Unit 4

Types of Dead reckoning navigation

1. Air data based DR navigation
2. Doppler/heading reference system
3. Inertial navigation system
4. Doppler inertial navigation system
Types of Position fixing navigation systems
1. Range and Bearing Radio navigation aids(VOR/DME and
TACAN)
2. Satellite navigation systems (GPS)
3. Terrain reference navigation (TRN) systems
Types of navigation:
 Navigation by pilotage
 Navigation by celestial
 Dead reckoning navigation
 Radio navigation
 Satellite navigation

2 Write the principle of INS.

The basic principle of INS is to derive the components of aircraft’s acceleration along
locally level axes, using an orthogonal set of accelerometers and gyros to measure the aircraft’s
motion. Integration with respect to time of these acceleration components gives the velocity
components, knowing the initial conditions. The aircraft’s position in terms of its latitude and
longitude coordinates can then be derived.

3 Write the principle of gyroscope.

The gyros use the angular momentum of a spinning rotor to sense angular motion. The
rotor keeps swiveling. This rotation of axis is what is known as precision. The angular
momentum keeps following the torque and thus its rotational axis precesses. This is gyroscopic
principle.

4 What is anti spoofing in gps ?

The function of anti-spoofing of GPS system is designed for an anti-potential spoofer. A
spoofer generates a signal that mimics the GPS signal and attempts to cause the receiver to track
wrong signal. When the Anti-Spoofing mode of operation is activated, the P code will be
replaced with a secure Y code available only to authorized users, and unauthorized receiver
becomes a single L1 frequency receiver.

5 What is meant by hyperbolic navigation system?

Hyperbolic navigation systems are based on the measurement of the difference in the
time of arrival of electromagnetic waves from the transmitters to the receiver in the craft. The
name arises from the fact that the locus of points which have a constant value of such a delay is a
hyperbola on a plane surface.

6 Write the advantage and disadvantage of DME

Advantage:
  DME is rarely affected by precipitation static and thunderstorms.
Disadvantage:
 DME will provide slant distances. Error between actual distance and slant
distance is less when slant distance is taken larger than the aircraft altitude.
 DME system is limited to LOS or Line Of Sight due to UHF band operation.

7 Write the advantage and disadvantage of VOR

Advantage:
VOR is more efficient than Automatic Direction Finder since its indicator point to the
ground VOR transmit system
Disadvantages:
o Error is approximately about +/- 2 degree
o It is limted to LOS due to VHF band operation.
o VOR signals are either reflected or blocked or distorted due to buildings,
mountains, fences etc.,

9 Write the advantage and disadvantage of OMEGA

Advantage:
 It gives a world-wide coverage.
 It does not suffer from LOS since it operates at VLF band.
 Sky wave propagation uses the reflective property of the ionosphere layer, hence
large travel ranges are possible.
 It has a good relative accuracy.
Disadvantage:
 It has low absolute accuracy.
 The error in position fix obtained by the omega system may be as high as 6 to 7
kms.
 Maintenance of OMEGA ground station is quite costly.
 It is susceptible to sky wave propagation error.

10 Write the advantage and disadvantage of LORAN

Advantage:
 LORAN-C doesn’t suffer from LOS since it operates at LF band.
 Hyperbolic grid navigation provides a more direct route similar to wave-point
navigation
 Signal propagation is based on ground waves therefore large travel ranges are
possible.
Disadvantages:
 Error will be about +/- 150 m.
 Ground wave propagation error, the velocity at which the signal travels may vary
and hence some offset may be introduced in calculating the aircraft’s position-fix.
 There are not enough LORAN-C ground stations in the world to cover all possible
air routes.
11 Write the disadvantage of ILS
 Ground conditions are unfavorable for the operation of the ILS in busy airports and
aerodromes.
 It provides a single approach path along the extended center line of the runway.
 It is site-sensitive and subject to site distortion and bending of approach path due to
irregularities.
 Number of channels ILS can provide is limited to 40
 It is prone to interference from broadcasting stations.

12. Write the advantage of MLS

 MLS can accommodate 200 channels.
 Because of small wavelength, the antennas are small and they can be designed to be
relatively free from the effect of the surrounding area.
 It is not prone to interference due to terrain.
 MLS is all-weather operative.

13 Write the air data quantities

1. Calibrated airspeed
2. Pressure altitude
3. True airspeed
4. Mach number
5. Vertical speed or rate of climb/descent
6. Angle of incidence

14 Write the principle of vertical speed indicator.

As altitude increases, static pressure decreases. In a vertical speed indicator, as the
aircraft climbs, the pressure in diaphragm decrease immediately. But in the instrument casing,
the calibrated leak lets air out slowly creating a higher pressure in the casing than the diaphragm.
This results in a pressure differential. The diaphragm is squeezed down and the gears connected
to the VSI needle make it move up. Greater the differential, the more the needle moves up.

15 What is meant by auto pilot?

Autopilot is the aircraft system that controls flight of the aircraft and maintains it on a
pre-determined path in space without any action being required by the pilot. Autopilot thus
relieves the pilot from fatigue and tedium of having to maintain continuous control of aircraft’s
flight path on a long duration flight.

16 What is the need of warning systems?

Warning systems are necessary in that they provide an early intimation of problems that
may lead to disastrous outcomes like fire, explosion, leaks, collision, stalling. Various warning
systems such as Stall warning systems, Ground proximity warning systems, Cockpit warning
systems, Fire and smoke detection etc., ensure aircraft’s safety along with the passengers, cargo
and crew.

17 What is dead Reckoning?

 In Dead-reckoning, the position of the craft at any instant of time is calculated from the
previously determined position, the speed of its motion with respect to earth along with the
direction of its motion and the time elapsed.

18 Write the disadvantage of INS

INS has time dependent error growth. The errors present are attitude errors, velocity
errors, gyro drifts and accelerometer errors.

19 Difference between GPS and INS

Global Positioning System Inertial Navigation system
GPS requires at least three satellites and a ground INS is self-contained and requires only a ground
station. station.
Provides accurate solution over long periods of Provides accurate solution over short periods of
time time
GPS providesposition and angle updates at a slower INS can provide position and angle updates at a
rate compared to INS. quicker rate.
GPS may lose signal INS continues to compute the position and angle
during the period of lost GPS signal.

20 Write the Components of ILS

 Localizer
 Glide-slope system
 Marker beacons

21 Write the types of hyperbolic navigation?

 LORAN-A
 LORAN-C
 DECCA
 OMEGA

22 What is Mach Number?

Mach number is the ratio of local speed of aircraft to the local speed of sound. It is a
dimensionless quantity.