This article was downloaded by: [George Mason University]

On: 19 July 2013, At: 15:11

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,
37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Sports Sciences

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjsp20

Early-phase neuromuscular adaptations to high- and

low-volume resistance training in untrained young and
older women
a a
Jack Cannon & Frank E. Marino
a
Exercise and Sports Science Laboratories, School of Human Movement Studies, Charles
Sturt University, Bathurst, NSW, Australia
Published online: 05 Nov 2010.

To cite this article: Jack Cannon & Frank E. Marino (2010) Early-phase neuromuscular adaptations to high- and low-
volume resistance training in untrained young and older women, Journal of Sports Sciences, 28:14, 1505-1514, DOI:
10.1080/02640414.2010.517544

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2010.517544

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained
in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no
representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the
Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and
are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and
should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for
any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever
or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of
the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://
www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
 Journal of Sports Sciences, December 2010; 28(14): 1505–1514

Early-phase neuromuscular adaptations to high- and low-volume

resistance training in untrained young and older women

JACK CANNON & FRANK E. MARINO

Exercise and Sports Science Laboratories, School of Human Movement Studies, Charles Sturt University, Bathurst, NSW,
Australia

(Accepted 18 August 2010)

Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 15:11 19 July 2013

Abstract
We compared early-phase effects between high- and low-volume moderate-intensity resistance training on lean muscle
volume, maximal bilateral leg extension strength, maximal isometric torque, normalized maximal bilateral leg extension
strength, normalized maximal isometric torque, and muscle recruitment of the right knee extensors in previously untrained
young (23.8 + 3.7 years, range 20–30 years; n ¼ 16) and older women (67.6 + 6.3 years, range 60–78 years; n ¼ 15).
Participants performed either one set or three sets of 10 repetitions for the bilateral leg extension and bilateral leg curl at an
intensity of 50–75% of maximal strength 3 days per week for 10 weeks. Main effects were observed over time for all variables
(P 5 0.05) with increases ranging from 7.1% to 27.8% and effect sizes (Cohen’s d) ranging from 0.45 to 1.38. No
interactions between age and training volume over time were observed for any variable (P 4 0.05). Our results provide a
novel contribution to the literature demonstrating that additional neuromuscular adaptation during early-phase moderate-
intensity resistance training in previously untrained young and older women may not be elicited through higher-volume
training when training loads are matched provided that a minimal volume threshold is attained. These findings may have
practical applications for the prescription of short-duration resistance training programmes to enhance muscle strength and
achieve hypertrophic and non-hypertrophic adaptations in untrained women.

Keywords: Strength training, ageing, training volume, strength, hypertrophy, neuromuscular adaptation

Nabavi, & Koh, 2000; Hunter & Treuth, 1995;

Introduction
Resistance training is recognized as the most effective
exercise intervention for increasing muscle mass and
strength in young and older individuals (American
College of Sports Medicine, 1998a, 1998b; Pollock
et al., 2000), and is frequently prescribed for
enhancing general health, improving athletic perfor-
mance, injury prevention, musculoskeletal rehabili-
tation, reducing falls risk, and increasing functional
ability. Adaptations to resistance training are depen-
dent on the interaction between several acute
programme variables, including training load (in-
tensity), volume, frequency, exercise selection,
exercise order, rest, and repetition velocity (Bird,
Tarpenning, & Marino, 2005; Hass, Feigenbaum, &
Franklin, 2001). Studies investigating the influence
of specific acute training variables on muscle mass
and strength gain in young or older individuals have
primarily examined training load (Baker, Wilson, &
Carlyon, 1994; Bemben, Fetters, Bemben,
Taaffe, Pruitt, Pyka, Guido, & Marcus, 1996), while
studies examining the effect of training volume are
limited.
Training volume is calculated as the product of the
number of repetitions completed per set and the
number of sets completed per training session (Hass
et al., 2001) and directly influences the total work
performed during training (where total work per-
formed is the product of training load and training
volume). In this regard, it has been suggested that
higher-volume resistance training is likely to produce
superior adaptations compared with low-volume
training due to the greater exercise stimulus (Krae-
mer et al., 2000; Stone, Johnson, & Carter, 1979). In
young individuals, the effect of high- versus low-
volume resistance training on muscle mass and
strength development remains unresolved. This is
because emphasis has been placed on comparing the
effects of single- versus multiple-set training (Carpi-
nelli & Otto, 1998; Galvao & Taaffe, 2004; Hass,

Correspondence: J. Cannon, School of Human Movement Studies, Building N1, Charles Sturt University, Panorama Avenue, Bathurst, NSW 2795, Australia.
E-mail: jcannon@csu.edu.au
ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online Ó 2010 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2010.517544
 1506 J. Cannon & F. E. Marino
Garzarella, De Hoyos, & Pollock, 2000; Rhea, Alvar,
Ball, & Burkett, 2002), rather than training volume
per se. Although such studies have manipulated
training volumes between groups, they frequently
fail to equate training load and often require single-
set groups to perform repetitions to failure while
multiple-set groups do not (Kraemer et al., 2000;
Stone et al., 1979). As such, the influence of training
volume alone on muscle mass and strength develop-
ment is difficult to determine.
In older adults, previous studies investigating the
influence of the acute programme variables on
muscle mass and strength development associated
with resistance training have largely examined the
effect of training load. These studies indicate that
low-intensity resistance training (40% of one-
repetition maximum, 1-RM) is equally effective
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 15:11 19 July 2013
(Bemben et al., 2000; Taaffe et al., 1996), or
possibly more effective (Hunter & Treuth, 1995),
than high-intensity resistance training (80% of 1-
RM) for developing strength in older participants.
Such results suggest that older individuals retain a
high level of residual neuromuscular plasticity
amenable to a resistance training intervention.
Furthermore, such results also suggest that the
stimulus thresholds required to elicit maximal
strength development may be lower for older
individuals compared with their young counterparts
(Rhea, Alvar, Burkett, & Ball, 2003). Thus, older
individuals might respond favourably to low-
volume resistance training. However, studies com-
paring the effects of high- and low-volume resis-
tance training in older adults are limited and the
accompanying neuromuscular adaptations are not
fully reported (Galvao & Taaffe, 2005). Therefore,
the purpose of this study was to compare the early-
phase strength gains and neuromuscular adapta-
tions between high- and low-volume resistance
training in untrained young and older women.
Materials and methods
Participants
Sixteen young women and 15 older women re-
sponded to advertisements to participate in the
Table I. Physical characteristics of the young women and older women in the high-volume and low-volume resistance training groups
(mean + s).
Group Age (years)
Young women (n ¼ 16) 23.8 + 2.7 (range 20–30)
Older women (n ¼ 15) 67.6 + 6.3a (range 60–78)
Three sets (n ¼ 17) 45.6 + 23.3 (range 20–78)
One set (n ¼ 14) 44.1 + 23.1 (range 20–73)
a
Significantly different from young women (P 5 0.01).
study. Participants were considered asymptomatic
and screened for significant musculoskeletal, cardi-
ovascular, and neurological disorders that might
have influenced the results using a health history
questionnaire. None of the older participants had
ever taken hormone replacement therapy or angio-
tensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. All participants
were non-smokers and performed intermittent,
moderate-intensity physical activity (equivalent to
brisk walking at 3–6 km  h71) (American College of
Sports Medicine, 1998b) for 30–60 min on 3–5 days
a week. None of the women had any background in
regular resistance or aerobic training prior to the
study. Written consent was obtained from all
participants before starting the study, which was
approved by the Institutional Ethics in Human
Research Committee. Physical characteristics of the
participants were obtained using standard proce-
dures and are presented in Table I.
Research design
The present investigation consisted of a 13-week
study period. Testing occurred on five separate
occasions (weeks 73, 0, 3, 6, and 10) and was
performed by the same investigator using identical
test procedures. Weeks 73 to 0 served as a non-
training period during which no resistance training
was performed. This period was used to establish the
reproducibility of the neuromuscular assessments.
From weeks 0 to 10, participants performed a 10-
week resistance training programme. During this
period, participants were instructed to avoid any
changes in diet and to continue participating in
habitual activities they were accustomed to. All
participants were briefly interviewed after the final
training session of each week when they confirmed
they compiled with these instructions.
Resistance training protocol
Before data collection, participants were assigned to
either a high-volume (three sets) or low-volume (one
set) resistance training group that were balanced for
age. The exercise intervention consisted of a fully
supervised resistance training programme for the knee
Height (m) Mass (kg) Body mass index (kg  m–2)
1.69 + 0.07 68.7 + 9.5 24.3 + 3.9
1.60 + 0.06a 67.1 + 10.6 26.1 + 3.5
1.64 + 0.08 69.5 + 11.7 26.0 + 4.1
1.66 + 0.06 66.1 + 7.2 24.2 + 3.1

