Orihinal na Sanggunian Para sa Presi Mula sa Aklat

“ Preface
The primary purpose of this book is to demonstrate that the application of a simplified
approach can benefit the development of modern passenger car structure design, especially during
the conceptual stage. The foundations of the simplified approach are the principles of statics and
strength-of-materials that are the core of basic engineering fundamentals. The simple structural
surface method (SSS), which originated from the work of Dr Janusz Pawlowski, is offered as a
means of organizing the process for rationalizing the basic vehicle body structure load paths.
Students will find the approach to be a structured application of the basic engineering fundamental
building blocks that are part of their early curricula. Practising engineers may find that a refresher
course in statics and strength-of-materials would be helpful. It is hoped that the practice of the
simplified approach presented will result in more robust conceptual design alternatives and a
better fundamental understanding of structural behaviour that can guide further development.
The category of light vehicle structures described in this book encompasses the many types
of passenger car, light trucks and vans. These vehicles are designed and produced with methods
and technologies that have evolved over approximately 100 years. In this time the technologies
used have become more numerous and also more complex. As a result more staff with a wide range
of expertise have been employed in the process of designing and producing these vehicles. The
result of this diversification of design methods and production technologies is that an individual
engineer rarely has the need to look at the overall design. This book attempts to look at the overall
structural design starting at the initial concept of the vehicle.
The initial design of a modern passenger car begins with sketches, moving then to full-size
tape drawings and then to three-dimensional clay models. From these models the detail
coordinates of the outside shape are finalized. At this stage the ‘packaging’ of the vehicle is
investigated. The term ‘packaging’ means the determination of the space required for the major
components such as the engine, transmission, suspension, steering system, radiator, fuel tank, and
not least the space for passengers, luggage or payload. Amongst all these different components
and their specialized technologies the vehicle structure must be determined in order to
satisfactorily hold the complete vehicle together–the structure is hidden under the attractive
shapes determined by style and aerodynamics, does not appear in power and performance
specifications, and is not noticed by driver or passenger. Nevertheless it is of paramount
importance that the structure performs satisfactorily.
In the majority of cases vehicles are constructed with sheet steel that is formed into
intricate shapes by pressing, folding and drawing operations. The parts are then joined together
with a variety of welding methods. There are alternative materials such as aluminium and
composite materials while other methods of construction include ladder chassis and spaceframes.
Because the structure has to satisfy so many roles and is influenced by so many parameters
means that vehicle system designers, production engineers, development engineers as well as
structural engineers must be informed about the structural integrity of the vehicle. This book
describes a method of structural analysis that requires only limited specialist knowledge. The
basic analysis used is limited to the equations of statics and strength of materials. The book
therefore is designed for use by concept designers, ‘packaging’ engineers, component
designers/engineers, and structural engineers. Specialists in advanced structural analysis
techniques like finite element analysis will also find this relevant as it provides an overall view of
the load paths in the vehicle structure.
The method used in this book for studying the load paths in a vehicle structure is the simple
structural surfaces (SSS) method. As its name implies compared to modern finite element methods
it is a relatively easy method to understand and apply. Professional engineers and university
engineering students will find the book applicable to creating vehicle structural concepts and for
determining the loads through a vehicle structure.
Although the finite element method (FEM) is mentioned frequently, this book is not
intended to treat finite elements in depth. Nor is it the authors’ intention to offer the simplified
approach as a replacement for finite element analysis (FEA). Rather, the authors suggest the
operational potential for FEA to be used in complementary fashion with the simplified approach.
A more comprehensive development of the relationship between finite element methods and the
simplified conceptual approach is outside the scope of this book. “

- Brown, J. et al. (2002). Motor Vehicle Structures:

Concepts and Fundamentals. Butterworth-Heinemann,
Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP: 225
Wildwood Avenue, Woburn, MA 01801-2041.
 IV. PRESI

Halaw mula sa:

Pamagat: Motor Vehicle Structures: Concepts and
Fundamentals
May – akda: Brown, J. et al.
Taon ng Pagkakalathala: 2002

Sinusubukan ng tingnan ng librong ito ang pangkalahatang disenyong istruktural na

pinasisimulan ng pagpapaliwanag sa paunang konsepto ng sasakyan. Ang pamamaraan na ginamit
sa librong ito para sa pag-aaral ng mga load path sa istraktura ng sasakyan ay ang simpleng paraan
ng istraktural na ibabaw (Simple Structural Surfaces o SSS). Inaasahan na ang pagsasagawa ng
pinasimpleng mga alternatibo na ipinakita sa aklat ay magreresulta sa mas matibay na mga
kahaliling konseptwal na disenyo at mas mahusay na pangunahing pag-unawa sa istruktural na
katagian ng mga sasakyan na maaaring gumabay sa karagdagang pag-unlad nito.
Mga Orihinal na Sanggunian Para sa Sintesis

1. Aklat

“ The term automobile or automotive stands for a vehicle which can be moved by itself.

Therefore, an automobile is a self-propelled vehicle. It is used for the transportation of passengers

and goods from one place to another on the ground. It is made up of a frame supported by the

body and power producing units and power transmitting units. These units are further supported

by tyres and wheels which are connected by springs and axles. In general, the power is produced

by internal combustion engines. This power in turn is transmitted to rear wheels through various

transmission systems such as clutch, propeller shaft, gear box, differential units etc.”

- G.K., Vijayaraghavan & Sundaravalli, S. (2015).

………………………………………Automobile Engineering, 10th Edition. Lakshmi
……………………………………… Publications: Chennai, India.

2. Internet

“For automotive engineers the focus is primarily on land vehicles. Cars, Motorcycles,
Four Wheelers, 18 Wheelers, and even industrial equipment are included on this list. Pretty much
every vehicle that doesn’t fly, float, or ride on rails can be wrapped into automotive engineering.
(There are many exceptions to that as well!) The field is so large that it commonly overlaps with
many other industries, including construction, aerospace, and the military. “
- Automotive Engineering HQ ( 2014, Hulyo 11 ).
Introduction to Automotive Engineering: What is
Automotive Engineering? Nakuha noong Setyembre 22,
2019.sa.https://www.automotiveengineeringhq.com/wha
t-is-automotive-engineering/

“Automotive engineering is dedicated to the vehicle manufacturing industry. Currently,

the automotive industry must produce vehicles that are safe, economical and affordable for people
to buy. Automotive engineers ensure that this is all possible with their diverse skills and
considering the future direction or trends of the automotive industry. Automotive engineers may
work in the research field or be directly involved in the manufacturing process of a vehicle. “
- WHATISENGINEERING (2016). Automotive
Engineering. Nakuha noong Setyembre 27, 2019 sa
http://whatisengineering.com/what.is.automotive-
engineering/

3. Dyornal

“Various materials are used to make cars. The main materials used for making cars, parts
and components, along with future trends, are steel, aluminum, magnesium, copper, plastics and
carbon fiber. The main factors for selecting the material, especially for the automobile body, are
numerous and include thermal, chemical or mechanical resistance, easy manufacturing and
durability [2]. Affordability is an important issue in vehicle manufacturing, which includes
factoring in the costs associated with a car’s complete life–cycle, including manufacturing,
operating and disposal costs. Composite materials may have big advantages over steel in
automobile manufacturing in the future. Composites are considered to make lighter, safer and
more fuel efficient vehicles. “
- Fetahun, M.A. at Savas, M.A.(2018). Materials
Used in Automotive Manufacture and Material
Selection Using Ashby Charts. International
Journal.of.Materials.Engineering..Nakuha.sa.http:/
/article.sapub.org/10.5923.j.ijme.20180803.02.htm
l

4. Interbyu
"One of the biggest trends right now in automotive engineering is improving engine
efficiency and fuel economy," says Giorgio Rizzoni, director of OSU CAR "This includes
downsizing, down-speeding, direct fuel injection, and boosting"
- Rizzoni, G. (2011, Hunyo 17). Interbyu. Nakuha
noong.Setyembre.22,.2019.sa.https://www.chirurgiaoncol
ogicagrassi.it/2011.06.17/trend_and_development_in_a
utomobiles/8398

5. Dyaryo

“ Electric cars do not feel radically different. They accelerate quicker, they have more torque
and they slow down more sharply – but that’s all down to your settings. It’s about as shocking as
borrowing a friend’s car and getting used to it.They exude a feeling of future-proofing. No gears
to crunch and fewer moving parts will make them last longer. And it’s satisfying to think of a
world where everyone owns one, no one spreads noise pollution down the street and no one
emits carbon dioxide.”

- Zhou, N. (2019, Hulyo 21). Silent, no gears and

cheaper every day: electric cars aren't so hard to
get used to. The Guardian.
 V. SINTESIS

Ayon kina G.K., Vijayaraghavan & Sundaravalli, S. (2015) ang terminong autmobil o
automotiko ay nangangahulugan ng isang sasakyan na may kakayahang umandar ng kanya.
Samakatuwid, ito ay isang self-propelled na sasakyan. Ginagamit ito para sa transportasyon ng
mga pasahero at kalakal mula sa isang lugar patungo sa iba pang lugar. Ito ay binubuo ng isang
frame na suportado ng kaha, mga power producing units at power transmitting units. Ang mga
yunit na ito ay suportado ng mga gulong na konektado sa pamamagitan ng mga spring at axle. Sa
pangkalahatan, ang power na nagpapaandar dito ay binibigay ng mga combustion engine na
nakapaloob dito. Nabanggit sa Automotive Engineering HQ na sa likod ng industriyang automotiko ay
may tiyak na larangan ng inhenyeriya na nagdidisenyo, nananaliksik at nagpapaunlad dito. Ang
pokus ng inhenyeriyang automatiko ay ang mga sasakyang panlupa tulad ng mga kotse,
motorsiklo, mga sasakyang may mga gulong na higit sa apat, at maging ang mga pang -
industriyang kagamitan. Napakalaki ng larangan na ito at karaniwang maiuugnay sa iba pang mga
industriya kabilang ang konstruksyon, aerospace, at militar. Ayon sa website na
whatisengineering.com, ang inhenyeriyang automatiko ay nakatuon sa industriya ng
pagmamanupaktura ng sasakyan. Sa kasalukuyan, ang industriya ng automotiko ay dapat gumawa
ng mga sasakyan na ligtas, matipid at abot-kayang mabibili ng mga tao. Tinitiyak ng mga inhinyero
ng automotiko na posible ang lahat sa kanilang magkakaibang mga kasanayan at isinasaalang-
alang ang hinaharap na direksyon o mga umuuso sa industriya ng automotiko. Ang mga inhinyero
ng automotibo ay maaaring tumuon sa larangan ng pananaliksik o direktang kasangkot sa proseso
ng pagmamanupaktura ng isang sasakyan.
Iba't ibang mga materyales ang ginagamit sa paggawa ng mga sasakyan. Ang halimbawa
ng mga pangunahing materyales na ginagamit dito, mga bahagi at sangkap, kasama ang mga
maaaring maging uso sa hinaharap ay ang bakal, aluminyo, magnesiyo, tanso, plastik at hibla ng
karbon. Ang mga pangunahing kadahilanan sa pagpili ng materyal, lalo na para sa katawan ng
sasakyan ay napakarami, ilan sa mga ito ay ang termal, kemikal at mekanikal na resistans,
madaling paggawa at tibay. Ang kakayahang bumili ng mga konsyumer ay isang mahalagang isyu
sa pagmamanupaktura ng sasakyan. Ito ay kinabibilangan ng pagtatalaga ng mga gastos na
nauugnay sa maitatagal ng buhay ng kotse, kabilang ang mga gastos sa paggawa, pagpapatakbo
at pagtatapon. Ang mga composite na materyales ay maaaring magkaroon ng malaking pakinabang
kaysa sa bakal sa paggawa ng sasakyan sa hinaharap. Ang mga komposisyon ay isinasaalang-alang
upang gumawa ng mas magaan, mas ligtas at mas mahusay na mga sasakyang gasolina (Fetahun,
M.A. at Savas, M.A., 2018).
Sa kasalukuyan ay tanyag sa industriya ng automotiko ang mga usapin na may kinalaman
sa pagbuo ng bagong henerasyon na mga engine at ang pagbabawas ng pagdepende sa mga
produktong langis ng mga ito. "Ang isa sa mga pinakamalaking uso ngayon sa inhenyeriyang
automotiko ay ang pagpapabuti ng kahusayan ng engine at ekonomiya ng gasolina," sabi ni Giorgio
Rizzoni, direktor ng OSU CAR. "Kasama dito ang pagbagsak, pagpapabilis, direktang iniksyon
ng gasolina, at pagpapalakas." Dagdag pa dito ay ang patuloy ang mga pagsusumikap sa pagbuo
ng mahusay na mga sasakyan na ganap na pinapagana ng kuryente. Di lamang malalaking
kompanya gaya ng Tesla at Porsche ang nakapaglalabas nito sa merkado kundi maging ang mga
start up na mga kompanya. Ilan sa mga kapakinabangan ng elektrikong sasakyan bukod sa
nakababawas ito sa polusyon ay madali itong gamitin at hindi gaanong malakas ang ingay na
nagmumula sa engine nito (Zhou, 2019).
 Orihinal na Sanggunian Para sa Abstrak

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
Depleting fossil fuel resources, economic competitiveness and environmental concerns has
compelled to explore newer avenues to improve efficiency of automotive engines. Various
techniques have been adapted to achieve this goal. By allowing the engine to operate at higher
temperature with reduced external cooling (heat removal), the fuel efficiency can be improved
significantly. There is a need to address several materials related issues such as thermaldistortion,
high temperature oxidation, creep, etc. Other methods to improve fuel efficiency are to use
lightweight material to reduce load, reduce heat losses due to exhaust and conduction through
engine body and to reduce frictional losses. Reduction in the weight of engines is a key factor in
improving the fuel efficiency. The use of lightweight materials has become more prevalent as car
manufacturers strive to reduce vehicle weight in order to improve performance, lower fuel and oil
consumption, and to reduce emissions [1]. Most manufacturers have replaced cast iron (density
= 7.8 g/cm3) engine blocks with lightweight and low-cost aluminum- silicon (density = 2.79
g/cm3) crankcases. Several Al-based alloys and metal-matrix composites, such as A319Al,
A356Al, A390Al and A360Al, are in use. However, inadequate wear resistance and low seizure
loads have prevented their direct usage in the cylinder bores. The cylinder bores of these aluminum
alloy blocks are usually made of cast iron liners because of their good operating characteristics
such as wear resistance. These liners need to have a specific wall thickness, which results in a
relatively large web width between the individual cylinder-bores, andincreases the dimensions and
weight of the engine. Moreover, mechanical friction is of another concern that needs to be
addressed. Piston system is a major contributor to engine friction [2]. The cylinder bore/piston
and piston ring friction constitute nearly all of the piston system’s friction losses [2]. A major
portion of oil consumption arises from bore distortion and poor piston ring sealing resulting from
ring and bore wear. Aluminum exhibits a transition from mild to severe wear when the nominal
contact stress exceeds a threshold value [3]. Presence of reinforcement particles does prevent
such transition until higher threshold values. Such a situation can arise due to following factors:
(1) start of ignition where oil has not spread over entire surface; (2) bore distortion. Thus, to
continue using aluminum alloy engine blocks (due to lighter weight) and to improve wear
resistance of the engine bore surface several techniques have been explored. These techniques are
dedicated to form new composite and/or monolithic coating on the bore surface, such as, use of
atmosphere plasma sprayed coating (APS) [4,5], high velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) coating [5,6] and
use of costlier and harder substrate materials [7,8], etc. However, in case of automotive engine
by obviating the need for liners, the engine dimension can be significantly reduced. It is estimated
that direct weight savings of about 1 kg per engine can be easily achieved [8,9]. Also, elimination
of liners allows reduction in the overall dimension of engine [5,8,9]. Every kilogram reduction of
payload is important for improvement in fuel efficiency. Reduction of about 110 kg in a typical
automobile of weight 1100 kg will improve fuel economy by 7% [10]. In the lifetime of a car this
reduction of engine weight is significant. Application of newer technology and/or materials is
being explored to achieve this goal. By employing nanomaterial much of this objective can be
achieved. Nanoscale materials have received much attention in recent years due to their
outstanding properties compared to those of micron-size counterparts. The nano-world possess so
much potential that Nobel laureate Dr. Richard Smalley envisions deploying nanotechnology to
solve the energy problem of the tomorrow’s world [11]. Employment of nanotechnology in current
and future automotive, aero and other engines will go long way in solving energy crisis.

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A319Al can be surface melted and

rapidly solidified using a high power laser. The
high cooling rate causes formation of very fine
and uniform microstructure in the laser-
modified layer. The cellular dendrite structure
with soft aluminum cells and intercellular hard
Si phases provide a microstructure conducive
to formation of micro-channel and thereby
more effective lubrications [59]. The entire
coating thickness (f700 Am) was uniform both
in microstructure and mechanical properties
[54]. The refined and uniform microstructure
and properties is due to high cooling rate and
strong convective flow in laser melt-pool. The
cooling rate and mixing can further be
enhanced by exothermic reaction. The extra
heat would result in higher thermal gradient
and violent nature of the reaction would
promote mixing. As discussed, iron oxide is
being explored as a coating material. In the
present study, A319Al coupons were spray
deposited with iron oxides or a mixture of iron
oxides and aluminum (to ease initiation of
reaction), followed by fusion by the laser beam
traced in straight overlapping stripes over the
entire surface of the samples. Fig. 3 shows the
oxide particles fragmented during the laser
treatment. Attaining temperature above 3000
jC is common in conventional thermite welding operations. Intense power input and conduction-
mode heat transfer to substrate that acts as an infinite heat sink, in laser surface engineering often
causes extremely rapid heating and cooling. Combined with highly exothermic thermite reaction,
the solidification structures can alter extensively. The double exothermic reactions (reduction of
iron oxides and reaction between Al and Fe to form aluminides) result in a violent process
disintegrates the reactants and reaction products. Because of this thermal effect, the oxide
particles are often fragmented to nanoscale. Fragmentation of dendrites was also observed
resulting in nano particles. Probing of the (laser) modified surface with features at nanoscale for
various mechanical properties requires unconventional techniques. Instrumented Indentation
Technique (IIT) or Nanoindentation has been regularly used to determine various mechanical
properties of materials at nanoscale. The mechanical properties determined by IIT showed
promise for engine application and are summarized in Table 1. IIT based evaluation of these
coatings indicated that the extent of heterogeneity in mechanical properties was at nanoscale [54].
As seen from Fig. 4, a single indentation impression covers a large area comprising matrix as well
as other particle reinforcements. There was no particular trend observed in properties while
traversing from surface towards the substrate.

