General strain theory

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General strain theory (GST) is a theory of criminology developed by Robert Agnew.[1][2][3] General strain theory
has gained a significant amount of academic attention since being developed in 1992. [4] Robert Agnew's general
strain theory is considered to be a solid theory, has accumulated a significant amount of empirical evidence, and has
also expanded its primary scope by offering explanations of phenomena outside of criminal behavior.[5]
Agnew recognized that strain theory originally put forward by Robert King Merton was limited in terms of fully
conceptualizing the range of possible sources of strain in society, especially among youth. According to Merton,
innovation occurs when society emphasizes socially desirable and approved goals but at the same time provides
inadequate opportunity to achieve these goals with the legitimate institutionalized means. In other words those
members of society, who find themselves in a position of financial strain yet wish to achieve material success, resort
to crime in order to achieve socially desirable goals. Agnew supports this assumption but he also believes dealing
with youth there are other factors that incite criminal behaviour. He suggests that negative experiences can lead to
stress not only that are financially induced.
Agnew described 4 characteristics of strains that are most likely to lead to crime: 1) strains are seen as unjust, 2)
strains are seen as high in magnitude, 3) strains are associated with low social control, and 4) strains create some
pressure or incentive to engage in criminal coping.[6]

Agnew's 4 categories of strain[edit]

1) Failure to achieve positively valued goals.
2) Dis-junction between expectations and achievements.
3) Removal of positive stimuli.
4) Introduction of negative stimuli.
In an attempt to explain the high rate of male delinquency as compared to female delinquency, Agnew and Broidy
analyzed the gender differences between the perception of strain and the responses to strain.[7] The first area that was
explored was the amount of strain that each gender experiences. According to stress research that Agnew and Broidy
complied, females tend to experience as much or more strain than males. Also, females tend to be higher in
subjective strain as well. Since females experience more strain and commit less crime, Agnew and Broidy
investigated the different types of strain that males and females experience. Their findings are listed below:

Females Males

Concerned with creating and maintaining close bonds and Concerned with material success – thus
relationships with others – thus lower rates of property and higher rates of property and violent
violent crime crime

Face negative treatment, such as discrimination, high demands from Face more conflict with peers and are
family, and restricted behavior likely to be the victims of crime

Failure to achieve goals may lead to

Failure to achieve goals may lead to self-destructive behavior
property and violent crime

Source: O Grady[8]
Agnew and Broidy next hypothesized that there may be differences not only in the types of strain, but in the
emotional response to strain as well:

Female Male

More likely to respond with depression and anger More likely to respond with anger

Anger is accompanied by fear, guilt, and shame Anger is followed by moral outrage

More likely to blame themselves and worry about the effects Quick to blame others and are less concerned about
of their anger hurting others
Depression and guilt may lead to self-destructive Moral outrage may led to property and violent
behaviors crime

Source: O Grady[9]
Research indicated that females might lack the confidence and the self-esteem that may be conducive to committing
crime and employ escape and avoidance methods to relieve the strain. Females may, however, have stronger
relational ties that might help to reduce strain. Males are said to be lower in social control, and they socialize in large
groups. Females, on the other hand, form close social bonds in small groups. Therefore, males are more likely to
respond to strain with crime.[10]