extensors and knee flexors 3 days per week with a
minimum of 24 h rest between sessions for a period of
10 weeks. Training involved either one set or three sets
of 10 repetitions for the bilateral leg extension and the
bilateral knee flexion exercises, which were performed
using a plate-loaded leg extension and leg curl bench
(York Barbell Co., Toronto, ON, Canada). Partici-
pants performed a familiarization session prior to
training, which involved three sets of the bilateral leg
extension and leg curl. Verbal instructions and feed-
back were provided during this session to ensure that
all participants could perform the training exercises
correctly. Training intensity was 50% of maximal
strength during week 1 and 75% of maximal strength
for weeks 2–10. The lower training intensity during
week 1 was used to familiarize the participants and
enhance motor learning of the task before exposing
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 15:11 19 July 2013
them to the higher training intensity. Both exercises
were performed throughout the full range of motion
with participants instructed to perform the movements
in a smooth, continuous motion. The velocity of each
repetition was closely monitored and participants were
given concurrent verbal feedback to ensure each
repetition was performed with a 2-s shortening phase,
1-s pause, and a 2-s lengthening phase. Sets were
separated by a rest period of 90–120 s, and 3 min rest
was allowed between exercises. Each training session
began with a warm-up, which consisted of one set of
10 repetitions for each exercise at an intensity of 40%
of maximal strength. Although data collection was
only performed on the knee extensors, the knee flexors
were also trained to minimize the likelihood of
developing any muscular imbalance. Before training
began and at 2-week intervals throughout the training
period, maximal strength for the bilateral knee
extension and bilateral knee flexion exercises was
determined on the training apparatus using the
maximal-repetition method described by Charette
et al. (1991). These data were used to adjust training
loads as necessary throughout the training period to
ensure that all participants continued to train at the
required intensity. All maximal strength assessments
were performed following the warm-up. After max-
imal strength testing, participants were given a 10-min
rest and then performed the required training session.
The number of exercise sessions completed over the
10-week training period (30 sessions in total) was
27.2 + 1.1 for young women, 27.8 + 1.3 for older
women, 27.2 + 1.4 for the three-set group, and
28.9 + 0.9 for one-set group, which were not sig-
nificantly different (P 4 0.05).
Lean knee extensor muscle volume
Lean knee extensor muscle volume of the right
extensors was determined using magnetic resonance
imaging as previously described in detail (Cannon,
Short-term resistance training 1507
Kay, Tarpenning, & Marino, 2007). Briefly, 11 axial
images were obtained using a T1-weighted scanner
with a 50-cm diameter body coil in a 1.5-T whole-
body magnet (Magnetom Symphony Maestro, Sie-
mens AG Ltd., Bayswater, Australia). Contractile
and non-contractile tissues within each axial slice
were quantified using the pixel intensity histogram
technique using image analysis software (Scion
Image for MS-Windows, Scion Corporation, Fre-
derick, MD, USA). The scale for each image was
determined by scanning an oil phantom with a
known cross-sectional area using identical scanning
parameters. Imaging software determined the area of
the oil phantom in pixels, which was divided by the
known cross-sectional area in cm2 of the phantom.
Following this, lean knee extensor muscle volume in
cm3 was calculated by summing the 11 lean knee
extensor muscle areas in cm2 and multiplying by the
inter-slice distance of 30 mm. The reproducibility of
the lean knee extensor muscle volume measures was
observed to be 51.6%.
Maximal isometric torque
Maximal isometric torque testing was performed
using a Kin-Com isokinetic dynamometer (model
125H, Chattanooga Group Inc., Hixon, TN) with
data captured using an AMLab data acquisition
system (AMLab Technologies, Lewisham, Australia)
at a sampling rate of 2500 Hz as described in detail
elsewhere (Cannon, Kay, Tarpenning, & Marino,
2008). Briefly, participants were seated upright on
the dynamometer with the hip flexed at 758 (08 being
full extension) and were secured via waist and
shoulder straps. During all tests, participants crossed
their arms against their chest to ensure that
additional forces did not contribute to performance.
The axis of rotation of the dynamometer was aligned
with the lateral epicondyle of the femur with the
lower leg attached to the lever arm 1 cm above the
lateral malleolus of the ankle. Testing was performed
at 658 knee flexion and consisted of a minimum of
six trials in which participants were instructed to
exert maximal effort for 5 s. A minimum rest period
of 1 min separated trials and testing continued until
the final three trials had values within approxi-
mately + 5% of each other, which typically required
6–8 trials for each participant. Strong verbal encour-
agement was provided during all trials and partici-
pants received continuous visual feedback of
performance from a graphic display.
Force data were exported into spreadsheet soft-
ware for Windows (Excel 1997–2003; Microsoft
Corp., Redmond, WA) for analysis. Gravity correc-
