, assuming a three-phase
fault, with maximum generation behind the relay.
• In a radial system, all relays for which coordination is
required must be examined for operation at this same
primary current.
• When coordination is achieved at maximum current,
the shape of the inverse curves, provided they are all
of the same family of inverseness, will ensure
coordination at all lesser current values.
 Choice Between IDMT and DTOC Relays
• IDMT relays offer significant improvement in fault clearing times
over DTOC relays.
• There should be no need to use DTOC relays. There are situations
where IDMT relays do not offer significant advantages over DTOC
Zs >> ZL. Since the fault current as a function of fault location is
proportional to

• It would remain constant throughout the length of the feeder,

therefore, the inverseness of the IDMT characteristics cannot be
exploited.
• In such situations, DTOC relays being cheaper may be preferred.
• Such feeders are also described as electrically short in length,
irrespective of their physical length. Thus we can say that
• DTOC relays are suitable for lines which are short in length.
 Choice Between IDMT and DTOC Relays

It is a practice to recommend DTOC relays when

 Protection of a Three-phase Feeder
• For providing complete protection to a three-phase feeder, we
can begin with three relays connected to three CTs
• All the 11 numbers of shunt faults are catered for
• The relays at bus A will be coordinated with those at bus B
• Fault current for a single line to ground fault, depends upon
the system grounding as well as the tower footing resistance.
Therefore, it may happen that the fault current for a single line
to ground fault, may be less than the load current. In such
cases, it will not be possible to cater to such faults
• OC relay In the residual current path will be blind to the load
current (which is balanced three-phase current) and see only
the ground fault currents. The current in this path will be zero
or near zero during normal balanced load conditions as well as
during a three-phase fault
Protection of a Three-phase Feeder
 Protection of a Three-phase Feeder
 Setting of this relay, which is in the residual current path, can be made
independent of load current and can be much smaller than the load
current.
 Not necessary to use all the three relays for detection and protection
against phase faults. We can get rid of any one phase fault relay without
affecting the performance of the scheme
 Relays Which will Operate
FAULTS 3-phase fault 2-phase fault
Relay Fig: a Relay + one
ground fault
relay Fig: b
a-g Ra Ra, Rg
b-g Rb Rg
c-g Rc Rc, Rg
a-b Ra, Rb Ra
b-c Rb, Rc Rc
c-a Rc, Ra Rc, Ra
a-b-g Ra, Rb Ra, Rg
b-c-g Rb, Rc Rc, Rg
c-a-g Rc, Ra Rc, Ra, Rg
a-b-c Ra, Rb, Rc Ra, Rc
a-b-c-g Ra, Rb, Rc Ra, Rc
 Directional Over-current Relay

 If the fault is at F1 then it is responsibility of red relays to open.

 If fault is at F2, then it is the green relays which should operate
 It is quite likely that for fault F2, the circled red relay may trip
before circled green relay opens to disconnect feed from the
source B, the reason being that both relays are subjected to same
fault current.
 In other words, circled red relay competes with circled green
relay to clear fault.
 Opening of circled red relay unnecessarily causes loss of service
to load at bus P and it should be classified as wrong operation.
 Consider two possible fault locations with respect to relay R3
The relay R2 should operate if fault is at F1 because it is on
primary feeder but not behind i.e. at F2.
 With polarity of CT connection, it is apparent that for fault F1
current I1 seen by the relay lags Vp by 90 degrees, under the
assumption of bolted fault and reactive nature of circuit
impedance.
 When the fault is in the position F2, then relay current leads the
bus voltage 'Vp'.
• Thus, if we measure the bus voltage
phasor Vp and compute the phase angle
of relay current with respect to bus
voltage, then we can use the following
logic to provide selectivity.
• If the relay 'detects fault‘ and current lags
VR (= Vp), then permit relay tripping.
• If the relay 'detects fault' and current
leads VR (= Vp), then inhibit the relay
tripping.
• The 'discrimination principle' based on
phase angle comparison between a set of
phasors, one of which is used as
reference is called 'directional
discrimination principle'.
• Relays with this principle are called
directional relays.
Directional Over-current Relay
Other Situations Where Directional OC
Relays are Necessary
Other Situations Where Directional OC Relays are
Necessary. (Conti…)
Directional Relay

• Can be compared to a contact making wattmeter

• Max. torque when current (CC) and voltage (VC) are in phase
• MTA angle between voltage and current as max torque angle
where relay develops max. torque
• Wattmeter is directional relay with MTA zero
• Induction principle relays two fluxes are responsible to
produce torque when shifted by 90 degrees
Characteristics of directional relay
 Characteristics of directional relay
T operating ∝ øpc øcc Sin(θ+ θpc)

From phasor diagram

θpc+ Ԏ =90
θpc =90-Ԏ
T operating ∝ øpc øccsin(θ+ 90-Ԏ)

∝ øpc øcc Sin((θ- Ԏ )+90)

=K1 øpc øcc Cos(θ- Ԏ)
Since øpc ∝ Vpc and øcc ∝ Icc
T operating =K2 Vpc Icc cos(θ+ 90-Ԏ)
Ԏ=90- θpc
 Application of Directional Relay to a Three-
phase feeder
 Pressure coil is inductive , the value of angle is of the order of
70 to 80 degrees thus MTA is 20 to 10 degrees. However these
can be adjusted if external resistance and capacitance are
introduced
 The relay must operate for forward faults.
 The relay must restrain during reverse faults.
 The relay must not operate during faults other than for which it
has been provided, i.e. the relay must not maloperate.
 Characteristics of directional relay
Toperating ∝ øpc øcc Sin(θ+ θpc)
From phasor diagram
θpc+ Ԏ =90
θpc =90-Ԏ
Toperating ∝ øpc øccsin(θ+ 90-Ԏ)
∝ øpc øcc Sin((θ- Ԏ )+90)
=K1 øpc øcc Cos(θ- Ԏ)
Since øpc ∝Vpc and øcc ∝ Icc
Toperating =K2Vpc Icc cos(θ+ 90-Ԏ)
Ԏ=90- θpc
 Directional phase fault protection

• Let us consider an a-b fault.

• It is logical to choose current Ia, to energize the current coil.
• However, the choice of voltage to be applied to the pressure
coil is not immediately apparent.
• The possibility of using voltage Vab and Vca for the pressure
coil of the directional relay
• Catering to phase faults involving phase a
• The voltage Vab tends to collapse during a-b fault
• Further, the angle between Vab and Ia, during fault i s
substantially large
Directional phase fault protection
Directional phase fault protection
Directional Phase Under Protection
 The 30 and the 60 connections
Summary of phase fault relay excitation
Directional ground fault protection
Directional OC Protection of a Three-phase
Feeder
Directional Protection Under Non-fault
Conditions (Reverse Power Relay)
 Drawbacks of Over-current Relays
 The reach and operating time of the over-current relay depend
upon the magnitude of fault current. The fault current that would
result in case of a fault at a particular location depends upon:
 1. The type of fault, i.e. whether it is a ground fault or a phase
 2. The source impedance
 Neither the type of fault nor the source impedance is predictable,
 The reach of the over-current relay keeps on changing depending
upon the source conditions and the type of fault even though the
relays are set with great care,
 Their reach is subject to variations, they are likely to suffer from
loss of selectivity
 Such a loss of selectivity can be tolerated to some extent in the
low-voltage distribution. However in EHV interconnected system
(grid), loss of selectivity can lead to danger to the stability of the
power system, in addition to large disruptions to loads.
Therefore, over-current relays cannot be relied upon as a primary
means
Drawbacks of Over-current Relays
An Illustrative Numerical Problem: