Vector spaces Examples

MATH 4A - Linear Algebra with Applications

Lecture 14: Vector spaces

1 May 2019

Reading: §4.1-4.2
Recommended problems from §4.1: 1-33, odd numbered exercises
Vector spaces Examples

Lecture plan

1 Vector spaces

2 Examples
Vector spaces Examples

Motivation

I like to say that linear algebra is easy. Hopefully, you don’t

disagree (too much).

To clarify: when I say linear algebra in Rn is easy, I really just

mean solving linear systems is easy. (Why? Because we can row
reduce, and the row reduction algorithm is efficient!)

Because row reduction is so useful, we should try to abstract out

what was really necessary about Rn in order to perform it.
Hopefully this will let us find new places (not just Rn ) where we
can apply the theory we’ve been developing so far. In particular,
we can hope to start solving linear systems that don’t live in Rn .
(Spoiler alert: we will!)
Vector spaces Examples

Definition

If we think really hard, then we will find that the properties of Rn

that were useful for solving linear are all captured by the following
definition:
Vector spaces Examples

A vector space V (over R) is a nonempty set of objects (called vectors)

together with two operations: addition of vectors, and scalar
multiplication. These operations must satisfy the following ten rules (or
“axioms”): for all vectors u, v, w in V and for all scalars c, d in R:
1 The sum u + v is in V
2 u+v =v+u
3 (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
4 There exists a zero vector 0 in V such that u + 0 = u
5 For each u in V , there exists −u such that u + (−u) = 0
6 The scalar multiple cu is in V
7 c(u + v) = cu + cv
8 (c + d)u = cu + du
9 c(du) = (cd)u
10 1u = u
Vector spaces Examples

Consequences

Using only these rules, we can show that any vector space V
satisfies further properties. For example, if u is any vector in V ,
then
0u = 0.
Why? Because
(8)
0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u + 0u
hence
0u + (−(0u)) = (0u + 0u) + (−(0u))
0 = 0u + (0u + −(0u)) (using (5) on LHS, (3) on RHS)
0 = 0u + 0 (using (5) on RHS)
0 = 0u (using (4) on RHS)
Vector spaces Examples

Consequences

Similarly, we could show

c0 = 0
for any scalar c,

and we could show

−u = (−1)u
for any vector u in V .
Vector spaces Examples

Example: Rn

The whole point of the definition of vector space is that it

abstracts properties of Rn that we already know are true!
(Although checking they are true required work that we did earlier
in the quarter.)

You should think of Rn as the best example of a vector space.

We’ve already generated a bunch of geometric intuition about Rn ,
and we will want to port that intuition to other vector spaces.
Vector spaces Examples

Digital signal space S

Let S be the set of all doubly infinite sequences of real numbers:

{yk } = (. . . , y−2 , y−1 , y0 , y1 , y2 , . . . ).

If {zk } is another such sequence, then the sum is given by adding

the respective entries pairwise

{yk } + {zk } = {yk + zk }

= (. . . , y−2 + z−2 , y−1 + z−1 , y0 + z0 , y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 , . . . )

If c is a scalar, then

c{yk } = {cyk }(. . . , cy−2 , cy−1 , cy0 , cy1 , cy2 , . . . ).

To show S is a vector space is basically the exact same argument

as showing Rn is a vector space. (In some sense we won’t make
precise yet, S is like R∞ .)
Vector spaces Examples

Example: Arrows

Let V be the set of all arrows (directed line segments) in

three-dimensional space, with two arrows regarded as equal if they
have the same length and point in the same direction:

v u
v v

u
Vector spaces Examples

Example: Arrows

The sum of two vectors u and v in V is defined to by the

parallelogram rule:

u+v
v

u
Vector spaces Examples

Example: Arrows

Scalar multiplying u by a scalar r in R just stretches the arrow by a

factor of r :

2u
u
0.5u
Vector spaces Examples

Example: Arrows

Why is the space V of arrows we just described a vector space? It

is defined entirely geometrically, with no notion of coordinates. To
show it is a vector space we have to check the geometry.

For instance, the fact that vector addition is associative is captured

by the following picture

v
w
u
Vector spaces Examples

Polynomials of bounded degree Pn

For any n ≥ 0, the set Pn of polynomials of degree at most n

consists of all polynomials of the form

p(t) = a0 + a1 t + a2 t 2 + · · · an t n

where the coefficients a0 , a1 , . . . , an are real numbers, and t is a

real variable. The zero polynomial is

0(t) = 0.
Vector spaces Examples

Polynomials of bounded degree Pn

We define addition of polynomials in the usual way: if

p(t) = a0 + a1 t + a2 t 2 + · · · an t n

q(t) = b0 + b1 t + b2 t 2 + · · · bn t n
then

(p + q)(t) = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )t + (a2 + b2 )t 2 + · · · (an + bn )t n

Vector spaces Examples

Polynomials of bounded degree Pn

Note that a single polynomial p can be a complicated thing,

especially if you think of it in terms of the graph. However, when
we visualize the vector space Pn , we should think of the polynomial
p as a single point.
Vector spaces Examples

Polynomials of bounded degree Pn

Scalar multiplying p by the real scalar r is simply

(cp)(t) = (ca0 ) + (ca1 )t + (ca2 )t 2 + · · · (can )t n

I’ll prove P2 is a vector space on the chalkboard.

Vector spaces Examples

Polynomials of bounded degree Pn

WARNING: even though in algebra it makes sense to talk about the

product of polynomials, this is not a well defined operation on Pn !

For example, x 3 and 2 + x are both in P3 . But the polynomial

(2 + x)x 3 = 2x 3 + x 4

is NOT in P3 , because it has degree 4.

The moral: the vector space structure on Pn only uses addition of

polynomials, and scalar multiplication, but not multiplication of
polynomials.