tion was achieved by determining the average force
applied to the transducer during the 1-s period
immediately before contraction while the participant
 1508 J. Cannon & F. E. Marino
was at complete rest. The average load applied to the
transducer during this period for each contraction
was used to offset the force data recorded during
testing. Following this, force data were multiplied by
lever arm length to express data in units of torque
(N  m). Maximal voluntary isometric torque was
identified as the single highest torque value attained
across all trials.
Normalized muscle strength
To provide an index of the neuromuscular contribu-
tion to performance, bilateral leg extension muscle
strength (1-RM) and maximal isometric torque
(MVC) per unit of lean muscle volume were cal-
culated as: normalized 1-RM strength (kg  m73) ¼
[1-RM (kg)/muscle volume (m3)]; and normalized
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 15:11 19 July 2013
MVC (N  m73) ¼ [MVC (N  m)/lean muscle
volume (m3)].
Surface electromyography
Surface electromyographic signals (EMG) from the
vastus lateralis and vastus medialis of the right thigh
were captured during maximal isometric torque
testing using two 8-mm diameter Ag/AgCl cup
bipolar electrodes (EL258S, BioPac Systems Inc.,
Santa Barbara, CA) linked to an AMLab measure-
ment acquisition system (AMLab Technologies,
Lewisham, Australia) where data were sampled with
a gain of 1000 V/V and a common mode rejection
ratio 4120 dB at a sampling rate of 2500 Hz. For the
vastus lateralis, electrodes were attached to the lateral
surface of the thigh, approximately 10 cm above the
top of the lateral border of the patella and orientated
laterally 158 from vertical with the knee at full
extension (Cram & Kasman, 1998). For the vastus
medialis, electrodes were attached approximately
5 cm above the medial border of the patella and
orientated medially at 558 from vertical with the leg at
full extension (Cram & Kasman, 1998). In addition,
an 8-mm Ag/AgCl cup electrode (EL258H, BioPac
Systems Inc., Santa Barbara, CA) was attached to the
patella of the opposing limb to ground the signals.
Skin under the electrodes was shaved and the outer
layer of epidermal cells was abraded. Oil and dirt on
the skin was removed using a 70% isopropyl solution.
A constant inter-electrode distance of 20 mm was
employed for the recording electrodes for all tests.
For processing, EMG data were bandpass-filtered
with cut-off frequencies of 10 Hz and 460 Hz, full-
wave rectified, then smoothed using the root-mean-
square with a sliding window of 50 ms. These
procedures were performed using AMLab software
(AMLab Technologies, Lewisham, Australia). The
EMG data were then exported into spreadsheet
software for Windows (Excel 1997–2003, Microsoft
Corp., Redmond, WA) and averaged between vasti
muscles to provide a global indication of knee
extensor muscle activity. Subsequently, the average
EMG value during the 500-ms period beginning at
the attainment of maximal isometric torque was
determined and used for analysis.
Statistics
A priori sample size calculations for a mixed-factorial
analysis of variance (ANOVA) were performed using
the following input parameters: effect size F ¼ 0.25,
type I error probability ¼ 0.05, power ¼ 0.80, number
of groups ¼ 2, number of repeated observations ¼ 5,
correlations among observations ¼ 0.80, and non-
sphericity correction ¼ 1. Results indicated that 10
participants in each group would provide a statistical
power of 87%. These procedures were performed
using G*Power version 3.1.2 (Faul, Erdfelder, Lang,
& Buchner, 2007).
Before analysis, data were log transformed (Port-
ney & Watkins, 2000). Exploratory analyses revealed
that all training-related data for the young women,
older women, three-set group, and one-set group
had a normal distribution (Kolmogrov-Smirnov
statistic 40.05). A mixed factorial ANOVA was
applied to identify between-group and within-parti-
cipant differences. Where Mauchy’s test of sphericity
was significant, a Greenhouse-Geisser correction was
applied to the within-participant analyses. Levene’s
test of equality of error variance between participants
did not show statistical significance for any of the
analyses (P 4 0.3). Where a significant main effect
and/or interaction was observed between groups, a
univariate ANOVA was used to identify the source of
significance. A Bonferroni adjustment for pairwise
comparisons was applied where appropriate and
statistical significance was set at P 5 0.05.
Data obtained between weeks 73 and 0 for
maximal strength, maximal isometric torque, and
EMG were used to establish measurement reprodu-
cibility and the threshold change within participants
required to identify a meaningful training effect.
Measurement reproducibility was assessed using a
one-way ANOVA with repeated measures and the
technical error of the measurement. All statistical
procedures were performed using SPSSTM for MS-
Windows version 16.0 (Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences, Chicago, IL). Technical error of the
measurement was calculated as the square root of
the sum of the squared differences between corre-
sponding test scores divided by twice the sample size,
and is expressed as a percentage of grand mean
across both tests (Dahlberg, 1940).
Data obtained between weeks 0 and 10 were as-
sessed for the magnitude of change within participants
over time, which was quantified as: D (%) ¼ (week 10 –

