Multicultural education is an idea, an approach to school reform, and a movement for equity, social justice, and

democracy. Specialists within multicultural education emphasize different components and cultural groups.
However, a significant degree of consensus exists within the field regarding its major principles, concepts, and
goals. A major goal of multicultural education is to restructure schools so that all students acquire the
knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed to function in an ethnically and racially diverse nation and world.
Multicultural education seeks to ensure educational equity for members of diverse racial, ethnic, cultural, and
socioeconomic groups, and to facilitate their participation as critical and reflective citizens in an inclusive
national civic culture.

Multicultural education tries to provide students with educational experiences that enable them to maintain
commitments to their community cultures as well as acquire the knowledge, skills, and cultural capital needed
to function in the national civic culture and community. Multicultural theorists view academic knowledge and
skills as necessary but not sufficient for functioning in a diverse nation and world. They regard skills in
democratic living and the ability to function effectively within and across diverse groups as essential goals of
schooling.

Multicultural education is highly consistent with the ideals embodied in the U.S. Constitution, the Declaration
of Independence, and the Bill of Rights. It seeks to extend the rights and privileges granted to the nation's
founding elites–the ideals of freedom, equality, justice, and democracy–to all social, cultural and language
groups. Multicultural education addresses deep and persistent social divisions across various groups, and seeks
to create an inclusive and transformed mainstream society. Multicultural educators view cultural difference as a
national strength and resource rather than as a problem to be overcome through assimilation.

History
Multicultural education emerged during the civil rights movement of the 1960s and 1970s. It grew out of the
demands of ethnic groups for inclusion in the curricula of schools, colleges, and universities. Although
multicultural education is an outgrowth of the ethnic studies movement of the 1960s, it has deep historical roots
in the African-American ethnic studies movement that emerged in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries.

Initiated by scholars such as George Washington Williams, Carter G. Woodson, W. E. B. DuBois, and Charles
H. Wesley, the primary goal of the early ethnic studies movement was to challenge the negative images and
stereotypes of African Americans prevalent in mainstream scholarship by creating accurate descriptions of the
life, history, and contributions of African Americans. These scholars had a personal, professional, and enduring
commitment to the uplift of African Americans. They believed that creating positive self-images of African
Americans was essential to their collective identity and liberation. They also believed that stereotypes and
negative beliefs about African Americans could be effectively challenged by objective historical research that
was also capable of transforming mainstream academic knowledge.

Carter G. Woodson–one of the leading scholars of the early ethnic studies movement–helped found the
Association for the Study of Negro (now Afro-American) Life and History in 1915. The association played a
key role in the production and dissemination of African-American historical scholarship. In addition to writing
numerous scholarly works and editing the association's publications, Woodson initiated Negro History Week
(now Black History Month) to focus attention in the nation's schools on the life and history of African
Americans.

In 1922 Woodson published a college textbook, The Negro in Our History,which was used in many African-
American schools and colleges. In response to public demand for classroom materials, he wrote an elementary
textbook, Negro Makers of History, followed by The Story of the Negro Retold for senior high schools.
Woodson also wrote, edited, and published African-American children's literature. In 1937 he began publication
of The Negro History Bulletin, a monthly magazine for teachers and students featuring stories about exemplary
teachers and curriculum projects, historical narratives, and biographical sketches.

When the ethnic studies movement was revived in the 1960s, African Americans and other marginalized ethnic
groups refused assimilationist demands to renounce their cultural identity and heritage. They insisted that their
lives and histories be included in the curriculum of schools, colleges, and universities. In challenging the
dominant paradigms and concepts taught in the schools and colleges, multicultural educators sought to
transform the Eurocentric perspective and incorporate multiple perspectives into the curriculum.
By the late 1980s multicultural theorists recognized that ethnic studies was insufficient to bring about school
reforms capable of responding to the academic needs of students of color. They consequently shifted their focus
from the mere inclusion of ethnic content to deep structural changes in schools. During these years,
multicultural educators also expanded from a primary focus on ethnic groups of color to other group categories,
such as social class, language and gender. Although conceptually distinct, the key social categories of
multicultural education–race, class, gender, and culture–are interrelated. Multicultural theorists are concerned
with how these social variables interact in identity formation, and about the consequences of multiple and
contextual identities for teaching and learning.

