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RAB/89/005-RER/87/009
United
Nations
Development
Programme
Food and
Agricultura
Organisation
of the United
Nations
This document is one of a series of documents prepared during the course of the Project
identified in the title page. The conclusions and recommendations given were
considered appropriate at the time it was prepared. They may be modified in the light of
further knowledge gained at subsequent stages of the Project.
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this document do not
imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory,
city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or
boundaries.
The opinions expressed by the Authors in this document are not necessarily those of
FAO or the Governments of the participating contries.
This document was edited by Hassen AKROUT and Mohieddine BELKHIR in
collaboration with Othman BÉJI and Neila KAFFEL, the revision was made by Michel
LAMBŒUF.
Abstract
A seminar and a study tour on Mollusc Culture were organised by MEDRAP II, in
collaboration with France (Foreign Ministry, IFREMER and ACTIM), from 9 to 19 June
1992 in Nantes and Sète-France.
The objectives were to exchange information, to update and to perform the knowledge
on shellfish culture technics and to review present statement of production with a
particular interest to the quality of products and sanitary control.
The contribution of all the participants, including representatives from public and private
sectors, gave an overview of the state of the art in their respective countries, particularly
on the implementation of control structures and methodology, quality and sanitary
control and norms, management of the shellfish culture and ecosystems, economical
aspects, diseases, etc…
The following general conclusions were raised :
- There is a need to insist on the production of the local species to preserve the
existing natural stock and to set up a preventive strategy in order to reduce risks
induced by the introduction of new species that could be hazardous to the
environment.
- The used technologies in molluscs cultures should be well adapted to the local
environmental and political context and to the local constraints in the case of the
open sea culture. The relevant biological, environmental and legal aspects should be
reviewed and well defined
- Shellfish production potentialities should be identified within the region with regards
to technical and biological aspects.
- Diversification in term of biology and technology should be enhanced according to an
organised system of production.
- Training and research should concern technical and biological aspects of shellfish
culture as well as the carrying capacity of the ecosystem, its natural stock and
productivity.
- Cooperation with countries of the Region is necessary to promote shellfish activities
and to reduce possible risks.
The study tour which took place from 11 to 16 June, was of great interest and offered the
opportunity to all participants to visit several scientific stations in the area.
Acknowledgements
The Editor would like to thank the French Authorities, namely the Foreign Ministry,
IFREMER and ACTIM for their support to the Project's activities, and the National
Coordinator, Mr. Philippe Ferlin for his contribution and assistance to the organisation of
the seminar and the study tour.
Thanks are also addressed to the participants and the invited experts for their
contribution, and to the coordinating managers of the study tour, namely Mr. Philippe
Ferlin - IFREMER Paris, Mr. Sauvagnargues - Station IFREMER, Mr. Coatanea and Mr.
Hamon - IFREMER Palavas.
The revision and publication of this document could only be done a long time after the
closure of the project. This has led to some difficulties in finalising the documents and
implementing corrections, because authors and contributors as well as some of the
original material or files were no longer available.
Therefore contributions from participants and session papers annexed to most of the
documents were left in their original form. No language corrections were introduced, the
content was not modified and left under their respective authors' responsibility.
Considering the above, we hope that the reader will understand that a standard of
publication could not be maintained on a level as high as we would have liked it to be.
CONTENTS
PART I 3
• Seminar Report and conclusions 5
• Adopted Agenda 9
• List of participants 13
PART II 17
Annex I : 19
Shellfish culture development : MEDRAP countries'present situation and
perspectives
• Present and future statement mollusc culture in Portugal 21
By D. SDIAS
• La conchyliculture en Tunisie : points de situations et réflexions 27
By M. N. MEDHIOUB
• Production artificielle de la palourde Résultats préliminaires 35
By M. N. MEDHIOUB and A. MEDHIOUB
• Developement de la culture des coquillages au Maroc, contraintes et 43
perspectives
By A. BERRAHO
• The possibility of introducing shellfish culture in Malta 47
By D. DEBONO
• Aquaculture development in Lebanon 49
BY M. A. ABI SAAD
• Shellfish culture in Croatia 51
By B. GRZETIC
• Mollusc culture in Turkey 53
BY H. YILMAZ
• Transformation et contrôle de la qualité des moules cultivée de la Mer 55
Noire
By J. NETCHEV
Annex 2 : 57
Communications on shellfish culture within some associated MEDRAP
and European countries
• Sea site shellfish production : monitoring and objectives 59
By R. POGGI
• Production, sanitarium and Marketing of bivalve shellfish in the Netherlands 79
By R. DIJKEMA
• Production, consumption and marketing of shellfish in France 101
By J.C. SAUVAGNARGUES
• Traditional oyster culture in France 113
By M. HERAL.
• Study of the mollusc stocks reared within the «Etang de Thau» 159
By P.Y. HAMON and H. TOURNIER
• Conchyliculture en mer, les filières d'élevage de moules : Aspects 183
technologiques
By BOMPAIS
• Technique de captage et d'élevage de l'huître plate Ostrea Edulis en 205
Bretagne :
évolution vers la mer ouverte dans le cadre du plan de relance
By A. G. MARTIN
• Conchyliculture en mer ouverte en Languedoc-Roussillon 223
Diversification des techniques et des espèces
BY D. COATANEA
• Shellfish culture in Italy : Case study of venericulture 233
By A. ZENTILINI
• Development of the open sea shellfish culture in the Languedoc Roussillon 245
By C. LOSTE ET MR FRANCK CAZIN
Annex 3 : 261
• CEE sanitary rules related to the production and marketing of living 263
molluscs
• Rapid automated quantitative estimations of Escherichia Coli in shellfish 281
By J. DUPONT et al.
PART I
SEMINAR REPORT AND CONCLUSIONS
In the framework of the programme UNDP-FAO-MEDRAP, a seminar and a study tour
on mollusc culture were organized in Nantes-Sète, jointly, by MEDRAP and France
(Foreign Ministry, IFREMER and ACTIM) from 9 to 19 of June 1992.
The objectives were to exchange information, to update and practice the knowledge on
shellfish culture technics and review present statement of production with a particular
interest to the quality of products and sanitary control.
Two delegates representing, both, private and public sectors concerned by shellfish
culture at national level within each MEDRAP countries attended the seminar and the
seminar and the study tour; they were listening to several lectures of high technical and
scientific skills (France, Italy, Holland) (The list of participants is annexed to the report).
The programme was conducted in France as follows:
• general coordination, under the responsibility of Mr. Ph. Ferlin (IFREMER
- Paris);
• coordination, in Nantes, under the responsibility of Mr Sauvagnargues
(Station IFREMER);
• coordination, in Sète, and study tour conduction, under the responsibility
of Mr. Coatanea and Mr. Hamon (IFREMER - PALAVAS).
The seminar on Mollusc Culture was organized in two sessions :
a- in Nantes, from 9 to 11 June 1992, Seminar on quality of shellfish
products and sanitary control ;
b- in Sète, from 17 to 18 June 1992, seminar on technical aspects of
shellfish culture and new production technics.
The study tour which took place from 11 to 16 June 1992 was of a great interest and
offered good opportunities to all participants to perform their knowledge when visiting the
following conchylicole installations, expedition centers and scientific stations on the way
from Nantes to Sète :
Thursday 11 : Visit of «Centre de Bouin»
Friday 12 : Visit of «CREMA de la baie de l'Aiguillon et du Perthuis»
Saturday 13 : Visit of «La Tremblade» and ostreiculture facilities
Sunday 14 : Visit of «Bassin d'Archachon»
Monday 15 : Visit of «Etang» of Salses Leucrate and the Center of Vendres
Tuesday 16 : Visit of «Etang» of Thau and ostreicole installations in the open sea.
All information related to the above cited seminars and study tour is given in the agenda
annexed to this report.
During the seminar on molluscs culture six main topics related to the subject were
received and discussed:
Topic 1 : quality and shellfish products
Topic 2 : sanitary control and norms
Topic 3 : implementing of control structures and methodology
Topic 4 : the Mediterranean sea; statements and perspectives of shellfish culture
(traditional shellfish culture, evolution of the technology, diversification of
species and future development)
Topic 5 : open sea shellfish culture (shellfish sea farming)
Topic 6 : connected researches: management of shellfish culture of ecosystems;
economical aspects - Diseases…
Besides these topics, a survey of present and futur statement on shellfish culture was
given by each delegate from respective MEDRAP countries. Contents of their
communication are complied in Part II, annex I.
Scientific papers and other communication presented by the lecturers are given in part II,
annex 2.
The main remark of common concern and the general conclusion retained in that
seminar were as follows:
• several constraints related to the site selection need more adaptable
shellfish culture technic to be developed;
• the major part of MEDRAP countries have skilled and human resources
but still show traditional shellfish culture. The wish to cooperate with EC
and others through MEDRAP.
- in the formulation and the elaboration of their national director plan
for the promotion of molluscs culture;
- in the identification of appropriate and potential sites;
- in the identification of adapted farming structures;
• MEDRAP is asked to launch a periodical publication and a data base
system to keep member countries informed about the various
developments and problems, concerning the various aspects of
aquaculture and particularly the mollusc culture;
• there is need to insist on the promotion of the local species so to preserve
the existing natural stock and, to set up a preventive strategy in order to
reduce risks induced by the introduction of new species that could be
hazardous to the environment;
• MEDRAP member countries should cooperate with EC in order to prove
their normes and regulations and to help in the monitoring of shellfish
sites;
• the used technologies in molluscs culture should be well adapted to the
local environmental and political context. Development model based on
the small and well organized unities seems to be easier to implement than
the large scale system;
• quality of the products should be of great concern and adapted to the new
EC normes and regulation so as to ensure market accessibility;
• shellfish production potentialities should be identified within the region
with regards to technical and biological aspect;
• training and research should concern technical and biological aspects of
shellfish culture as well as the carrying capacity of the ecosystem, its
natural stock and productivity;
• specific zones for aquaculture and fisheries activities should be defined
and caution must be undertaken in respect to the natural stock in order to
ensure:
- good sanitary protection;
- good management to avoid the over exploitation and particularly,
the conflicts of littoral zone using;
- preservation of coastal system from the impact of shellfish culture
outfalls;
• technology should be appropriate and well adapted to the local constraints
in the case of the open sea culture, the relevant biological, environmental
and legal aspects should be reviewed and well defined;
• diversifications in term of biology and technology should be enhanced
according to an organized system of production;
• producers from neighbour countries, should act together with others to
promote shellfish activities and reduce risks.
AGENDA
1 - SEMINAR ON THE QUALITY OF PRODUCTS AND SANITARY CONTROL
(Nantes, 9–11 June, 1992)
10 JUNE, 1992
09:00 - Opening session
- Welcome speeches
- Adoption of the agenda
09:30 - Shellfish production and consumption in France
By J.C. SAUVAGNARGUES
10:15 - Coffee break
10:30 - The sea system for shellfish production:
classification, monitoring and objectives in France
By R.POGGI
11:30 - Marketing of shellfish in France
By J.C. SAUVAGNARGUES
12:30 - Lunch
14:00 - Problems linked to the marketing of fresh shellfish in Netherlands
By R.DIJKEMA
15:00 - The organization of living shellfish control
By J.C. SAUVAGNARGUES
15:30 - Coffee break
16:00 - EEC instruction (15 July 1991) appointing the sanitary rules governing the
production and marketing of living shellfish
By J.C. SAUVAGNARGUES, R. POGGI & R. DIJKEMA
11 JUNE, 1992
09:00 - Round table on strategies to be faced and related to the sanitary control
of shellfish
11:30 - Adjournment of the seminar in Nantes
12:00 - Lunch
14:00 - Departure from Nantes and starting the study tour on the way to Sète
2 - STUDY TOUR ON MOLLUSCS CULTURE
(NANTES-Sète, 11–17 June, 1992)
Thursday 11 : Visit to «Centre de Bouin» spending the night of 11 to 12 in «La
Rochelle».
Friday 12 : Visit to CREMA, the «Baie de l'Aigullion» and Perthuis
Departure and spending the night in «La Tremblade».
Saturday 13 : Visit to «La Tremblade» and to oestreicole installations.
Departure and spending the night in Bordeaux.
Sunday 14 : Visit to «Bassin d'Arcachon» and spending the night in Bordeaux.
Monday 15 : Visit to the «Etang de Salses Leucate» and the «Centre de
Vendes».
Spending the night in Sète.
Thursday 16 : Visit to the «Etang de Thau» and the ostreicole installations in open
sea.
3 - SEMINAR ON TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF SHELLFISH CULTURE AND NEW
PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES
(Sètes, 17–18 June, 1992)
17 JUNE, 1993
09:00 - Opening session
- Welcome addresses
- General introduction of MEDRAP
By M.BELKHIR
09:30 - The place of Molluscs in the Coastal Ecosytems
By O. GUELORGET
10.00 - MEDRAP Members experiences on Mollusc Culture
- Present statement and perspective of Development
By each delegate of MEDRAP countries
10:40 - Coffee break
11:00 - MEDRAP Members experience on Mollusc Culture (to be continued)
12:00 - Discussion
13:00 - Lunch
15:00 - Shellfish culture in Italy: Case Study of Venericulture
By A. ZENTILINI
16:00 - Coffee break
16:15 - Shellfish culture in Croatia
By A. BENOVIC
17:00 - Discussion
18 JUNE, 1993
09:00 - Myticulture in open sea within Languedoc Roussillon
By CEPRALMAR
10:00 - Technology of myticole pools
10:15 - Discussion
10:30 - Coffee break
10:50 - Rearing technics in the sea of Ostrea Edulis
By IFREMER - La Trinité
11:30 - Moovy on the sea mytiliculture
By IFREMER - La Trinité
11:45 - Moovy on the mechanical harvesting of Tapes sp.
By H. GRIZEL
15:30 - Coffee break
15:45 - Economic aspects
By IFREMER - SEM
16:30 - Discussion
- Adjournment of the seminar
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
PORTUGAL : - Dr. Damasia Sdias
Phone: 351–65526535
Fax: 351–65526535
LECTURERS
- Mr. Coatanea
Phone: 33–66680833
Fax:33–66680867
- Mr. Poggi
MEDRAP II
Figure p 38
DEVELOPMENT DE LA CULTURE DES COQUILLAGES AU MAROC,
CONTRAINTES ET PERSPECTIVES
By Mr. A. BERRAHO
I- SITUATION DE LA CONCHILICULTURE
1- EXPLOITATION NATURELLE
Une importante activité d'exploitation des stocks naturels de coquillages
se déroule tant sur les côtes méditerranéennes qu' atlantiques. Les
techniques utilisées sont : soit le ramassage manuel, soit le dragage. Les
espèces cibles sont très variées, la diversité étant beaucoup plus grande
en Méditerranée.
En Méditerranée, on trouve : les moules (les deux espèces : Mytilus
galloprovincialis et Perna picta), la palourde, le vernis, les coques, les
grosses coques, la praire, les haricots de mer, les couteaux, etc… Le
coquillage le plus fréquent étant un veneridae (Venus gallima)
En Atlantique, on trouve essentiellement les deux espèces de moules et
la palourde (Ruditapes decussatus)
2- CONCHYLICULTURE
2.1. Centre de Oualidia en Atlantique
Les activités d'ostréiculture au Maroc remontent aux armées 1950
et concernent une espèce d'huître Crassostrea gigas, l'huître
japonaise. Cette ostréiculture est pratiquée dans une petite lagune
atlantique située à 200 km environ au Sud de Casablanca.
Le naissain était d'abord importé du Japon, puis de France;
depuis 1991, il est produit par l'écloserie de la Société MAROST à
Nador. Actuellement, il n' y a plus d'importation de naissain
d'huître.
La production de Oualidia se situe entre 150 et 200 tonnes par an
et suffit à la demande intérieure qui reste très faible, compte tenu
des habitudes alimentaires des marocains.
2.2. Centre de Nador en Méditerranée
Depuis 1985, le complexe intégré de la MAROST à Nador
entreprend des activités de conchyliculture (huître plate et
polourde) dans la lagune de Nador. Les espèces élevées sont
l'huître plate : Ostrea edulis et la palourde : Ruditapes decussatus
Les naissain de ces deux espèces est produit dans l'écloserie à
coquillage du complexe de MAROST. Les techniques utilisées
sont la culture sur sol, filet pour la palourde, et les table4s de
suspension pour l'huître plate.
La production de coquillages en 1991 a été de 120 tonnes
environ, toutes espèces confondues. Cette production ne
représente pas le potentiel de production de la Société, mais
dépend essentiellement d'une part des possibilités d'écoulement
sur l'étranger, notamment sur le marché européen ; d'autre part,
de l'orientation assignée au plan de développement de la Société
à l'élevage des poissons.
II- FACTEURS ENTRAVANT LE DÉVELLOPPEMENT DE LA
CONCHYLICULTURE AU MAROC
1- NOMBRE LIMITÉ DE SITES MARITIMES PROTÉGÉS
En dépit de la longueur du littoral national, le nombre de sites protégés
est relativement limité. Seules les lagunes maritimes (l en Méditerranée,
3 eu Atlantique) et certaines estuaires sont propices à des activités
conchylicoles en milieu protégé.
certes ! la lagune de Nador, avec ses 11.500 ba offre de grandes
possibilités; cependant, il faut tenir compte de la compétition pour
l'espacc avec les élevages de poissons en cages suspendues, lesquels
ont la priorité compte tenu de leur rentabilité économique et du marché.
Dans ce cadre, le développement de la culture offshore, en utilisant des
techniques appropriées tel que celle des filières, pourrait résoudre le
problème de la limite des sites.
2- APPARATION FRÉQUENTE DES EAUX COLORÉES DANS
CERTAINES ZONES DE LA CÔTRE MEDITERRANÉENNE
L'apparition fréquente des eaux colorées, en l'occurrence les
dinoflagellées au large de certaines zones du littoral méditerranéen,
principalement dans activités conchylicoles et provoquer l'arrêt de la
production durant une période l'année.
A cet effet, une surveillance permanente des eaux colorées s'avère
nécessaire, d'ou le programme de mise en place par l'I.S.P.M. au cours
de la période 1992–1995 d'un réseau national d'observation en
permanence du milieu (R.N.O.), à partir de stations locales d'observation
réparties sur le littoral national.
3- DIFFICULTÉ DE COMMERCIALISATION DUES :
• au marché intérieur très limité;
• aux difficultés d'écoulement sur l'étranger, notamment sur
l'Europe, en particulier à partir du ler janvier 1993, lors de
l'institution du marché unique européen.
III- PERSPECTIVES
1. Développement de la culture extensive de la palourde (Ruditapes
decussatus) dans les lagunes et les estuaires, notamment en Atlantique,
visant deux objectifs :
• protection des stocks naturels de palourdes qui sont actuellement
surexploités :
• amélioration de la condition socio-économique des pêcheurs de
coquillages en les intégrant dans des activités de culture de
palourdes.
2. Réalisation d'essais de conchyliculture dans la baie de Dakhla
l'I.S.P.M. entreprend, en collaboration avec la Société MAROST depuis
deux ans environ, des études dans la baie de Dakhla (35.000 ha), situé
au Sud de la côte atlantique, en vue de lancer des élevages, notamment
de coquillages comprenant les moules, les huîtres et la coquille Saint-
Jacques.
3. Prospection de sites pour le développement des élevages offshore
Au cours des années futures, des prospections seront entreprises par
l'I.S.P.M. en vue d'identifier des sites propices aux activités aquacoles
offshore, et d'y réaliser des essais conchylicoles.
THE POSSIBILITY OF INTRODUCING SHELLFISH CULTURE IN MALTA
By Mr. Lino D. DEBONO
Presently Malta has no shellfish culture. Mainly this due to the clean and clear seawater
which is oligotrophic in nature. Also we do not have the required topological features
such as lagoons and bays which are protected from rough weather.
