RULES FOR MANIPULATION FOR SUMMATION

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Pn
Definition: (1) i=1 xi = x1 + x2 + . . . + xn .

Pn
a · xi = a ni=1 xi .
P
(2) i=1
Proof: Definition (1) gives ni=1 a · xi = ax1 + ax2 + . . . + axn =
P
Pn
a (x1 + x2 + . . . + xn ) = a i=1 xi .
Example: xi = 1, i = 1. . . . , n
Pn Pn
i=1 a = a i=1 1 = a (1 + 1 + . . . + 1) = a · n.

Pn
(xi + yi ) = ni=1 xi + ni=1 yi .
P P
(3) i=1
Proof: Definition (1) gives ni=1 (xi + yi ) = (x1 + y1 ) + (x2 + y2 ) + . . . +
P

(xn + yn ) = x1 + x2 + . . . + xn + y1 + y2 + . . . + yn = ni=1 xi + ni=1 yi .

P P

Pn
(axi + byi ) = a ni=1 xi + b
P Pn
(4) i=1 i=1 yi
Proof: (3) and (2) yield this.

(xi + yi )2 = ni=1 x2i + 2 ni=1 xi yi + ni=1 yi2 .

Pn P P P
(5) i=1
Proof: Use (xi + yi )2 = x2i + 2xi yi + yi2 and (4) as well as (2) with a = 2.

1 Pn
Let x = n i=1 xi . Then it holds

Pn
(6) i − x) = 0.
i=1 (xP
Proof: ni=1 (xi − x) = ni=1 xi − ni=1 x enligt (4). But here we have
P P

with a = x in (2) that ni=1 x = x ni=1 1= x · n according to the

P P

Example in (2). But x · n = ni=1 xi and this verifies the claim in (6).
P

Pn
(xi − x) · (yi − y) = ni=1 (xi − x) yi = ni=1 xi (yi − y) .
P P
(7) i=1
Proof: (xi − x) · (yi − y) = (xi − x) · yi − (xi − x) · y. Then we get
according to (4) that ni=1 (xi − x) · (yi − y) = ni=1 (xi − x) · yi −
P P
Pn Pn
i=1 (x i − x) · y. But with a = y in (2) we get that i=1 (xi − x) · y
Pn Pn
= y · i=1 (xi − x) and then (6) gives that i=1 (xi − x) · (yi − y) =
Pn
i=1 (xi − x) yi . The second identity is obtained analogously.

1
 Pn
(xi − x) · (yi − y) = ni=1 xi yi − nxy.
P
(8) i=1
Proof: Expand. e.g., ni=1 xi (yi − y) in the right hand side of (7), use
P

(2) and the definition of x.

(xi − x)2 = ni=1 x2i − nx2 .

Pn P
(9) i=1
Proof: By (5) we get that ni=1 (xi − x)2 = ni=1 x2i −2 ni=1 xi x+ ni=1 x2 .
P P P P

Then (2) gives with a = x and the Example in (2) that ni=1 x2i −
P

2 ni=1 xi x + ni=1 x2 = ni=1 x2i − 2x ni=1 xi + nx2 . The definition of x

P P P P

gives i=1 xi = nx, so that i=1 x2i − 2x ni=1 xi + nx2 = ni=1 x2i − 2x ·
Pn Pn P P

nx + nx2 = ni=1 x2i − nx2 .

P