During the 1970s a number of professional organizations–such as the National Council for Social Studies, the
National Council of Teachers of English, and the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education–
issued policy statements and publications that encouraged the integration of ethnic content into the school and
teacher education curriculum. In 1973 the title of the forty-third yearbook of the National Council for the Social
Studies (NCSS) was Teaching Ethnic Studies: Concepts and Strategies.NCSS published Curriculum Guidelines
for Multiethnic Education in 1976, which was revised and reissued in 1992 as Curriculum Guidelines for
Multicultural Education. A turning point in the development of multicultural education occurred in 1977 when
the National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) issued standards for the
accreditation of teacher education. The standards required all NCATE member institutions (about 80% of the
teacher education programs in the United States) to implement components, courses, and programs in
multicultural education.

Over the past two decades more ethnic content has appeared in the textbooks used in elementary and secondary
schools in the United States. An increasing number of teachers are using anthologies in literature programs that
include selections written by women and authors of color. In addition, the market for books dealing with
multicultural education has gown substantially, and some of the nation's leading colleges and universities,
including the University of California at Berkeley and the University of Minnesota, have either revised their
core curriculum to include ethnic content or have established ethnic studies course requirements.

The Dimensions of Multicultural Education

James A. Banks's Dimensions of Multicultural Education is used widely by school districts to conceptualize and
develop courses, programs, and projects in multicultural education. The five dimensions are:(1) content
integration; (2) the knowledge construction process; (3) prejudice reduction; (4) an equity pedagogy; and (5) an
empowering school culture and social structure. Although each dimension is conceptually distinct, in practice
they overlap and are interrelated.

Content integration. Content integration deals with the extent to which teachers use examples and content
from a variety of cultures and groups to illustrate key concepts, principles, generalizations, and theories in their
subject area or discipline. The infusion of ethnic and cultural content into a subject area is logical and not
contrived when this dimension is implemented properly.

More opportunities exist for the integration of ethnic and cultural content in some subject areas than in others.
There are frequent and ample opportunities for teachers to use ethnic and cultural content to illustrate concepts,
themes, and principles in the social studies, the language arts, and in music. Opportunities also exist to integrate
multicultural content into math and science. However, they are less ample than they are in social studies and the
language arts. Content integration is frequently mistaken by school practitioners as comprising the whole of
multicultural education, and is thus viewed as irrelevant to instruction in disciplines such as math and science.

The knowledge construction process. The knowledge construction process describes teaching activities that
help students to understand, investigate, and determine how the implicit cultural assumptions, frames of
references, perspectives, and biases of researchers and textbook writers influence the ways in which knowledge
is constructed.

Multicultural teaching involves not only infusing ethnic content into the school curriculum, but changing the
structure and organization of school knowledge. It also includes changing the ways in which teachers and
students view and interact with knowledge, helping them to become knowledge producers, not merely the
consumers of knowledge produced by others.
The knowledge construction process helps teachers and students to understand why the cultural identities and
social positions of researchers need to be taken into account when assessing the validity of knowledge claims.
Multicultural theories assert that the values, personal histories, attitudes, and beliefs of researchers cannot be
separated from the knowledge they create. They consequently reject positivist claims of disinterested and
distancing knowledge production. They also reject the possibility of creating knowledge that is not influenced
by the cultural assumptions and social position of the knowledge producer.

In multicultural teaching and learning, paradigms, themes, and concepts that exclude or distort the life
experiences, histories, and contributions of marginalized groups are challenged. Multicultural pedagogy seeks
to reconceptualize and expand the Western canon, to make it more representative and inclusive of the nation's
diversity, and to reshape the frames of references, perspectives, and concepts that make up school knowledge.

Prejudice reduction. The prejudice reduction dimension of multicultural education seeks to help students
develop positive and democratic racial attitudes. It also helps students to understand how ethnic identity is
influenced by the context of schooling and the attitudes and beliefs of dominant social groups. The theory
developed by Gordon Allport (1954) has significantly influenced research and theory in intergroup relations. He
hypothesized that prejudice can be reduced by interracial contact if the contact situations have these
characteristics: (1) they are cooperative rather than competitive; (2) the individuals experience equal status; and
(3) the contact is sanctioned by authorities such as parents, principals and teachers.