Yet, during the last six years we have made fast steps in the area of finfish culture,
breeding, rearing and farming indigenous species such as the seabass (Dicentrarcus
labrax) and the gilthead sea bream (Sparus auratus), not to mention various Tilapia spp
easily acclimated to saltwater. various experiments are being carried out with the
possibility of introducing other mediterranean species.
It is now the intention of the National Aquaculture Center, which is based in fort San
Lucian, Marsaxlokk, to introduce the culture of selected mollusc species in the form of
polyculture with marine fish which are stocked in sea cages.
In two main considerations here are concerned with selection, namely,…
1- SELECTION OF SPECIES
From what we have seen in France, and from the various contributions by
represented Mediterranean countries, we will be considering the possibility of
introducing Ostrea spp., in preference to Mytilus an other species mainly for
biological factors, but also on consideration of adaptability to local conditions. In
the regard a series of experiments and growth trails have to be carefully planned
and executed.
2- SELECTION OF THE CULTURE SITES
This is the major problem with mariculture. There is little space available which is
not in competition with a well-established tourist industry, the main source of
income of the Maltese islands. One should also think in terms of agricultural run-
offs (especially regarding pesticides and antibiotics). So, the selection of ideal
sites is very limited and conchyliculture sites can be established with finfish sea
cage units.
Another aspect is the supply of the necessary backup services, especially in the
regular and careful monitoring of the various water quality parameters. technical
personnel, including University graduates, can be trained in this regard. Malta
also offers the possibility of undergraduate and post-graduate research.
Convincing the conservative local fisherman to diversity his activities will also
pose a problem, but special training can be offered at the already established
school of Fisheries. Convincing the fisherman of widening his activities will
obviously be beneficial to him and in general, to the Maltese Economy. We have
a ready market but no shellfish culture technology.
AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT IN LEABNON
Par Mme Marie Abboud Abi SAAD
Le Liban n'a pas la tradition d'élevage des mollusques activité aquacole, à part le pêche,
est l'élevage des poissons d'eau douce dans l'amont de quelques rivières.
Données naturelles : la côte libanaise qui s' étend sur 220 km est en majorité rocheuse
et le plateau continental est étroit. Les baies sont ouvertes à la mer et on ne note pas la
présence des lagunes. Les fleuves qui se jette en mer ont un régime excessif et sont
presque à sec à l'étiage.
PERSPECTIVES D'AVENIR
• Les conditions économiques améliorées peuvent laisser l'espoir
d'entamer des projets d'aquaculture.
• Les projets conchylicoles, en l'absence des sites protégés sur la côte,
doivent se diriger vers la mer ouverte.
• Des études expérimentales doivent précéder l'implantation de tel projet.
Le centre de Recherches marines est le seul institut qualifié de réaliser
tels essais.
SHELLFISH CULTURE IN CROATIA
By Mr. Boris GRZETIC
Ladies and Gentleman,
I am Boris Grzetic and I come from Croatia. I am not presenting a general picture of the
she B fish culture in Croatia because Mr. Benouii was invited specifically to talk about
this topic. But I would like to say a few words from the point of view of the producer
because I happen to be the technical manager of the biggest shellfish farm in Croatia.
Previous to the outbreak of the present troubles in our country, out enterprise was
responsible for 70 % of the total shellfish production in Croatia. The main activity of my
form is detergent production, cosmetics, essential oils, aromatic herms and various
natural foods. However in 1985 we initiated our activities of the shellfish industry
because we accepted major possibilities for expansion in this sector.
Initially we started our activity in the field by assuming control of a small operation
productor about 200 tones of mussels and 500.000 pieces of plat oysters per annum.
During the last 6 years we invested ower 9.000.000 D. Marks to improve this production
but mostly to develope processing facilities that would enhance the marketing
possibilities of our product. we increased our annual production of mussels from 200 T to
1,200 T., and our production of oysters from 500.000 pieces to 2.000.000 pieces. On the
other hand we went into the fish farming sector achieving a growth from zero production
to 50 T.
But, unfortunately, our luck out as it did for our country. The was that you all know about
destroyed all our effects main because our front link between the Croatian forces an the
forces of the aggressor happen to the fast through our installations and processing plant.
Nevertheless, we hope to be able to reconstruct all our installations in a relatively short
time starting with our cultivating sites. In fact I do not foresee too many problems with
the production aspect of our activity but I am already envisaging certain problems with
regard to accessibility to European markets.
MOLLUSC CULTURE IN TURKEY
By Mr. Harun. YILMAZ
Molluscculture is a new aquaculture section in Turkey. Except some experimental
studies in Universities, mollusc culture haS recently interested Turkish private sector.
So far, only mussel has been chosen to culture as a mollusc. Only Mytilus
galloprovincialis lives in Turkey seas. This mussel species is found in lzmir Northern
Aegean Sea, Marmare sea and black sea.
A private company exported first raft from Spain and settled in Kilye hay on coast of
Dardanelles which is the channel between Aegean Sea and Marmara Sea. Capacity of
the raft was 250 collectors mussels which was transplanted on the collector in May
1991, reached to marketing size in 7–8 months. some collectors was installed at sea for
collection. Spats which attacked on the collectors naturally, reached to marketing size in
10 months without handling. Length of collectors was 12 meters and 150 kilos mussel
was produced on each collector.
Results of this experiment and analysis on water quality phyloplankton and spat density
has showed that Dardanelles coasts are very suitable place for musselculture. So the
company started to build new rafts. First raft which has been made by the company
settled in the sea in 1992. This raft capacity is 1.000 collectors. Production has been
continuing.
But the company wants to change this culture system. long-line culture system is being
thought to be more profitable in the area. so we have been trying to collect information
about long-line mussel culture system.
TRANSFORMATION ET CONTRÔLE DE LE QUALITÉ
DES MOULES CULTIVÉES DE LA MER NOIRE
Par Mr. Jivko NETCHEV
et par Mr. Ivan LAHNEV
La moule noire de la mer Noire (Mytilus galloprovincialis) est une espèce de masse pour
la mer Noire, d'une biomasse approximative sur le littoral bulgare d'environ 300 mille
tonnes. Ces dernières années en Bulgaire on fait des efforts d'élevage industriel de cette
espèce, au résultat desquels on a créé des technologies et des équipements de culture
marine de la moule noire.
La transformation primitive des moules à lieu dans la région de l'élevage des moules.
Des ce but, on a projeté et construit un catamaran sur lequel sont montés les
équipements technologies. Les moules sont détachées des collecteurs en forme de
grappes après qu' elles aient atteint une taille minimale de la coquille de 4 cm, ce qui est
la condition conformément à la norme bulgare d'État. La transformation initiale
comprend le fractionnement des grappes, le lavage et le triage des moules, avec la
séparation des exemplaires hors standard de petites dimensions. Cette transformation
est faite de façon mécanique à bord du catamaran, avec une machine importée de la
société. «Nicholson and Co» - Suède. La transformation initiale des moules a
dernièrement été réalisée avec succès sur une machine bulgare créé à cet effet.
Par la suite, les moules sont transformées à terre, dans des locaux de travail qui
correspondent aux exigences technologies et sanitaires en vigueur en Bulgaire,
assurant des conditions de travail continue ainsi qu' une hygiène éelevée du processus
de production.
D'abord, les moules sont dirigées vers la machine où l'on enlève mécaniquement les
byssus en les lavant en même temps. Cette machine est achetée de la société
«Franchen» - Hollande. En cas de nécéssité de conservation des moules avant qu'on
enlève les byssus, elles sont conservées dans des locaux frigorifiques pour un délai
admissible de trois jours à la température de 0°C à 6°C à partir de leur pêche et jusqu; à
la température de plus de 6°C.
Les moules, sans hyssus, sont blanchies à la vapeur directe jusqu' à l'ouverture
complète des coquillages et l'affermissement de leur chair, à la température de 121°C.
On enlève tout de suite, de façon mécanique, la chair de la moule blanchie, ce qui se
sur un mécanisme vibratoire, projeté et construite dans ce but en Bulgaire. Ensuite, la
chair des moules est traitée à une solution de sel de 1 % pour la rende compacte et elle
est dirigée vers les machines de production de conserves ou de produits congelés. Les
coquillages sont employés après un broyage comme nourriture des volailles.
En Bulgaire, on a expérimenté avec succès des productions de conserves de moules
dans des sauces naturelles et des marinades. On a établi un rapport optimal de
conservation de moules dans des chair de moules blanchies et de 30 % de sauce,
composée d'huile végétale aromatisée d'extrait naturel et de marinade pour le premier
groupe de conserves et de 1 % de solution de sel pour le deuxième groupe On a aussi
expérimenté la congélation de chair de moule dans des emballages en carton. La
variante de congélation individuelle est optimale et réalise une conservation de l'intégrité
de la chair de moule jusqu'à trois mois à une température de conservation de - 20 ° C.
On a effectué des expériences sur des congélateurs avec l'emploi de frèon et d'azote
liquide. Le moment important du contrôle de la qualité est l'observation des paramètres
technologiques qui assurent une intégrité complète et une grosseur acceptable de la
chair de moule. Dans ce but, on transforme des moules suivant les dimensions standard
de 4 cm adoptées en Bulgarie, un bref blanchissage de 1 ou 2 minutes des moules, une
stérilisaton des conserves d'un effet minimal F, une congélation rapide en atteignant la
température en profondeur de la chair des moules de - 18°C.
PROBLÈMES FUTURS SUR LA TRANSFORMATION DES MOULES DE LA MER
NOIRE
1. Optimisation de la technologie créée de transformation des moules
cultivées de la mer Noire.
2. Optimisation du conditionnement, du transport des moules et leurs
produits.
3. Mécanisation des processus de transformation des moules la mer Noire,
dans lesquels on fait un travail manuel.
4. Élaboration d'une technologie de transformation de moules de petites
dimensions hors standard.
PROPOSITION DE COLLABORATION DANS LE CADRE DE MEDRAP II
1. Un échange périodique d'information sur le travail des pays-membres de
MEDRAP II.
2. Les informations doivent concerner les problèmes d'élevage de
mollusques et on doit le mettre à la disposition des pays participants et de
leurs spécialistes intéressés.