week 0)/week 0. The effect size (ES) was also
calculated for within-participant changes over time
to determine the practical significance of the training-
related adaptations and was calculated as: Cohen’s
d ¼ [(week 10 mean – week 0 mean)/pooled standard
deviation for weeks 0 and 10]. An effect size of 50.20
was considered trivial, 0.20–0.49 small, 0.50–0.79
moderate, and 40.80 large (Cohen, 1988). Descrip-
tive statistics are presented as means + standard
deviations (s).
Results
Muscle hypertrophy
Lean knee extensor muscle volume before and after
resistance training is presented in Figure 1. A
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 15:11 19 July 2013
significant main effect was observed for lean knee
extensor muscle volume over time (P 5 0.01);
however, no interactions between age or training
volume and time were apparent (P 4 0.05). The
magnitude of change within participants and the
accompanying effect sizes for lean knee extensor
muscle volume are presented in Table II.
Maximal strength
Maximal strength during the 3-week non-training
phase and the 10-week resistance training period is
presented in Figure 2. No significant differences
were observed within participants between weeks 73
and 0 (P 4 0.05). The technical error of the
measurement for maximal strength between weeks
73 and 0 ranged from 4.5% to 6.5%. A significant
main effect was observed for maximal strength over
time (P 5 0.01); however, no significant interactions
between age or training volume and time were
apparent (P 4 0.05). The magnitude of change
Figure 1. Lean muscle volume (LMV) of the right knee extensors
before and after the 10-week resistance training period. YW ¼
young women, OW ¼ older women, 3S ¼ three-set group, 1S ¼
one-set group. aSignificant difference between before and after
training (P 5 0.01). Values are presented as means + standard
deviations.
Short-term resistance training 1509
within participants for maximal strength and the
accompanying effect sizes are presented in Table II.
Maximal isometric torque
Maximal isometric torque during the 3-week non-
training phase and the 10-week resistance training
period is presented in Figure 3. No significant
differences were observed within participants be-
tween weeks 73 and 0 (P 4 0.05). The technical
error of the measurement for maximal isometric
torque between weeks 73 and 0 ranged from 4.0%
to 7.1%. A significant main effect was observed for
maximal isometric torque over time (P 5 0.01);
however, no significant interactions between age or
training volume and time were apparent (P 4 0.05).
The magnitude of change within participants and the
accompanying effect sizes for maximal isometric
torque are presented in Table II.
Surface electromyography
Electromyography during the maximal voluntary
isometric contraction during the 3-week non-training
phase and the 10-week resistance training period is
presented in Figure 4. No significant differences
were observed within participants between weeks
73 and 0 (P 4 0.05). The technical error of the
measurement for EMG between weeks 73 and 0
ranged from 3.2% to 5.0%. A significant main effect
was observed for EMG over time (P 5 0.01);
however, no significant interactions between age or
training volume and time were apparent (P 4 0.05).
The magnitude of change within participants and the
accompanying effect sizes for EMG are presented in
Table II.
Normalized maximal strength and normalized maximal
isometric torque
Normalized maximal strength and normalized max-
imal isometric torque before and after the resistance
training period are presented in Figure 5. A sig-
nificant main effect was observed for normalized
maximal strength and normalized maximal isometric
torque over time (P 5 0.01); however, no interac-
tions between age or training volume and time were
apparent (P 4 0.05). The magnitude of change
within participants and the accompanying effect sizes
for normalized maximal strength and normalized
maximal isometric torque are presented in Table II.
Discussion
To our knowledge, this is the first study to compare
short-term strength gains and hypertrophic and
non-hypertrophic adaptations between high- and
 1510 J. Cannon & F. E. Marino

Table II. Magnitude of change within participants and accompanying effect size for lean muscle volume, strength performance, and muscle
recruitment following the 10-week resistance training period (mean + s).