An equity pedagogy. An equity pedagogy exists when teachers modify their teaching in ways that will
facilitate the academic achievement of students from diverse racial, cultural, socioeconomic, and language
groups. This includes using a variety of teaching styles and approaches that are consistent with the range of
learning styles within various cultural and ethnic groups, such as being demanding but highly personalized
when working with American Indian and Native Alaskan students. It also includes using cooperative learning
techniques in math and science instruction to enhance the academic achievement of students of color.

An equity pedagogy rejects the cultural deprivation paradigm that was developed in the early 1960s. This
paradigm posited that the socialization experiences in the home and community of low-income students
prevented them from attaining the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed for academic success. Because the
cultural practices of low-income students were viewed as inadequate and inferior, cultural deprivation theorists
focused on changing student behavior so that it aligned more closely with mainstream school culture. An equity
pedagogy assumes that students from diverse cultures and groups come to school with many strengths.

Multicultural theorists describe how cultural identity, communicative styles, and the social expectations of
students from marginalized ethnic and racial groups often conflict with the values, beliefs, and cultural
assumptions of teachers. The middle-class mainstream culture of the schools creates a cultural dissonance and
disconnect that privileges students who have internalized the school's cultural codes and communication styles.

Teachers practice culturally responsive teaching when an equity pedagogy is implemented. They use
instructional materials and practices that incorporate important aspects of the family and community culture of
their students. Culturally responsive teachers also use the "cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of
reference, and performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant to
and effective for them" (Gay, p. 29).

An empowering school culture. This dimension involves restructuring the culture and organization of the
school so that students from diverse racial, ethnic, socioeconomic, and language groups experience equality.
Members of the school staff examine and change the culture and social structure of the school. Grouping and
labeling practices, sports participation, gaps in achievement among groups, different rates of enrollment in
gifted and special education programs among groups, and the interaction of the staff and students across ethnic
and racial lines are important variables that are examined and reformed.

An empowering school structure requires the creation of qualitatively different relationships among various
groups within schools. Relationships are based on mutual and reciprocal respect for cultural differences that are
reflected in school-wide goals, norms, and cultural practices. An empowering school structure facilitates the
practice of multicultural education by providing teachers with opportunities for collective planning and
instruction, and by creating democratic structures that give teachers, parents, and school staff shared
responsibility for school governance.
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
LAST UPDATED: 08.29.13

Multicultural education refers to any form of education or teaching that incorporates the
histories, texts, values, beliefs, and perspectives of people from different cultural
backgrounds. At the classroom level, for example, teachers may modify or incorporate
lessons to reflect the cultural diversity of the students in a particular class. In many cases,
“culture” is defined in the broadest possible sense, encompassing race, ethnicity,
nationality, language, religion, class, gender, sexual orientation, and “exceptionality”—a
term applied to students with specialized needs or disabilities.
Generally speaking, multicultural education is predicated on the principle of
educational equity for all students, regardless of culture, and it strives to remove barriers
to educational opportunities and success for students from different cultural backgrounds.
In practice, educators may modify or eliminate educational policies, programs, materials,
lessons, and instructional practices that are either discriminatory toward or insufficiently
inclusive of diverse cultural perspectives. Multicultural education also assumes that the
ways in which students learn and think are deeply influenced by their cultural identity
and heritage, and that to teach culturally diverse students effectively requires educational
approaches that value and recognize their cultural backgrounds. In this way, multicultural
education aims to improve the learning and success of all students, particularly students
from cultural groups that have been historically underrepresented or that suffer from
lower educational achievement and attainment.
Instructionally, multicultural education may entail the use of texts, materials, references,
and historical examples that are understandable to students from different cultural
backgrounds or that reflect their particular cultural experience—such as teaching students
about historical figures who were female, disabled, or gay (a less common practice in
past decades). Since schools in the United States have traditionally used texts, learning
materials, and cultural examples that commonly—or even exclusively—reflect an
American or Eurocentric point of view, other cultural perspectives are often absent.
Consequently, some students—such as recently arrived immigrants or students of color,
for example—may be placed at an educational disadvantage due to cultural or linguistic
obstacles that have been overlooked or ignored.
The following are a few representative ways in which multicultural education may play
out in schools:
 Learning content: Texts and learning materials may include multiple cultural
perspectives and references. For example, a lesson on colonialism in North America
might address different cultural perspectives, such as those of the European settlers,
indigenous Americans, and African slaves.
 Student cultures: Teachers and other educators may learn about the cultural
backgrounds of students in a school, and then intentionally incorporate learning
experiences and content relevant to their personal cultural perspectives and heritage.
Students may also be encouraged to learn about the cultural backgrounds of other
students in a class, and students from different cultures may be given opportunities
to discuss and share their cultural experiences.
  Critical analysis: Educators may intentionally scrutinize learning materials to
identify potentially prejudicial or biased material. Both educators and students might
analyze their own cultural assumptions, and then discuss how learning materials,
teaching practices, or schools policies reflect cultural bias, and how they could be
changed to eliminate bias.
 Resource allocation: Multicultural education is generally predicated on the
principle of equity—i.e., that the allocation and distribution of educational resources,
programs, and learning experiences should be based on need and fairness, rather than
strict equality. For example, students who are not proficient in the English language
may learn in bilingual settings and read bilingual texts, and they may receive
comparatively more instructional support than their English-speaking peers so that
they do not fall behind academically or drop out of school due to language
limitations.