3. Des informations de l'état, du développement, de la mercatique, de la
dynamique des prix, les marchés dominants. Spécialisation d'un système
pour les produits des aquacultures.
ANNEX 2
- Contamination des huîtres dégorgées dans une eau décantée comparée à celle des
huîtres laissées en dépôt en zone décourante
(exprimée par les courbes de fréquence cumulée).
- Variations mensuelles des pluies (•), de la Salinité (*) et des coliformes fécaux (•)
Nomber de coliformes fécaux/100 ml de chair de
Lieux des coquillage
prélèvements Aussitöt après Après un séjour de 3 jours
leprélèvement dans un dégorgeoir
Point C1 138 22
Point C2 55 55
Point C3 90 55
Point C4 258 <18
Point C5 558 55
Point C6 22 <18
Point D1 558 22
Point D2 90 <18
Point D3 44 22
Point D4 44 <18
Point D5 22 22
Point D6 22 <18
Other species, fished and/or marketed in minor quantities, are cut through shells
(Spisula subtruncata - Da Costa), Whelks (Buccinum undatum L.), periwinkles (Littorina
littorea L.) and scallops (Pecten maximus L.).
Mussels and oysters are produced by way of bottom culture. The shallow and exposed
coastal waters only allow off-bottom culture methods on a very small scale. Fishery on
wild banks in the coastal waters is practiced on seedling and half-grown mussels, the
two oyster species, cockles and, in some years, on cut trough shells.
Mussel culture
Mussels are cultured in the Waddenzee (60 % – 75 % of the national production) (Fig.
2), and the Oosterschelde estuary (Fig. l). Culture concessions or plots are mostly
located on the banks of tidal channels, from the intertidal range to 10–15 m below low
tide level. They are demarcated with wooden poles and measure between 7 and 25 ha.
There are 78 mussel growers who together rent a total area of about 10,000 ha.
However, 30 % – 50 % of this is not or hardly utilized because of unfavorable bottom or
current conditions. An average grower cultivates 70–80 ha. From this area he harvests
between 900 and 1,5000 metric tons of mussels per year. In the period between 1984
and 1987 this represented for one firm a gross veiled of 375,000–850,000 Dutch
Guilders (DFL). One DFL equals about 0.6 US$
The nominal production of the Dutch mussel culture is about 100,000 tons per year. This
yield fluctuates strongly (Fig. 3), due to varying mortality as result of gales in the
Western part of the Waddenzee. Waves and currents then dislodge the mussels from
the culture plots. Losses have been particularly high in the last decade. The production
in the Oosterschelde is much more stable. The last two years, the production has been
particularly low due to a combination of failing recruitment of mussel seed and storm
damage on the culture plots and wild seed banks. To compensate the low production,
mussels have to be imported, mostly from the German and Danish part of the
Waddenzee, to satisfy market demand. Fig. 4 gives inland production and imports of
mussels during the last years.
Natural, one year old seeding mussels, 2–3 cm long, are dredged, mainly in the
Waddenzee. As fishing for wild mussels is prohibited, permission is given to the mussel
growers to fish for spat during 6 weeks in May/June and one week in September in
designated areas. Certain areas are closed for seed fishery for reasons of nature
protection. If these are available, the mussel growers also take halt-grown mussels (3–
4cm), growing on wild banks in the intertidal range. These mussels are hardy (thick shell
and trained adductor muscle), and need less time to reach the minimum market size 40
% longer than 50 mm). These mussels are preferred for the fresh trade to more distant
export markets. The smaller seeding mussels are often seeded directly on deeper plots,
where growth rate is higher and they can reach market size by November. These
mussels can obtain a high meat yield (up to 35 – 40 %) of the fresh weight), but have a
thin, fragile shell and a shorter shelf life. For this reason they are preferred for the
conserve industry.
Predators which can inflict serious damage are eider ducks (Somateria mollissima),
which can cause a mortality of 20,000–30,000 tons per year, see-gulls (Larus
argentatus), oystercatchers (Haematopus ostralegus) and starfish (Asterias rubens).
These predators are able to completely clear a culture plot containing, for instance, 100
tons of mussels within a few days. Seagulls, attracted by the processing plants,
constitute a special problem, as their excrement's can cause incidental increases in
coliform counts in the water. Birds are difficult to chases away. The mussel producer's
organization in Yerseke employs a falconer, who keeps the processing plants free from
seagulls with a hawk and a peregrine falcon. Eider ducks are seared away with noise.
On the intertidal plots, sometimes, hunters can be killed with salt. They can also be
dredged up with a special, spiked «stardredge», and killed with salt. They can also be
dredged up with mussels and all and killed in the hold of the ship by immersion in fresh
water during one night. The mussels survive the operation and are seeded back on the
plot.
The mussels generally reach the required market size in 1.5–2 years after sowing of the
spat. On very productive plots, this size is even reached at the end of the first growing
season, in November. Most of the mussels are, however, harvested in the course of the
following season, which runs from mid-July to the first week of April. The efficiency of the
culture, as of a any form of bottom cultivation of mollusks, is low compared with off-
bottom culture methods. As an average, 1.5 tons of mussels are harvested from 1 ton
from 1 ton of half-grown mussels. On the most productive plots, it is possible for a skilled
grower to achieve a higher efficiency and harvest. For instance, 3 tons from 1 ton of
seed, when he applies low stocking densities and is spared from heavy mortality.
Seeding density of the spat ranges between 3 and sometimes as much as 10
kilograms/m2, the latter especially in years when seed and half-grown mussels abound
on the wild banks. Mortality on the culture plots is high, often reaching 90 % or more of
the individuals seeded. At harvest, the density of the mussels is 6 – 8 kg/m2.
The ships with which the mussels and the seed are dredged mostly measure 30 – 35
long and 6 – 9 m wide and have a draught of 0.6–0.8 m. They can load 120 – 150 tons
of mussels (Fig.8). A shipload can be fished in 4 – 5 hours with 4 dredges, each 1.9 m
wide. Most of the ships have double bottoms and sides. This permits unloading of the
mussels by pumping water into the two holds, after which they are washed out by
gravity. This causes minimal damage to the mussels; Meanwhile, the ship circles over
the plot in order to spread the mussels evenly.
Most of the mussel cultivating firms are independent family enterprises. There is,
however, a change towards firms with shared capital, as is already the case for most of
the merchants and exporters and the mussel processors. They are 78 growers, owning
86 ships. A few larger grower's firms own more than one ship. A regular mussel «cutter»
is manned by a skipper (often the proprietor), a mate and a deck hand. The culture plots
are rented from the government. The total rent for the growing plots, following a drastic
increase in 1990, rises stepwise from DFL 750,000 to DFL 4,300,000. Each grower will
eventually be charged according to his share in the total landings. In the old situation,
the culture value of the plots is also being taken into account.
After harvest, all mussels are shipped to the township ofYerseke at the Oosterschelde
(Fig. 1), where the central mussels auction is located. There the mussels are sold to the
highest bidding mussels merchant. After a merchant has bought a lot of mussels (mostly
50 or 120 tons), and prior to processing them, he has to relay the mussels on his own
plots, situated at 20 minutes sailing distance from Yerseke. On these «rewatering plots»
the mussels have to be relaid for at least 14 days. During this period weak and broken
mussels are eliminated by seagulls, crabs and fishes and the survivor recover from
stress, contracted during fishing and the 12 hour transport from the Waddenzee to the
Oosterschelde. Finally, the plots sere as «wet warehouses» for the merchants.
After rewatering, the mussels are dredged up carefully avoid stress and breakage. In
contrast with the mussel ships of the growers, on most of the merchants' ships the catch
is not dropped into the hold, but directly from the dredge placed into containers on deck.
This minimizes stress and damage and increases quality and shelf-life. The containers,
which contain 4–7 tons of mussels, are hoisted ashore at the processing plant, where
the mussels pass a rotating rinsing sieve to remove mud. Then a final de-sanding
treatment is carried out. The double-bottomed containers with the mussels are
connected to a sea water distribution system, which creates a vertical flow through the
layer of mussels. At a number of firms, this water is UV-Sterilized to bacteriological
purity. During a period of 4–6 hours, the mussels cleanse themselves and discard the
last rest of sand which after dredging has remained in the intestinal tract or in the mantle
cavity.
Purification of bivalves in depuration systems prior to marketing to remove human
pathogens, which is compulsory in a number of countries, is not necessary in the
Netherlands, as all shellfish waters meet the required national bacteriological standards,
as well as those of the European Community (see below).
When the mussels are ready for processing or marketing, they pass a de-cumpling mill
to break up clups formed with the byssus threads and pass a blower to remove algae
(mostly sea lettuce - UIva lactuca) and empty shells. Then de-byssing takes place and, if
necessary, grading. Mostly, cultured mussels are rather uniform in size and do not need
grading. After final manual sorting out of damaged mussels, stones, peat etc, the
mussels destined for the fresh market are cooled down to a temperature of 7 – 70°C,
which is compulsory during storage and transport, and are packed in 20 kg wholesale
bags or in 1,2 or 2,5 kg perforated plastic bags for home consumption.
Oyster culture
Culture of the flat oyster Ostrea edulis is carried out on culture plots in the southeastern
part of the Oosterschelde (1,700 ha) and in non-tidal Lake Grevelingen (380 ha) (Fig. 1).
Spat is collected during summer on mussel shells, which are seeded on culture
concessions or plots on the sea bottom. After two years, the seed oysters are fished up
and re-seeded to other plots where growth rate is higher.
Market size is reached after 4–5 years from spatfall at a weigh of 65–90 gr. The biggest
oysters are marketed at a weight of 100–200 gr. The 16 Dutch oyster growers and
exporters used to produce about 10 millions (800 tons) of flat oysters per year until 1990.
About half of this amount originated from fishery on wild banks. After the introduction
and subsequent outbreak of the epizooty caused by the protozoarian Bonamia ostreae
in the Oosterschelde estuary in 1980, fishing and culture of O.edulis in lake Grevelingen,
which had not been infected, kept the Dutch oyster industry afloat (Dijkema, 1988). In
1988, however, bonamiasis also broke out in lake Gevelingen. The resulting mortalities
between 40 and90 % have reduced the production of oysters to not more than 200 tons
in 1990 and 1991. The varying mortality rate and the uncertainly as to the development
of resistance in the oysters, makes the perspectives for production very uncertain.
The pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas), locally by its French name «creuse», has been
cultivated in the Oosterschelde from the late seventies, after it was introduced from
Japan in 1964. The decision to introduce this species had been made after the
Portuguese oyster Crassostrea angulata had virtually died out due to a gill disease. The
introduction was decided upon in the supposition that the summer water temperature
maxima in the area (21 – 24°C) would be too low for successful recruitment and
development of a natural population. The contrary proved true: recruitment appeared to
be surprising in some years, probably due to warming up of enclosed intertidal pools of
water during low tide. After about 10 years, wild oyster banks appeared on intertidal dike
slopes and sandflats. Natural spatfall or significance is now occurring every few years
and constitutes the main source of spat for culture. Spat is collected on mussel shells,
seeded on plots in the tidal range. The culture plots used are mostly situated in shallow
water. There is a small commercial nursery, producing seed oysters from imported spat.
Cockle fishery
Although pilot-scale growth and re-seeding trials with this species have been successful
(Dijkema et al, 1987), no commercial culture exists in the Netherlands. Both the
mechanical and the hand cockle fishery are practiced in the Waddenzee (70 % of the
catch) and the Oosterschelde 20 %. About 10 % of the cockles are dredged in the
subtidal waters off the coast. The last decade, the fishery yields yearly 5,000–10,000
tons of cooked meat, equivalent with about 30 – 60,000 tons of fresh cockles. The
production of the last years has strongly declined as a result of failing recruitment and
closure of areas by the government for reasons of nature protection. Figure 5 gives an
overview of the development of cockle landings in the Netherlands. The fishing season
runs from the end of August to December. In total 36 cockle dredging ships are licensed
to fish in the inshore waters, another 7 ships are only allowed to fish in the offshore area.
The dredgers measure about 35 × 10 m and have a draught of 0.5 m. A ship is equipped
with two one meter wide suction dredges. The cockles and the sediment are whirled up
by means of a water jets at the front side of the dredges and are scooped up by a 4–5
cm deep steel blade. They then come in a mesh cage, from which the catch is
continuously pumped aboard. There the cockles are separated from water and sand in
rotating sieves. On a number of vessels, the catch is spread out on deck and immersed
in sea-water for a de-sanding period of a few hours prior to cooking. Most of the cockles
are cooked on board. Cooking is done at low tide, when fishing on the intertidal flats is
not possible. Special cooking locations are designated in areas where the bacteriological
quality of the water is approved. After being cooked, the cockles are shucked on
vibration sieves, are rinsed and often cooled. There is one deep-freeze factory-ship. The
meat is shipped to shore, where it is further processed.
Before 1960, all cockles were fished manually, by means of long-stemmed rakes with
attached bagnets. At present, 80 licensed manual cockle fishermen dig for cockles in the
intertidal flats of the Waddenzee and the Oosterschelde. Between them they take about
5,400 tons of fresh cockles per year. A part of their catch they sell to processors, the
larger categories are sold fresh and exported to Belgium and France. The number of
licenses has recently been restricted to 90 for reasons of wildlife protection.
3- ORGANIZATION OF THE INDUSTRY AND MARKETING
The molllusc industry is, just like all other sectors in the fishing industry, united in the so-
called Board for Fish and Fish Commodities. This board has two functions: in the first
place it is, by law, responsible for the implementation of a number of legal tasks,
delegated to it by the government. These tasks comprise the control of sanitary purity of
molluscs and the control of introduction of toxins phytoplankton species into the Dutch
coastal water. Secondly, the Board negotiates, with the government authorities on behalf
of the industry about regulatory matters such as closed areas and seasons, import and
export regulations, seed fishery for mussels etc. Each of the different sectors: the
mussel, the oyster and the cockle industry have Advisory committees in the Board, in
which the chairmen of their different associations sit.
Mussels
The degree of organization of the mussel growers and traders is the highest in the Dutch
fishing industry. Besides being represented in the Board for Commodities mentioned
above, the mussel growers are organised in a producers Cooperation. They have
associations in each of the three mussel harbour towns and additionally are united in two
regional fishermen's organizations. There is an association of mussel traders,
processors and exporters, which has a seat in the Mussel Advisory Committee. Most of
the growers are well aware of the importance of uniform quality standards. Membership
of the producers Cooperation, according to EC regulations, is not compulsory. However,
more than 90 % are members and consequently all growers have to comply with its
regulations, pertaining to the quality of the produced mussels. These regulations are
decided upon at the beginning of each season and encompass, among others, a
minimum size (a shell length of 40 % of the mussels longer than 50 mm), a minimum
meat yield (16 % meat of fresh weight), and a minimal percentage of tare. There is a
minimum price in the season 1989–1990 established at DFL 0.24 per kg. The Mussel
Office of the Board for Commodities administers a number of funds, financed with
specific levies per ton of mussels landed or marketed, from which matters such as the
mussel auction, landing registration, research and promotion are paid. The mussel
auction, managed by the Mussel Office of the Board, is the only existing in the country
and probably even in the world. Its personnel samples all cargo's of mussels offered for
auctioning. The sampled mussels are weighed, measured and cooked to determine their
meat yield, also the amounts of tare and barnacles are determined. This information is
provided to the potential buyers, the 27, accredited mussel merchants/exporters, most of
whom have their plants in Yerseke. A voluntary intervention fund exists for mussels
which do not meet the requirements for size or meat weight, or do not fetch the minimum
price. These mussels are sown on special plots and sold back to the growers in April,
after conclusion of the season.
In the trading and processing industry, the firms are generally larger than in the
cultivation sector. About 65 % of the national production of mussels is sold fresh by the
27 merchants who clean, debyss and pack the mussels destined for the inland market
15 %, Belgium (60 %), and France 15 %. The other The other 35 % of the production are
processed. A variety of commodities is offered to the consumers, like Individually Quick
Frozen (IQF), breaded, deep frozen in the half shell. on skewers, pasteurized or
sterilized in glass jars with all kinds of sauces, or just «au naturel». promotion is financed
jointly by producers and traders. It encompasses manifestations such as «free-for-all»
mussel festivals, TV commercials, posters, pamphlets and recipe booklets in both the
Netherlands and in the export countries.
Such aimed campaigns have succeeded in enhance the inland mussel consumption by
almost 50 % during the last decade. Due to the proximity of the main export markets:
Brussels (1.5 hours by road), Antwerp (45 min.) and Paris (5 hours), the fresh product
reaches its destination in a matter of hours after having left the sea. To ensure optimal
quality, transport takes place in cooled trucks at a temperature of 7 – 10°C, in summer
after pre-chilling in cooled water at the processing plant. In some instances, mussel
traders are also active in mussel and cockle processing. Since 1989, most conserve
firms are integrated in large multinational food chains, which also comprise cockle
fishery and mussel and oyster culture. Besides, a number of firms is engaged in import
and export of periwinkles lobsters, crabs etc. In this respect, the favorable location of
Yerseke at the Oosterschelde with its good water quality, ensures optimal possibilities
for transit storage of live seafood. To be able to import mussels from areas where «red
tides» can occur without risking introduction of toxic blooms in the Dutch coastal waters,
a number of mussel traders disposes of on-shore quarantine installations, in which up to
40 tons of mussels can be kept in recirculating seawater for 2 or more days. These
systems, as well as similar installations for on-shore storage of imported oysters, have
recently been developed by the Netherlands Institute for Fishery Research (RIVO-DLO).
Oysters
Most oyster growers export their own product. Apart from his culture plots, which he
rents from the government, an oysters grower own a ship, and owns or rents a number
or tidal on-shore storage basins and a building in which cleansing, sorting and packing of
the oysters take place. The start of the season for Ostrea edulis depends on the meat
quality: plumpness and taste, and the shelf-life, of the oysters. It mostly starts in the first
week of September and peaks during the feasts between Christmas and New Year,
when 70 – 80 % of all oysters are sold. The season generally end after Eastern. The
strong decline of the production of flat oysters after the bonamiasis outbreaks makes
substantial imports of oysters from countries like Ireland, Greece and Turkey. Export of
the cupped oyster Crassostrea gigas takes place almost year round, with emphasis on
December. Most of the production goes to Belgium, increasing quantities also to
Germany. In years when the production in France is low, as was the case in 1992, there
is also export to that country. The inland consumption of pacific oysters is small. There
are three associations of oyster growers, represented in the Oyster Advisory Committee
of the Board of Commodities. The associations coordinate communal seeding of mussel
shells for spat collection and organize a cooperative fishery on wild flat oysters. They
administer an auction in which the catch of this wild fishery is sold. For each season,
agreements are made about the weight classification of the oysters.
Cockles
The about 19 companies which own the 36 cockle-dredging licenses are organized in
two associations. There is also an association of hand-cocklers. All these associations
are represented in the Cockle Advisory Committee of the Board. Regulations exist for
the minimum size of the cockles (15 mm shell width), a mean size (expressed as the
number of cooked individuals per kg) of the cockles, the percentage of damaged cockles
in the catch and the width of the blade of the dredge, which is 1 m for two dredges and
1.20 m for one dredge. Size and engine power of the ships are not regulated, which has
caused a substantial increase of the fishing power of the fleet and hence of cockle
landings during the last decade (Fig. 5). Cockle meat is mostly canned (ca70 %), IQF or
block frozen. The entire production is exported, mainly to Spain and Italy. Diversification
of the product is more and more emphasized. This results in a spreading of the export
market, which was initially restricted to Spain. The major share of capture, processing
and export is in the hands of about 4 large companies, who are parts of 2 British food
chains. Together they own 21 of the 36 licenses.