Lean muscle Normalized Normalized

volume 1-RM 1-RM MVC MVC EMG

Group D% ES D% ES D% ES D% ES D% ES D% ES

Young women (n ¼ 16) 8.9 + 2.5 0.75 25.5 + 4.4 1.25 15.3 + 5.6 1.03 15.7 + 8.4 1.14 7.1 + 3.1 0.69 21.2 + 4.3 1.26
Older women (n ¼ 15) 8.7 + 2.7 0.71 26.8 + 5.0 1.37 16.6 + 4.5 0.80 20.4 + 6.8 1.10 7.1 + 4.0 0.68 19.2 + 4.3 1.38
Three sets (n ¼ 17) 9.6 + 2.8 0.51 24.7 + 5.0 0.95 13.9 + 5.3 0.80 17.4 + 7.3 0.85 6.8 + 3.9 0.65 19.5 + 3.5 1.11
One set (n ¼ 14) 7.8 + 2.0 0.45 27.8 + 3.7 1.13 18.5 + 3.4 1.02 18.6 + 8.7 0.86 7.5 + 3.1 0.69 21.2 + 5.2 1.01

Note: 1-RM ¼ bilateral knee extension repetition maximum, MVC ¼ peak isometric torque, EMG ¼ electromyography, ES ¼ effect size,
D% ¼ within-participant change.
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 15:11 19 July 2013

Figure 2. Bilateral leg extension maximal strength (1-RM) during
the 3-week non-training phase and the 10-week resistance training
period. YW ¼ young women, OW ¼ older women, 3S ¼ three-set
group, 1S ¼ one-set group. aSignificantly different from week 0
within all training groups (P 5 0.01). bSignificantly different from
week 2 within all training groups (P 5 0.03). Values are presented
as means + standard deviations.
Figure 4. Right knee extensor electromyography amplitude
(EMG) during the maximal isometric torque contraction during
the 3-week non-training phase and the 10-week resistance training
period. YW ¼ young women, OW ¼ older women, 3S ¼ three-set
group, 1S ¼ one-set group. aSignificantly different from week 0
within all training groups (P 5 0.01). bSignificantly different from
week 3 within all training groups (P 5 0.01). Values are presented
as means + standard deviations.

Figure 3. Maximal isometric torque (MVC) of the right knee
extensors during the 3-week non-training phase and the 10-week
resistance training period. YW ¼ young women, OW ¼ older
women, 3S ¼ three-set group, 1S ¼ one-set group. aSignificantly
different from week 0 within all training groups (P 5 0.01).
b
Significantly different from week 2 within all training groups
(P 5 0.03). Values are presented as means + standard deviations.
Figure 5. Normalized bilateral leg extension maximal strength (1-
RM) and normalized maximal isometric torque (MVC) before and
after the 10-week resistance training period. YW ¼ young women,
OW ¼ older women, 3S ¼ three-set group, 1S ¼ one-set group.
a
Significantly different from before training within all training
groups (P 5 0.01). Values are presented as means + standard
deviations.