Reform
Multicultural education evolved out of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States.
Although it began with the African-American community, the movement soon expanded
to include other cultural groups who were subject to discrimination. In recent years, as
student populations have grown more diverse, multicultural approaches to education are
increasingly being used in public schools.
The following are few representative ways in which multicultural education may intersect
with efforts to improve schools:
 Curriculum design: In teaching materials and learning experiences, the
backgrounds and perspectives of previously excluded subcultures are increasingly
being represented in school curriculum. In addition, learning standards—brief
descriptions of what students are expected to learn and be able to do at particular
ages and grade levels—are evolving to reflect greater cultural diversity (for example,
the Common Core State Standardsintentionally consider the educational
experiences of English-language learners and students with special needs). In
addition, there are now educational programs, such as ethnic and gender studies, that
focus on specific cultural groups, and school learning experiences and social-justice
programs may also encourage students to investigate and address cultural bias in
their school or community.
 Student instruction: The way that educators teach is also changing to accommodate
increasing diversity in public schools. For example, students with moderate
disabilities and students who are not proficient in English are increasingly being
moved into regular classes (rather than being taught in separate classes), where they
may receive specialized assistance, but where they learn the same material as their
peers. In the classroom, teachers may also employ “culturally responsive”
instructional strategies (such as those described above) that reflect the cultural
identity of individual students.
 Learning assessment: Proponents of multicultural education tend to argue that
“one-size-fits-all” approaches to assessing student learning could disadvantage
students from different cultural backgrounds—e.g., when students are not fluent in
the language used on a test, when assessment questions are phrased in a way that
could be misinterpreted by students (because the students are unfamiliar with
American slang, customs, or cultural references), or when a testing situation does not
make sufficient accommodations for students with disabilities. One alternative
to standardized tests, for example, is to measure student learning progress using a
wider variety of assessment options, such as teacher-created tests, oral presentations,
and various demonstrations of learning that give students more opportunities to
 show what they have learned. Generally speaking, proponents of multicultural
education tend to advocate that students from different cultural backgrounds should
be held to the same high expectations as other students, but that schools should
adopt more flexible and inclusive ways of teaching them and measuring what they
have learned. For related discussions, see test accommodations, test bias,
and stereotype threat.
 Teacher education: Multicultural education has also affected the preparation of
teachers. Beginning in the 1980s, accrediting organizations and state departments of
education started requiring teacher-education programs to include multicultural
coursework and training. States such as California, Florida, and Massachusetts
undertook ambitious efforts to train teachers in multicultural education and English
as a second language.
 School staffing: Districts and schools are also being more intentional or proactive
about hiring educators of color from diverse cultural backgrounds. While proponents
of multicultural education would not claim that teachers of color are more skilled
than other teachers, they are likely to argue that staffing decisions reflect a school’s
fundamental values and that students will benefit from having educators and role
models from a wide variety of cultural backgrounds.
 Legislative and legal issues: The rise of multicultural education has also coincided
with a number of legislative and court actions. Laws such as the Civil Rights Act of
1964, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, the Equal Educational
Opportunity Act of 1974, and the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of
1974, among many others, increased the visibility of multicultural education and led
to the widespread adoption of more multicultural approaches to education in
American public schools. Federal, state, and district policies, in addition to major
legal decisions related to desegregation (Brown v. Board of Education, 1954), the
education of bilingual students (Lau v. Nichols, 1974), and fairness in school finance
(San Antonio v. Rodriguez, 1973), for example, have also had a major effect on
multicultural education in schools.