4- PUBLIC HEALTH STANDARDS FOR SEA WATER AND MOLLUSCAN
SHELLFISH MEAT QUALITY
General
By 1993, the economical borders between the countries of the European community will
disappear. Consequently, control measures will not longer be carried out at the borders,
but only at the sites of origin of the products and, in case of imports from non-member
countries, at the external borders of the Community. Uniform regulations will then be
implemented for the waters in which shellfish are kept, for conditions during storage,
processing and transport and for the quality of molluscan shellfish, imported from outside
the EC. Directives will give standards for the quality of waters in which molluscs are
cultured, fished or stored (Directive 79/923/EEG of 30 October, 1979) and will give
prescription for production and marketing of live bivalves, as well as requirements for
import and export to on-member countries (Directive 91/492/EEG of 15 July, 1991).
Notably the last directive is meant to protect the consumers. The implementation of both
directives is at present being prepared by the member-countries. An overview of the
present national regulations in the Netherlands, which will in due time be substituted by
EC standards, will be given in the next section.
The directive 79/923/EEG gives standards for the quality of waters in which molluscs are
cultivated, fished or stored. In the Netherlands, the same standards are at present
maintained by the Ministries of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fishery and of
public Works and Waterways. Standards prevail for the following environmental
parameters:pH, temperature, color intensity, suspended solids concentration, salinity, oil,
flavor, taste, coliforms and coli bacteria, dissolved oxygen, halogenated organization
carbons and a number of metal. In general, the standards mean that the values of these
parameters may not exceed the values under natural conditions by a certain factor. For
all parameters, sampling frequencies and often determination methods are prescribed.
Partly cover, and in future substituted by the standards of the Directives of the European
Community, national quality standards are maintained for shellfish water and molluscan
shellfish. These standards are laid down in the governmental decree for the pureness of
Molluscan Shellfish. This decree is implemented by the Board for Fish and Fish
Commodities and us ultimately controlled by the National Management and Fisheries.
Bacteriological standards
Worldwide, coliform bacteria or the species Escherichia coli are used as indicators for
the presence of human pathogens mainly entroviruses and hepatitis virus, originating
from fecal contamination of the water. specific determinations are additionally made for
Salmonella.
• For molluscan shellfish water
- Conform the E.C. standard.
• For molluscan shellfish flesh
- Less than 300 thermotolerant E.coli in 100 ml molluscan flesh+intervalvular
liquid.
- Absence of Salmonella in 25 ml molluscan flesh + intervalvular liquid.
Chemical standards
• For molluscan shellfish flesh
- Mercury : <0.7 mg/kg mollusc flesh + intervalvular liquid.
- Cadmium : <1.0 mg/kg mollusc flesh + intervalvular liquid.
- Lead : <2.0 mg/kg mollusc flesh + intervalvular liquid.
Biological standards
• For molluscan shellfish water
- The total number of Dinoflagellates in relation to the total number of
phytoplankton organisms (diatoms + dinoflagellates) must be lower than 15 per 100.
• For molluscan shellfish flesh
- Absence of lipid-soluble biotoxins originating from dinoflagellates, e.g. breve-
toxins (NSP) and Dinophysis toxins (DSP).
- Concentration of water-soluble biotoxins originating from flagellates not
higher than 40 microgram per 100 ml of mollusc flesh + intervalvular liquid
(saxitoxin - PSP).
- Concentrations of water-soluble biotoxins originating from diatoms not higher
than 20 mg/kg mollusc flesh + intervalvular liquid (domoic acid - ASP).
- Absence of atypical, «foreign», flavors and tastes.
Fishing and cultivation areas where values of phytoplankton or toxins exceed the
standards, are closed. In (parts of) the Wadden Sea toxicity occurs with a frequency of
roughly once in 4–5 years. The OOsterschelde has been partially affected by toxic
blooms only two times in history. The mussel stocks on the rewatering plots in this area
(Fig. 1) have never been touched by toxicity and are sufficient to ensure production
during the closure of (parts of) the Wadden Sea.
Physical standards
• For molluscan shellfish flesh
The concentrations of radio-active nuclides may not exceed:
80 Bq/kg Alpha-emiters
1,250 Bq/kg Cesium isotopes
2,000 Bq/kg Iodine-istopes
750 Bq/kg Strontium islopes
5- QUALITY STANDARDS FOR IMPORT OF MOLLUSCAN SHELLFISH
The quality standards for imports as well as for domestic landings and sales of cultivated
and fished fish and shellfish and their commodities, are maintained by the National
Inspection for Livestock and meat, part of the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature
management and Fisheries. Organoleptical. bacteriological, chemical, toxicological and
radioactivity analyses are either carried out in the laboratories of this service or are
performed by contracting laboratories, for instance the Netherlands Institute for Fishery
Research (RIVO-DLO). For import into the Netherlands, the quality and sanitary
pureness of mussels and oysters, as well as the water they originate from, have to be
testified by certificates, issue by competent, accredited authorities in the countries of
origin, stating that he following standards are met :
Bacteriological standards
• For molluscan shellfish water
- Not more than 50 E. coli per Litter, in 10% of the cases not more than. 150E.
coli per litter. on condition than in all cases the requirements concerning the flesh are not
exceeded.
• For molluscan shellfish fresh
- Conform the E.C. standards
Biological standards
• For molluscan shellfish water
- The total number of Dinoflagellates in relation to the total number of
phytoplankton organisms (Diatoms and Dinoflagellates) should not be lower than 15p
per 100.
• For molluscan shellfish flesh
- Absence of lipid-soluble biotoxins (e.g. breve toxins (NSP), Dinophysis toxins (DSP).
- Less than 40 microgram per 100 ml of oyster or mussel meat. Paralytic shellfish
Poison (PSP) PAS saxitoxin. Less than 20 mg/kg domoic acid.
- Absence of atypical, «foreign», odors and tastes.
For the determination of Diarrhetic Shellfish Poison (DSP), the rat bio-assay method is
applied (sec above). The standard : «absence of DSP» in practice means a negative rat-
biosassay outcome, based on feeling hepatopancreas-tissues to starved rats on a basis
of 10% of the live weight of the animal. A negative outcome corresponds with a does of
less than 10 mg okadaic acid per standard rat of 100g.
Phytoplankton blooms causing Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) do not occur in the
Dutch coastal waters. However, they have been reported in almost all of the surrounding
countries. The risk of introducing into the Dutch coastal waters the dormant stages or
«cysts» of dinoflagellate species which can cause PSP, is considered very high, as large
amounts of cysts can be present in mud. imported together with mussels. In order to
minimize this risk, it is prohibited to immerse in Dutch coastal waters imported shellfish,
unless :
- these originate from the Wadden Sea bordering the North Sea, pertaining to
Germany or Denmark;
- mussels are cleansed, debyssed and packed in consumers package;
- they are kept in quarantine installations which guarantee that no effluent of any kind
can reach the coastal water, unless it is sterilized in an approved manner,
- it can be proven that waste water from processing operations as well as tare, do
not reach the coastal waters.
Biological standards for molluscs, concerning the protection of their stocks and
of the marine environment.
- Absence of micro-organizations, pathogenic for molluscan shellfish and/or
parasites and/or predators, as well as of dinoflagellates, responsible for the
production of biotoxins and/or their cysts.
Chemical and physical standards
- Equal to the standards for domestic shellfish.
6- REQUIREMENTS FOR THE EXPORT OF MOLLUSCAN SHELLFISH
The National Inspection Service for Meat and Livestock of the Ministry of Agriculture,
Nature management and Fisheries is also authorized and equipped for the inspection of
all fish and shellfish destined for export. Inspection is performed at the request of the
exporter and/or of the country of destination. RAandom samples are taken of all lots of
shellfish destined for export. If a lot is approved, a certificate for export or a health
certificates is issued. The inspection is done at the level of «fit for human consumption»,
but may also contain any other additional elements. A quality inspection with «indicated
quality grades» is possible. The norms used for this inspection are based on the
governmental «Decree on the quality of fish and fish products», which also applies to all
fish and shellfish, imported, landed and sold on the domestic market.
7- CURRENT MONITORING PROGRAMS FOR QUALITY CONTROL OF
MOLLUSCAN SHELLFISH WATERS
Bacteriological quality
Two, complementary, programs exist for monitoring the bacteriological quality of the
Dutch shellfish water : one is carried out according to the requirements of the EC on a
quarterly basis in all molsh rearing and fishing water (fig. 6). It is carried out by the
Netherlands Institute for Fishery Research (RIVO-DLO) in Yerseke in cooperation with
the Ministry for Public Works and waterways. Under normal circumstances 5 samples of
mussels or cockles, with a distance between them of a cast 100 m, are taken on each of
8 fixed locations in each of the 6 shellfish growing and fishing areas in the country (Fig.
6). These samples are analyzed for E coli bacteria, the median value for each location is
reported. Another monitoring program is additional to the quarterly sapling program. On
a weekly basis, mussel and water samples are analyzed on 8 locations, with emphasis
on sensitive areas, such as culture plots, oyster storage basins, the mussel rewatering
plots and the area where the for de-sanding of the mussels is pumped up (Fig. 1). In
order to keep a close watch on sanitary water quality, these samples are taken much
frequently than at the3 months intervals, prescribed for the BC monitoring Program.
Incidental high values are immediately reported to the industry and relevant authorities.
This program goes beyond the requirements of the EC for sanitary monitoring, but is
considered essential to be able to guarantee a good sanitary quality of the exported
molluscs. The sampling locations for this program are shown in Fig. 1.
Determination of E. coli
The concentrations of thermotolerant fecal colibacteria (E. coli) in the coastal waters of
the Netherlands are so low that they attain the detection limits of the current laboratory
methods. This is mainly a result of measures, already taken many years ago, to deduct
all public sewage flows to other areas. Instead of direct determination in water,
concentrations in mussels, which are sampled. When these are absent, young mussels
or cockles are used. If these also are absent, mussels from others locations are placed
in the water at the sampling location for al least on day, during which the bacterial
numbers in their intestinal tracts reach an equilibrium with those in the surround water.
The mussels are then sampled as usual. Determination of the concentrations of E. coli in
shellfish meat is done, using incubation on McConky agar plates at 44.5 i0,2°C during 24
hours. If positive, confirmation is carried out of 10% of the colonies found, using lactose,
brilliant-green bile broth medium and the Kovacs reaction to test for indol formation. As
the levels founds in water samples alone are generally too low to give reliable and
conclusive analysis results, only mussel samples are examined.