low-volume, moderate-intensity resistance training
in previously untrained young and older women.
The main findings of this study were that significant
changes over time were observed in all variables
examined; however, no interactions between age or
training volume and time were apparent. Thus, our
results lend further support to work reporting that
previously untrained older individuals retain a
similar relative capacity for short-term strength
development and neuromuscular adaptation to
resistance training as untrained young individuals.
Moreover, our results provide a novel contribution
to the literature by also demonstrating that addi-
tional strength gains and neuromuscular adapta-
tions during the early phase of moderate-intensity
resistance training in untrained young and older
women may not be achieved by performing multiple
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 15:11 19 July 2013
sets when training loads are matched provided that
a minimum threshold volume is achieved. These
results may have practical applications for profes-
sionals responsible for prescribing short-duration,
moderate-intensity resistance training programmes
for untrained women.
Muscle hypertrophy
Previous studies comparing the hypertrophic re-
sponse between high- and low-volume resistance
training in the young are limited and data pertaining
to older adults are not currently available. Starkey
et al. (1996) examined untrained young men
performing either one set or three sets of 10- to 12-
RM for a bilateral leg extension and bilateral leg curl
and reported an increase in lateral thigh muscle
thickness of 4.0% when assessed at 60% thigh length
following 14 weeks of training. Similar findings were
reported by Ostrowski and colleagues (Ostrowski,
Wilson, Weatherby, Murphy, & Lyttle, 1997), who
examined young men with 1–4 years of weightlifting
experience who performed one set, two sets, and four
sets of 7-RM load for 20 exercises. Ostrowski et al.
reported increases in rectus femoris cross-sectional
area ranging from 5.0% to 13.1% after 10 weeks of
training. Furthermore, no interactions between
training volume and hypertrophy over time were
reported. Our findings based on changes in lean knee
extensor muscle volume are in agreement with these
results and add to the literature by demonstrating
that muscle hypertrophy during early-phase resis-
tance training may not be volume dependent in
previously untrained young or older women.
Our lack of interaction between resistance training
volume and muscle hypertrophy appears to conflict
with traditional views that high-volume resistance
training is necessary to achieve optimal increases in
muscle mass (Fleck & Kraemer, 2004). It is generally
believed that the physiological stimulus for muscle
Short-term resistance training 1511
hypertrophy associated with resistance training
is ultrastructural muscle damage (McDonagh &
Davies, 1984), which may be enhanced through
higher-volume training. However, available data
indicate that the threshold level of ultrastructural
damage required to elicit a maximal hypertrophic
response in both untrained and trained young men
may not require high-volume training provided that
the training load is sufficient (Ostrowski et al., 1997).
However, such results are yet to be replicated in
older men, or young or older women.
Maximal strength and maximal isometric torque
Results from available studies comparing the effect of
resistance training volume on maximal strength and/
or maximal isometric torque are conflicting. In this
regard, high-volume training has not been clearly
demonstrated in untrained young and/or middle-
aged adults to produce additional gains in maximal
strength for the bench press (Paulsen, Myklestad, &
Raastad, 2003; Stowers et al., 1983), squat (Stowers
et al., 1983), leg extension or leg flexion (Starkey
et al., 1996), shoulder press or lat pulldown (Paulsen
et al., 2003), or maximal isometric torque of the knee
extensors or knee flexors (Starkey et al., 1996)
following 6–14 weeks of training. In contrast, Borst
et al. (2001) reported that, in untrained young men
and women, summed maximal strength for the
bench press and leg extension following 13 weeks
of training was significantly higher in a three-set
group (*24%) than a single-set group (*37%) who
used equated training loads. Furthermore, Paulsen
et al. (2003) reported that, in untrained young men,
the average increases in maximal strength for the
squat, leg extension, and leg curl exercises were
greater for a three-set group (*21%) than a single-
set group (*14%). Such discrepancies between
studies suggest that high-volume resistance training
may not always promote additional strength gains
during early-phase resistance training. However,
interpreting the results between such studies is
difficult due to differences in participant character-
istics (Borst et al., 2001; Paulsen et al., 2003; Starkey
et al., 1996), exercise selection (Ostrowski et al.,
1997; Paulsen et al., 2003; Schlumberger, Stec, &
Schmidtbleicher, 2001), length of rest periods
between sets (Hass et al., 2000; Rhea et al., 2002),
and repetition velocity (Ostrowski et al., 1997; Rhea
et al., 2002). All of these factors have been
demonstrated to influence the neuromuscular re-
sponse to resistance training (Bird et al., 2005) and
therefore confound the results obtained.
Available data pertaining to the effect of resistance
training volume on strength development in older
adults is limited. Galvao and Taaffe (2005) reported
that older adults performing three sets of 8-RM loads
 1512 J. Cannon & F. E. Marino
demonstrated greater increases in the seated row (9.7
vs. 4.1%), tricep (6.7 vs. 3.2%) and leg extension
(17.4 vs. 9.4%) maximal strength compared with a
matched group performing one set of each exercise at
the same training intensity; while the changes in
chest press (9.1 vs. 5.7%), leg press (14.6 vs. 10.5%),
and leg curl (12.5 vs. 10.3%) maximal strength and
isometric (24.5 vs. 8.7%) and isokinetic (13.8 vs.
15.3%) maximal knee extensor torque were not
different between the two groups after 20 weeks of
training. Our results for leg extension maximal
strength contrast with those of Galvao and Taaffe
(2005) in so much as we observed comparable
strength gains between training volume groups.
The discrepancy between results may possibly be
explained by differences in training loads and
duration. As such, further studies are need before
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 15:11 19 July 2013
any conclusions can be drawn.
Surface electromyography
We observed significant increases in EMG in the
both the young and older women and the high- and
low-volume training groups over the 10-week resis-
tance training period. No previous studies have
compared changes in muscle recruitment between
high- and low-volume resistance training in un-
trained young or older individuals. Hass et al. (2000)
suggest that because complex training actions, such
as the back squat, involve considerable skill and
movement coordination, high-volume resistance
training may be necessary to promote maximal
neural adaptation for these tasks. Such a statement
would also imply that less complex training actions,
such as the leg extension task performed in the
present study, may not require high-volume training
to induce maximal neural adaptation. Our results
partially support this theory, as no interaction
between training volume and time was observed for
EMG. As such, maximal neural adaptation during
the early phase of resistance training may be obtained
with low-volume training for this relatively simple
exercise. However, it remains to be determined if
similar findings are observed when the training
stimulus involves more complex training actions.
Normalized maximal strength and normalized maximal
isometric torque
No previous studies have examined the effect of
resistance training volume on maximal strength and/
or maximal isometric torque per unit of muscle
volume in young and/or older adults. As such, our
results provide a unique contribution to the literature
by reporting comparable increases in these measure-
ments among all training groups. These results
indicate that the non-hypertrophic contributions to
strength development in the present study were not
dependent on age or training volume. Non-hyper-
trophic adaptations associated with resistance train-
ing that may contribute to strength development
include: (1) greater agonist muscle activity and/or
a decrease in antagonist muscle co-activation
(Häkkinen, 2003), and/or (2) greater intrinsic force
production capacity of the muscle, possibly due to
changes in muscle architecture (Aagaard et al.,
2001), and/or greater specific force from the con-
tractile apparatus (Trappe et al., 2000, 2001). As
previously discussed, all training groups exhibited
comparable increases in agonist EMG after the
resistance training period. However, it cannot be
determined from the present study if changes in
antagonist muscle recruitment, muscle architecture,
and/or fibre-specific force also contributed to the
training-induced strength gains. Despite this, as the
contribution of non-hypertrophic adaptations to
strength development were similar between all
groups, it appears that high-volume resistance train-
ing may not be necessary to elicit maximal adapta-
tion in some, or possibly all, of these mechanisms.
Conclusion
Our results suggest that performing three sets of
resistance training may not facilitate additional
strength development or neuromuscular adaptation
compared with performing one set during the early
phase of training in previously untrained young and
older women provided that training loads are
equated. These findings may have practical applica-
tions for designing short-term resistance training
programmes or the initial phase of long-duration
resistance training programmes in untrained young
and older women. However, these data should be
interpreted with care. As specific training stimuli
induce specific adaptations, it is likely that the
manipulation of other acute training variables in
addition to training volume, such as exercise selec-
tion and the muscle group trained, exercise order,
intensity, frequency, repetition velocity and rest
between sets, will also influence strength gains and
neuromuscular adaptations (Fleck & Kraemer, 2004;
Kramer et al., 1997; McDonagh & Davies, 1984;
Paulsen et al., 2003). Accordingly, our results may
only be valid with respect to performing a bilateral
leg extension and leg curl programme involving one
set of 10, slow- to moderate-velocity repetitions
performed at 75% of maximal strength over a period
of 10 weeks. Fleck and Kraemer (2004) suggest that
after the neuromuscular system adapts to a resistance
training stimulus, an increase in volume is necessary
for further adaptation to occur. Such a statement
implies that low-volume training may be sufficient to
elicit maximal adaptation in untrained individuals