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Multicultural Education: Goals and Dimensions

Multicultural education is an idea, an educational reform movement, and a process (Banks, 1997). As
an idea, multicultural education seeks to create equal educational opportunities for all students,
including those from different racial, ethnic, and social-class groups. Multicultural education tries to
create equal educational opportunities for all students by changing the total school environment so
that it will reflect the diverse cultures and groups within a society and within the nation's classrooms.
Multicultural education is a process because its goals are ideals that teachers and administrators
should constantly strive to achieve.

The Dimensions of Multicultural Education

I have identified five dimensions of multicultural education. They are: content integration, the
knowledge construction process, prejudice reduction, an equity pedagogy, and an empowering
school culture and social structure (Banks, 1995a). Content integration deals with the extent to which
teachers use examples and content from a variety of cultures and groups to illustrate key concepts,
generalizations, and issues within their subject areas or disciplines. The knowledge construction
process describes how teachers help students to understand, investigate, and determine how the
biases, frames of reference, and perspectives within a discipline influence the ways in which
knowledge is constructed within it (Banks, 1996). Students also learn how to build knowledge
themselves in this dimension.
Prejudice reduction describes lessons and activities used by teachers to help students to develop
positive attitudes toward different racial, ethnic, and cultural groups. Research indicates that children
come to school with many negative attitudes toward and misconceptions about different racial and
ethnic groups (Phinney & Rotheram, 1987). Research also indicates that lessons, units, and teaching
materials that include content about different racial and ethnic groups can help students to develop
more positive intergroup attitudes if certain conditions exist in the teaching situation (Banks, 1995b).
These conditions include positive images of the ethnic groups in the materials and the use of
multiethnic materials in a consistent and sequential way.

An equity pedagogy exists when teachers modify their teaching in ways that will facilitate the
academic achievement of students from diverse racial, cultural, and social-class groups (Banks &
Banks, 1995). Research indicates that the academic achievement of African American and Mexican
American students is increased when cooperative teaching activities and strategies, rather than
competitive ones, are used in instruction (Aronson & Gonzalez, 1988). Cooperative learning activities
also help all students, including middle-class White students, to develop more positive racial attitudes.
However, to attain these positive outcomes, cooperative learning activities must have several
important characteristics (Allport, 1954). The students from different racial and ethnic groups must
feel that they have equal status in intergroup interactions, teachers and administrators must value
and support cross-racial interactions, and students from different racial groups must work together in
teams to pursue common goals.

An empowering school culture and social structure is created when the culture and organization of
the school are transformed in ways that enable students from diverse racial, ethnic, and gender
groups to experience equality and equal status. The implementation of this dimension requires that
the total environment of the school be reformed, including the attitudes, beliefs, and action of
teachers and administrators, the curriculum and course of study, assessment and testing procedures,
and the styles and strategies used by teachers.

To implement multicultural education effectively, teachers and administrators must attend to each of
the five dimensions of multicultural education described above. They should use content from diverse
groups when teaching concepts and skills, help students to understand how knowledge in the various
disciplines is constructed, help students to develop positive intergroup attitudes and behaviors, and
modify their teaching strategies so that students from different racial, cultural, and social-class groups
will experience equal educational opportunities. The total environment and culture of the school must
also be transformed so that students from diverse ethnic and cultural groups will experience equal
status in the culture and life of the school.