Chemical water quality
Monitoring the coastal and inshore water for pollutants such as heavy metals, Polycyclic
Aromatic Carbons (PAC's), Pesticides and many other parameters is carried out by the
Ministry of Public Works and Waterways on a monthly basis. The concentrations of
these pollutants in fish and mollusc tissue are monitored on a yearly basis by a
combination of institutes of the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature management and
Fisheries. A higher frequency of sampling is not necessary as all concentrations found
lie below critical standards. Coordination, sampling and part of the determinations are
done by the Netherlands Institute for Fishery Research (RIVO-DLO).
Biological water quality
Monitoring the coastal waters for toxic phytoplankton is done weekly by RIVO-DLO
during the period July – November, or longer if deemed necessary. Water samples are
taken in all mollusc growing areas and in the North Sea of the Dutch coastline and
examined microscopically (see below). The 18 sampling locations are indicated in Fig. 7.
The presence of Dinophysis toxins (DSP) in mussel flesh are determined by means of
rat-bioassay. Another, monthly, monitoring program is carried out at by the Ministry of
Public Works and Waterways on 17 locations (Fig. 7a) in the coastal water (TRIPOS,
1991). This program is aimed at the general species composition of the phytoplankton.
The method, followed by RIVO-DLO for rat bio-assay is a modified version of that,
described by Kat (1983). As test animals white, female wistar : Rattus norvegicus), with
a body weight increasing from 80 – 100 g to about 300 g.
Procedure
• A test animal of known body weight is starved for 24 hours, starting at 16:00 pm.
Drinking water supply is ad libitum.
• After 24 hours (again at 16:00 pm) hepatopancreas tissue of the mollusc to be
examined is fed to the test rat in portions of 10 grams of hepatopancreas per 100 g of
body weight.
• The results of the test are recorded the next morning at 09:00 am. The (partial)
refusal of the hepatopancreas and the consistency of the faecal produced (diarrhoea of
soft faeces) are used for scaling the presence of diarrhetic she shellfish toxins according
to the following schedule :
Percentage of Consistency of the Degree of toxicity Rating
hapatopancreas faeces
eaten
100 – 90% normal negative -
100 – 90% normal/soft very slightly toxic ±
90 – 50% soft slightly toxic +
90 – 50% soft/diarrhetic moderatcly toxic ++
> 50% diarrhoea seriously toxic +++
Figure 4 - Production of the Dutch mussel culture and mussel imports per season (July–
April) in the period 1985–1992.
Figure 5 - Landings of cockles (Cerastoderma edule in fresh weight in the Netherlands
since 1946.
From '68 – '70 and '74–'75 no data available.
Figure 6 - Sampling locations for the quarterly bacteriological monitoring Program.
Figure 7 - Sampling locations for the monitoring Program for toxic phytoplankton
species in the Waddenzee, the Oosterchelde and the North Sea.
6, 12 A, B, C : Water samples for phytoplankton composition
1,13 : Water samples + Mussel samples for toxicity
2 – 11, 14, 15 : Mussel samples only
Figure 7a - Sampling stations for monthly phytoplankton composition monitoring by the
Ministry for Work and Waterways.
Figure 8 - Diagram of a Dutch mussel dredger - Scale approximately 1 : 175.
PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND MARKETING OF SHELLFISH IN FRANCE
By Mr. J.C. SAUVAGNARGUES
300.000 103m
Produits qualité non
satisfaisante
Figure 4 - Annual cycle in the efficiency of retention of the oyster (Crassostrea gigas) in
relation to the size of the particle characteristic of the estuarine environment (after
Deslous-Paoli et al. 1987)-.
2.2.2. Reproduction
Adult oyster reproduce sexually. Spanners produce male or female gametes. The
species Ostrea edulis changes sex. producing male or female gametes successively but
not at the same time. Marteil (1976) showed that the flat oyster is male in the autumn
following settlement. The spermatogonia break down and the ovaries develop in the
following season when the oyster will be a female. C. gigas differs from this; the oyster
can function as a male or as a female during one season before changing sex during the
following year. Some hermaphrodite individuals persist. The environment (temperature
and nutrition) and also internal hormonal factors apparently control the determination of
the change of sex.
Effect of temperature on gametogenesis
For C. gigas, correlation's between the date of spawning and the cumulative monthly
temperatures measured from 1972 to 1985 in the Marennes-Oléron Basin provide
evidence of significant inverse correlation between the temperature in the autumn
preceding spawning and the date of spawning (Heral et al. 1986). Lubet (1980) showed
the importance of autumn temperatures on the early stages of gametogenesis. However,
there appears to be no connection with winter temperatures and, finally, the effect on the
speed of gametogenesis. The degree-day sum from September to June gave a
provisional equation for the date of spawning (Y) but when temperature (T) falls below
15°C the gametogenesis of C. gigas is significantly retarded, speeding up again when
temperatures increase (Mann 1979).
y= 282–2.87 (T.September to February) + 1.078 (T. March to June)
.R=0.9227
The comparative study of reproduction in two years (1979 and 1981) gives evidence of
the supplementary indirect effect of temperature, through the food chain, on
gametogenesis. There appears to have been a significant deficit in assimilable
particulate organic matter, both phytoplanktonic and detritic, for all of the beginning of
1981 compared with 1979. The food deficit, linked with lower temperatures, caused a
significant depletion in glycogen and lipids in males and females (Fig.5), resulting in a
low, or even absent recruitment in 1981, while in 1979, a single massive spawning in
August resulted in strong recruitment (Deslous-Paoli 1981).
Marteil (1976) found that the minimum temperature for the start of gametogenesis for
Ostrea edulis was 10°C, and that for spawning between 14 and 16°C. Unlike
Crassostrea gigas. Ostrea edulis, when kept in a hatchery, has a period of sexual
dormancy (Lubet 1980) which is likely to occur in December. Other workers have
demonstrated the importance of the nutrition of the spawners. Helm et al. (1973) showed
experimentally that giving supplementary nutrition during gametogenesis leads to more
rapid larval growth.
Number of broodstock required
There are two possibilities : either the stock is very large, sometimes too large, and the
relationship between stock and recruitment will be through the food web, or the stock is
very low and reproduction becomes chancy. In this latter case it is necessary to
determine the minimum stock level necessary to maintain recruitment. In Marennes-
Oléron, at the time of disappearance of Crassostrea angulata and its replacement by C.
gigas in 1972. While the stock of C. angulata dropped to 15.000 tones and while there
were no more than 8.000 tones of C. gigas no further recruitment took place. However,
the same numbers of larvae as in the preceding and succeeding years were found in the
water, but these larvae did not develop and settle. It appears that, in spite of the critical
state of the stock at this time (viral disease and gill disease, Comps (1970), Comps et al.
(1976)) it was not the level of the stocks but other factors acting on the larvae which
prevented recruitment. However, the problem became more crucial for Ostrea edulis
when the stock seriously depleted by different parasites.
Ch. 3] Traditional oyster culture in France
Figure 5 - Change in glucide and lipid composition for standard 50 g male and female
oysters during 1979 (•) and 1981 (▲) (after Deslous-Paole et al. 1982).
Age structure of the population
The cultivation of stocks by man has entailed the regular removed of the oldest animal.
These removals free part of the biotic capacity of the environment and allow a more
rapid rotation of stock with a consequent increase in production and rejuvenation of the
cultivated population. While this «rejuvenation» appears to increase the quality of the
gametes and therefore the larvae, it brings a decrease in the mean fecundity of the
population.
While a three years old cupped oyster produces around 80 % of its body weight
gametes, a two years old oyster produces no more than 60 %, and a one year old only 7
(Deslous-Paoli & Heral unpublished). For C. gigas where the mean individual fecundity
is several tens of millions of oocytes. the lowering of the population age may be
compensated for by the sheer volume of the stock in culture. However, for Ostrea edulis,
Where them mean fecundity is between 500.000 and I million eggs and where stocks
have decreased drastically, a significant lowering of average age can have
consequences for recruitment.
Spawning and larval life
When the gonads are mature, the spawners expel the gametes. In the flat oyster,
fertilization takes place in the pallial cavity with spermatozoa brought in on the water
current. The larvae are incubated there for 8–10 days before being liberated into the
external environment. They are slate-grey in color.
For the cupped oyster, fertilization takes place in the sea at the mercy of the currents
and by chance meeting of the sperm ova. Trochophore larvae develop and rapidly
produce a two-valued shell. The D-shaped veliger larva, at 24 h measure 70 mm for C.
gigas and 160–200 mm for O. edulis. The shaped of the larva changes as it grows. After
around 10 days (150 mm for C. gigas and 200 mm for O. edulis) a sort of hook, the
umbo, develops. Several days later, at a size 0f 200 mm, a foot develops which allows
the «pediveliger» to move round by using its velum and to seek out a suitable substrate
for attachment with the byssus. The byssogenic gland rapidly secretes cement which
sticks the oyster to the substrate. Metamorphosis occurs next; the foot and the velum
disappear and the resulting larva is termed the spat. For C. gigas, larval survival appears
to relate more to temperature than to salinity. Analysis of the temperature-salinity chart
over the period of larval development in the Marennes-Oléron Basin, in 1980–1986,
shows that at a temperature below 17°C there is a deficiency of recruitment, as
happened in 1981 and 1986 (Fig. 6).
The length of the larval stage depends mainly on temperature. For C. gigas it varies
between 15 and 28 hours. The survival rate in situ may reach 10 % in the years when
larval development takes place satisfactorily (Fig. 7). For Ostrea edulis, the planktonic
phase is 8–14 days, depending on temperature (Marteil 1976) and the survival rate may
reach 10 % at 22°C. However, not all emissions result in settlement, and it is essential
that temperatures should be above 15–16°C.