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
The ongoing efforts by the authors to synthesize a laser induced iron oxide reaction coating
on aluminum alloy have shown promise in LSE for engine applications. The following section
deals with such effort. Objective of this research project is to enhance the surface-related
properties of aluminum alloys by synthesis of laser induced reaction nanocomposite coating
suitable for auto engine applications. In this study, a popular casting alloy A319Al is chosen.
A319Al [5.5–6.5 wt.% Si, 3.0–4.0 wt.% Cu, < 0.5 wt.% Mn, < 1.0 wt.% Fe, < 0.1 wt.% Mg, < 1.0
wt.% Zn, < 0.25 wt.% Ti, < 0.35 wt.% Ni, < 0.5 wt.% others (total) and balance Al] is an Al–Si–
Cu alloy known for its excellent castability, high strength, good corrosion resistance, and pressure
tightness [31]. Even the hard and stiff Si particles that have fallen off the matrix can enhance the
wear process by acting as abrasive particles. These Si-rich particles also hinder machining and
honing. Hypereutectic alloy A390Al is limited to only luxury cars such as Mercedes and Porsche
because of its expensive machining operation [7]. Also, the interfaces between Al and Si-rich
phases act as potential site for fatigue crack initiation and propagation. Fortunately, Al–Si binary
system is amenable to modification, primarily by depression of eutectic reaction temperature
[49,50]. Modification results in extensive refinement of microstructure and morphology can
improve mechanical properties to a great extent. Addition of Sr (f100 ppm), Na, Ca, etc., just
before pouring is also known to achieve modification of eutectic Si phase in Al–Si system.
Similarly, P is known to modify the primary Si phase. The modification of Si takes place due to
depression of eutectic point. Similar modification in size, shape and distribution of Si (additionally,
Al dendrites in hypo-eutectic alloys) can be carried out by rapid solidification [49–53]. However,
uniform modification of entire components (engine blocks) with widely varying cross-section is
usually not possible.
In light of the above process and material limitations, laser surface engineering appeared
to hold tremendous promise in treating engine cylinder bore surface for improved performance.
Laser surface engineering was used to selectively melt and solidify the near-surface volume and thereby
improve surface related properties particularly wear resistance. The high power density beam of
laser causes melting in a confined region in the surface. Due to the conduction mode heat transfer
through aluminum along with heat sink effect (self quenching) a high cooling rate (rapid
solidification) is attained in small dimension (confined region). Hence, great refinement was
achieved by laser surface engineering. There was substantial improvement in mechanical
properties (measured from fracture study and nanoindentation), wear resistance, etc. [54,55].
Also, an interconnected network of eutectic phase mixture present in microstructure would reduce
thermal conductivity. A composite coating (>500 Am) or cladding was synthesized on A319Al
using mineral iron oxides. Iron oxide of lowest oxygen to iron ratio (wustite) is a tribologically
functional ceramic proven in plasma coating of cylinder bore [4]. Controlled/partial reductions
of other mineral iron oxides have also been used. It is preferred to attain some degree of reaction-
induced wetting of oxides. An Ellingham diagram suggests that Al readily reduces iron oxides to
Fe known as metallothermic or aluminothermic reaction [56]. This is a highly exothermic
reaction, often violent [57]. Age-old thermite welding technology uses this principle. Hence, the
iron oxides are considered suitable candidate to attain reaction-induced wetting by liquid Al
during LSE [57]. Since, LSE is associated with melting and resolidification of Al–Si alloy and
reaction bonded or reacted iron oxide particulate reinforcement in Al matrix, the whole composite
material is strongly bonded and adherent to the substrate (good particle-matrix bonding as well
as coatingsubstrate bonding). The eutectic reaction in substrate, high cooling rate associated with
LSE, and extreme thermal condition caused by violent thermite reaction can together produce a
nanocomposite coating [58]. An exothermic reaction can provide a thick coating suitable for
engine application. Nanoscale features improve hardness and strength also provides insulation
owing to poor thermal conductivity.

- Dahotre, N. at Nayak, S. (2004). Nanocoatings for

Engine Application. Department of Materials Science
and Engineering, The University of Tennessee. Kinuha
sa.https://www.academia.edu/17432944/Nanocoatings_
for_engine_application
 IV. ABSTRAK

Halaw mula sa:

Pamagat: Nanocoatings for Engine Application
May – akda: Dahotre, N. at Nayak, S.
Taon ng Pagkakalathala: 2004

Tinatalakay sa pag aaral na ito ang posibilidad na aplikasyon ng nanocoating sa mga

makinang pangsasakyan. Dahil sa pag - usbong ng iba't ibang sulirinang may kinalaman sa
automotiko tulad na lamang ng pagkaubos ng mapagkukunan ng langis, kompetensya sa
ekonomiya at mga isyung pangkapaligiran, ninanais na matugunan ito sa pamamagitan ng
paggawa ng mas mabisang makinang pangsasakyan. Ang layunin ng proyektong ito ng
pananaliksik ay upang mapagbuti ang surface - related na katangian ng aluminum metal alloy sa
pamamagitan ng sintesis ng laser induced reaction nanocomposite coating na angkop para sa mga
aplikasyon sa makinang pangsasakyan. Sa pag-aaral na ito, ang isang tanyag na metal alloy, ang
A319Al ay pinili. Sinuri ang mga aspetong may kaugnayan sa dimensyunal na katatagan, mga
katangian ng tribolohiya, pagpapadulas, koepisyent ng priksyon, hot hardness, katiyakan para sa
honing, kagaspanga ng surface at topograpiya, pore density at sulit na presyo. Matapos ang
pagsasagawa ng mga eksperimento ay nalaman ang mga pakinabang at limitasyon ng nanocoating.
Dagdag dito, napatunayan din ang malaking posibilidad na matugunan ang mga problemang
kinakaharap ng mga konbensyunal na coatings sa tulong ng nanocoatings.

Panandang salita: automotiko, makinang pangsasakyan, nanocoating, metal alloy, A319Al