Although the five dimensions of multicultural education are highly interrelated, each requires
deliberate attention and focus. The reminder of this article focuses on two of the five dimensions
described above: content integration and the knowledge construction process. Readers can see
Banks (1995a) for more information about the other dimensions.

Content Integration

Teachers use several different approaches to integrate content about racial, ethnic, and cultural
groups into the curriculum. One of the most popular is the Contributions Approach. When this
approach is used, teachers insert isolated facts about ethnic and cultural group heroes and heroines
into the curriculum without changing the structure of their lesson plans and units. Often when this
approach is used, lessons about ethnic minorities are limited primarily to ethnic holidays and
celebrations, such as Martin Luther King's Birthday and Cinco de Mayo. The major problem with this
approach is that it reinforces the notion, already held by many students, that ethnic minorities are not
integral parts of mainstream U.S. society and that African American history and Mexican American
history are separate and apart from U.S. history.

The Additive Approach is also frequently used by teachers to integrate content about ethnic and
cultural groups into the school curriculum. In this approach, the organization and structure of the
curriculum remains unchanged. Special units on ethnic and cultural groups are added to the
curriculum, such as units on African Americans in the West, Indian Removal, and the internment of
the Japanese Americans. While an improvement over the Contributions Approach, the Additive
Approach is problematic because ethnic and cultural groups remain on the margin of the mainstream
curriculum.

Knowledge Construction and Transformation

The Transformation Approach brings content about ethnic and cultural groups from the margin to the
center of the curriculum. It helps students to understand how knowledge is constructed and how it
reflects the experiences, values, and perspectives of its creators. In this approach, the structure,
assumptions, and perspectives of the curriculum are changed so that the concepts, events, and
issues taught are viewed from the perspectives and experiences of a range of racial, ethnic, and
cultural groups. The center of the curriculum no longer focuses on mainstream and dominant groups,
but on an event, issue, or concept that is viewed from many different perspectives and points of view.
This is done while at the same time helping students to understand the nation's common heritage and
traditions. Teachers should help students to understand that while they live in a diverse nation, all
citizens of a nation-state share many cultural traditions, values, and political ideals that cement the
nation. Multicultural education seeks to actualize the idea of e pluribus unum, i.e. to create a society
that recognizes and respects the cultures of its diverse peoples united within a framework of
democratic values that are shared by all.

Personal, Social, and Civic Action

An important goal of multicultural education is to help students acquire the knowledge and
commitments needed to make reflective decisions and to take personal, social, and civic action to
promote democracy and democratic living. Opportunities for action help students to develop a sense
of personal and civic efficacy, faith in their ability to make changes in the institutions in which they
live, and situations to apply the knowledge they have learned (Banks, with Clegg, 1990).

Action activities and projects should be tuned to the cognitive and moral developmental levels of
students. Practicality and feasibility should also be important considerations. Students in the primary
grades can take action by making a commitment to stop laughing at ethnic jokes that sting; students
in the early and middle grades can act by reading books about other racial, ethnic, and cultural
groups. Upper-elementary grade students can make friends with students who are members of other
racial and ethnic groups and participate in cross-racial activities and projects with students who
attend a different school in the city. Upper-grade students can also participate in projects that provide
help and comfort to people in the community with special needs. They can also participate in local
political activities such as school bond elections and elections on local initiatives. Lewis (1991) has
written a helpful guide about ways to plan and initiate social action activities and projects for students.

When students learn content about the nation and the world from the perspectives of the diverse
groups that shaped historical and contemporary events, they will be better able to participate in
personal, social, and civic actions that are essential for citizens in a democratic pluralistic society.

References

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Aronson, E. and Gonzalez, A. (1988). Desegregation, Jigsaw, and the Mexican-American
Experience. In P. A. Katz & D. A. Taylor, (Eds.), Eliminating Racism: Profiles in Controversy. New
York: Plenum Press.
Banks, J. A. (1995a). Multicultural Education: Historical Development, Dimensions, and Practice. In J.
A. Banks & C. A. M. Banks (Eds.). Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education (pp. 3-24). New
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