during the early phase of training, but higher-volume
training may be necessary during later phases to
induce further adaptation. Thus, it is possible that an
effect of training volume may be observed with
training of longer duration. In this context, our
results are meaningful but should be followed up
with further studies examining the effect of training
volume across various applications of the acute
training variables, such as exercise selection and the
muscle group trained.
Acknowledgements
The work reported here was supported through an
Australian Postgraduate Award (J. Cannon) and a
Mitchell Search grant from the Charles Sturt Founda-
tion (J. Cannon). The authors sincerely thank Mr.
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 15:11 19 July 2013
Craig Shields at Central West MRI, Orange NSW,
Australia for assistance with MRI data collection, and
Dr. Eric Drinkwater at Chares Sturt University,
Bathurst, NSW, Australia for providing statistical
expertise in calculating the normality of data distribu-
tion, required sample size, and statistical power.
References
Aagaard, P., Andersen, J. L., Dyhre-Poulsen, P., Leffers, A. M.,
Wagner, A., Magnusson, S. P., et al. (2001). A mechanism for
increased contractile strength of human pennate muscle in
response to strength training: Changes in muscle architecture.
Journal of Physiology, 534, 613–623.
American College of Sports Medicine (1998a). Position Stand:
Exercise and physical activity for older adults. Medicine and
Science in Sports and Exercise, 30, 992–1008.
American College of Sports Medicine (1998b). Position Stand:
The recommended quantity and quality of exercise for
developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory and muscular
fitness, and flexibility in healthy adults. Medicine and Science in
Sports and Exercise, 30, 975–991.
Baker, D., Wilson, G., & Carlyon, R. (1994). Periodization: The
effect on strength of manipulating volume and intensity. Journal
of Strength and Conditioning Research, 8, 235–242.
Bemben, D. A., Fetters, N. L., Bemben, M. G., Nabavi, N., &
Koh, E. T. (2000). Musculoskeletal responses to high- and low-
intensity resistance training in early postmenopausal women.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32, 1949–1957.
Bird, S. P., Tarpenning, K. M., & Marino, F. E. (2005).
Designing resistance training programmes to enhance muscular
fitness: A review of the acute programme variables. Sports
Medicine, 35, 841–851.
Borst, S. E., De Hoyos, D. V., Garzarella, L., Vincent, K., Pollock,
B. H., Lowenthal, D. T., et al. (2001). Effects of resistance
training on insulin-like growth factor-I and IGF binding
proteins. Medicine and Science in Sports Exercise, 33, 648–653.
Cannon, J., Kay, D., Tarpenning, K. M., & Marino, F. E. (2007).
Comparative effects of resistance training on peak isometric
torque, muscle hypertrophy, voluntary activation and surface
EMG between young and elderly women. Clinical Physiology
and Functional Imaging, 27, 91–100.
Cannon, J., Kay, D., Tarpenning, K. M., & Marino, F. E. (2008).
Reproducibility and changes in twitch properties associated with
age and resistance training in young and elderly women.
Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 18, 627–635.
Short-term resistance training 1513
Carpinelli, R. N., & Otto, R. M. (1998). Strength training: Single
versus multiple sets. Sports Medicine, 26, 73–84.
Charette, S. L., McEnoy, L., Pyka, G., Snow-Harter, C., Guido,
D., Wiswell, R. A., et al. (1991). Muscle hypertrophy response
to resistance training in older women. Journal of Applied
Physiology, 70, 1912–1916.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences
(2nd edn.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Cram, J. R., & Kasman, G. S. (1998). Introduction to surface
electromyography. Gaithersburg, ML: Aspen Publishers.
Dahlberg, G. (1940). Statistical methods for medical and biological
students. London: George Allen & Unwin.
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007).
G*power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the
social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research
Methods, 39, 175–191.
Fleck, S. J., & Kraemer, W. J. (2004). Designing resistance training
programs (3rd edn.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Galvao, D. A., & Taaffe, D. R. (2004). Single- vs. multiple-set
resistance training: Recent developments in the controversy.
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 18, 660–667.
Galvao, D. A., & Taaffe, D. R. (2005). Resistance exercise dosage
in older adults: Single- versus multiset effects on physical
performance and body composition. Journal of the American
Geriatrics Society, 53, 2090–2097.
Häkkinen, K. (2003). Ageing and neuromuscular adaptations to
strength training. In P. V. Komi (Ed.), Strength and power in
sport (2nd edn., pp. 409–425).Oxford: Blackwell Publising.
Hass, C. J., Feigenbaum, M. S., & Franklin, B. A. (2001).
Prescription of resistance training for healthy populations.
Sports Medicine, 31, 953–964.
Hass, C. J., Garzarella, L., De Hoyos, D., & Pollock, M. L.
(2000). Single verus multiple sets in long-term recreational
weightlifters. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32,
235–242.
Hunter, G. R., & Treuth, M. S. (1995). Relative training intensity
increases strength in older women. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research, 9, 188–191.
Kraemer, W. J., Ratamess, N., Fry, A. C., Triplett-McBride, T.,
Koziris, L. P., Bauer, J. A., et al. (2000). Influence of resistance
training volume and periodization on physiological and
performance adaptations in collegiate women tennis players.
American Journal of Sports Medicine, 28, 626–633.
Kramer, J. B., Stone, M. H., O’Byrant, S. H., Conley, M. S.,
Johnson, R. L., Niema, D. C., et al. (1997). Effects of single vs.
multiple sets of weight training: Impact of volume, intensity,
and variation. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 11,
143–147.
McDonagh, M. J. N., & Davies, C. T. M. (1984). Adaptive
response of mammalian skeletal muscle to exercise with high
loads. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 52, 139–155.
Ostrowski, K. J., Wilson, G. J., Weatherby, R., Murphy, P. W., &
Lyttle, A. D. (1997). The effect of weight training volume on
hormonal output and muscular size and function. Journal of
Strength and Conditioning Research, 11, 148–154.
Paulsen, G., Myklestad, D., & Raastad, T. (2003). The influence
of volume of exercise on early adaptations to strength training.
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 17, 115–120.
Pollock, M. L., Franklin, B. A., Balady, G. J., Chaitman, B. L.,
Fleg, J. L., Fletcher, B., et al. (2000). Resistance exercise in
individuals with and without cardiovascular disease: Benefits,
rationale, safety, and prescription. An Advisory from the
Committee on Exercise, Rehabilitation, and Prevention,
Council on Clinical Cardiology, American Heart Association.
Circulation, 101, 823–833.
Portney, L. G., & Watkins, M. P. (2000). Foundations of clinical
research: Applications to practice (2nd edn.). Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
 1514 J. Cannon & F. E. Marino
Rhea, M. R., Alvar, B. A., Ball, S. D., & Burkett, L. N. (2002).
Three sets of weight training superior to 1 set with equal
intensity for eliciting strength. Journal of Strength and Con-
ditioning Research, 16, 525–529.
Rhea, M. R., Alvar, B. A., Burkett, L. N., & Ball, S. D. (2003). A
meta-analysis to determine the dose response for strength
development. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 35,
456–464.
Schlumberger, A., Stec, J., & Schmidtbleicher, D. (2001). Single-
vs. multiple-set strength training in women. Journal of Strength
and Conditioning Research, 15, 284–289.
Starkey, D. B., Pollock, M. L., Ishida, Y., Welsch, M. A.,
Brechue, W. F., Graves, J. E., et al. (1996). Effect of resistance
training on strength and muscle thickness. Medicine and Science
in Sports and Exercise, 28, 1311–1320.
Stone, M., Johnson, R., & Carter, D. (1979). A short-term
comparison of two different methods of resistance training on
leg strength and power. Athletic Training, 14, 158–160.
Downloaded by [George Mason University] at 15:11 19 July 2013
Stowers, T., McMillan, J., Scala, D., Davis, V., Wilson, D., &
Stone, M. (1983). The short-term effects of three different
strength-power training methods. National Strength and Con-
ditioning Association Journal, 5, 24–27.
Taaffe, D. R., Pruitt, L., Pyka, G., Guido, D., & Marcus, R.
(1996). Comparative effects of high- and low-intensity resis-
tance training on thigh muscle strength, fibre area, and tissue
composition in elderly women. Clinical Physiology, 16, 381–392.
Trappe, S., Godard, M., Gallagher, P., Carroll, C., Rowden, G.,
& Porter, D. (2001). Resistance training improves single
muscle fibre contractile function in older women. American
Journal of Physiology: Cellular Physiology, 281, C398–C406.
Trappe, S., Williamson, D., Godard, M., Porter, D., Rowden, G.,
& Costill, D. (2000). Effect of resistance training on single
muscle fibre contractile function in older men. Journal of
Applied Physiology, 89, 143–152.