The action of salinity seen less important. In Japan, C. gigas survives and reproduces
over a range of salinities; but there seems to be a correlation between the temperature
and salinity for successful reproduction. However, even though C. angulata does not
reproduce in the Mediterranean and the same appeared to be true for C. gigas after its
introduction, it now appears to reproduce in Yugoslavia and occasionally in the étang de
Thau even though the salinity has not varied.
The optimum salinity was determined to be 25‰ by Helm & Millican (1977), and was
verified experimentally at Arcachon. Nevertheless, it appears that the tolerance of C.
gigas allows good recruitment even at 20‰, as in the Gironde. This species appears to
be relatively independant of salinity, as is shown by studies on the influence of salinity in
the Charente estuary on the settlement in the Marennes-Oléron Basin for C. gigas.
Although the problem of larval nutrition can be dealt in a hatchery, they are not well
understood in the wild (Lucas 0982). Experimentally, growth of C. gigas larvae is better
when mixtures of algae are used rather then monospecies cultures (Millican & Helm
1983). Despite this, the size of the particles used by wild oysters remains to be
determined, as does their composition, Although it has been show that bacteria are used
as food by larval bivalves (Martin & Mengus 1977, Prieur 1980), the part they plan in
nutrition has been ignored. It has been shown that larvae can use dissolved organic
substances (Stephens & Manahan 1983), but it has not yet been determined whether
these are a source of energy or whether they have a role a growth factors. On the one
hand, in the Arcachon region it appears that the disappearance for the nanoplankton
(His et al. 1983) brought on by human-related factors was largely responsible for the
absence of recruitment from 1977 to 1981. Conversely, the work of Miller and Scott
(1967) showed that O. edulis larvae can fast for 3–4 days. and then resume normal
nutrition when food is again available.
Traditional oyster culture in France
Figure 6 - Temperature and salinity during the period of larval development for the oyster
(Crassostrea gigas) in the Marennes-Oléron Basin (after Prou & Heral,
unpublished)
To make short-term predictions of the date to install collectors and to inform oyster
farmers, the different IFREMER laboratories (La Trinité, La Tremblade, Arcachon, La
Rochelle) carry out bi-weekly surveys of the abundance of larval oysters present in sea
water. After the spawning of oysters has been detected, the veliger larvae of C. angulata
in the past, and C. gigas and O. edulis now, are monitored up tot the attachment stage.
A chronological sequence of the abundance of larvae ready to attach shows up years
where there is an absence of settlement, and this can be checked again information in
the public archives (Figure 8).
In the Marennes-Oléron, the series of the abundance of larval oysters from 1925 to 1972
for C. angulata and from C. gigas shows an absence of recruitment for C. angulata in 4
years out of the 47 where data are available, and for C. gigas an absence of recruitment
in 3 of the 11 years available; In the Marennes-Oléron Basin the capture of C. gigas is
more uncertain than that of C .angulata; this appears to be due to the higher
temperature requirement for the pacific oyster for the maturation of spawners and the
survival of larvae.
By contrast, in the Arcachon region during those man-made disturbances which have a
profound influence on the mechanism of the development of the larval oyster.
The culture of molluscs and echinoderms
Figure 7 - Change in the number of small (S) and developing (D) medium-sized (M) and
Large (L) larvae for Crassostrea gigas at Arcachon (after His)
Action of man-made influences
There was no recruitment of oysters in the Arcachon Basin between 1977 and 1981.
This was caused by perturbations in the progress of development of the pelagic larvae of
C. gigas during the first days of their lives. Pigmentation of the veligers was reduced and
growth ceased. so that the larvae did not reach the stage where the food begins to
develop. The veligers do not show any abnormalities in their developing shells, and
there appears to be nor relationship between failure and temperature. Three hypotheses
have been put forward to explain this phenomenon; defective gametogenesis in the
spawners in the Arcachon Basin, mortality of the larvae caused by the direct action of
pollutants in the water in that area, or a change in the food supply to the veligers.
Observations and experiments have been carried out on the veligers obtained from
controlled environments or veligers collected from the wild and put into a controlled
environment, an on the algal food supplied to the veligers in the controlled environment.
Results showed that the quality of the spawners and the «biological quality» of the water
in the Arcachon Basin were sufficient to allow the development of the veligers (Robert
1983). This suggests that the failures on organometallic compounds has been shown
Amongst others the use of anti-fouling paints based on organometallic compounds has
been shown to affect not just embryogenesis and larval development in C. gigas (His &
Robert 1980 - Robert & His 1981) but also the growth and cell division of Chaetoceros
calcitrans and Isochrysis galbana (His & Robert 1981). Measures forbidding the use of
organo-tin anti-fouling paints have been effected, and they coincided with a return of
spat settlement from the summer of 1982 (His et al. 1983).
Traditional oyster culture in France
Figure 8 - Years of Zero spat capture (I) for Crassostrea angulata and Crassostrea gigas
in the Marennes-Oléron Basin
2.3. Energetics
In species cultivated at high density controlled or semi-enclosed environments, it
appears that factors such as the limited quantity of available food and the ability of the
organism to use this food have a strong influence on production. Thus for sessile
molluscs cultivated at a high density in a confined environment it is necessary, at the
same times as determining models of overall production, to determine the different forms
of nutrient available and also the dietary requirements not only of the cultivated molluscs
but also of non-cultivated species in the locality.
This energetic concept holds the key to the analysis as it encompasses a wide range of
mechanisms under a single unifying concept, as described by Odum (1971).
Many laboratory studies (Walne 1970 - Thompson & Bayne 1974 - Winddows 1978)
have shown that growth in bivalves is directly related to the amount of food supplied to
them. Few of the studies have covered both the food present in the environment and the
feeding behavior of the molluscs living there. Bernard (1974) for C. gigas, Widdows at el.
(1979) for Mytilus edulis and Vahl (1981) for Chlamys islandica have shown, at various
levels, that organic matter is the main source of food, and have thus been able to
establish the energy budgets and nutrition of these species in relation to particular
environmental conditions. Other studies, using small-scale laboratory experiments
(Winter 1976 - Winddows et al. 1979 - Griffiths 1980 and Kiorboe et al. 1981) have
shown different between cultures in water containing phytoplankton alone and the those
with a mixture of algae and minerals. These mixtures resemble conditions found in
estuaries, and they demonstrate that the influence of minerals and detritus in suspension
on the assimilation of molluscs is, in effect, to dilute the food.
Little information on the abundance of potential food in areas where molluscs are reared
intensively is available in the literature. In practice, the complete range of nutrients of
different origin is not taken into account, although some excellent studies have
concentrated on one small aspect, ignoring the others. It is thus difficult to review the
whole system (Heral 1987).
Looking at the relationship between oyster in situ and the environment, Deslous-Paoli et
al. (1981)-showed that there was a light relationship between the biochemical
constituents of C. gigas and the richness of the organic content of the water, principally
the phytoplankton. The same workers (Deslous-Paoli et al. 1982) put forward the theory
that, when there is a shortfall in the quantity of nutrients available, the products of the
gonads fail to develop and mature satisfactorily.
Energy equations and indices of conversion differ between authors. The definitions used
here are those given by Lucas (1982). The general equation for the energy budget of a
population of oysters can be written as :
A=P+R=C-(F+U)
Where A=assimilation
P=production
R=respiration
U=excretion of soluble substances
C=food consumed
Production is composed of :
P=Pg+Pr+Ps
Where Pg=production of organic matter in the tissues
Pr-gamete production
Ps-production of the organic matter of the shell and mucus secreted.
Assimilation efficiency (A/C) and crude production (P/C) are calculated by the method
given by Mac Fadyen (1966).
Production, Pg is the quantity of energy accumulated in the tissues during growth; Fig. 9
shows the increase in dry weight of a population of C. gigas over 3 years. Pg cam be
determine form microbomb-calorimetry as can the quantity of energy necessary for the
production of the shell (Fig.10).
Pr, production of gametes, is estimated indirectly by finding the difference in the energy
content of the oyster at the stage of maximum gonad development and after completion
of spawning.
Respiration, R, is the active metabolism of the mollusc, i.e. the energy necessary for all
the chemical reactions which keep the animal alive. Bernard (1974) studied respiration in
relation to water temperature in C. gigas. Results were low compared with those of
Boukabous (1983), Copello (1982), Gerdes (1983) and Heral et al. (1987).
Faeces and pseudofaeces (F) is the quantity of biological wastes excreted by the
molluscs determined in situ, using traps arranged around the culture beds. The
technique used in the intertidal beds is given by Sornin (1981). Estimates of their energy
content are made by the same methods as those used to estimate the energy content or
organic matter in water.
Figure 9 - Change in dry weight of flesh of Crassostrea gigas caught in 1978. Vertical
bars : variance, females, males
(after Deslous-Paoli & Heral 1987).
The culture of molluscs and echinoderms
Figure 10 - Monthly variations in the mean energy value of dry flesh (Pg)
of one year old oysters (1), and two years old (2), shell of three years old
oysters (3) and four years old (4)
(after Heral et al. 1983 - Deslous-Paoli & Heral 1984)
Urine excretion (U), is generally not measured; they only figures are nitrogen excreted
by C. gigas (Mann 1979 - Griffiths 1980). However, excretion of organic forms of
nitrogen by C. gigas is far from negligible. Results, although incomplete (Robert et al.
1981), show that in the summer months 77 – 93 % of nitrogenous waste is in the organic
form. Heral et al. (1987) measured urea excretion in C. gigas which was found to be low
(0.25 mmole/j/g dry weight), while excretion of amino acids can reach 2 mmole/h/g dry
weight in summer.
A study of the energy budget, carried out in the Merennes-Oléron Basin, the foremost
European oyster culture region, showed that production for young oysters is highest in
June and July and negative in the autumn; In older oysters, the two periods of negative
production, one in winter and one in summer after reproduction, give gross and net
yields which are largely negative. Shafee & Lucs (1982) found two periods of negative
production for the scallop Chlamys variae. For C. gigas cultured in the Marennes-Oléron
Basin it appears that there is a particularly long period of negative production (around 6
months) which causes a progressive wasting of the oyster as reserves are consumed.
The other characteristic of this estuarine region is the high rate of deposition of organic
matter throughout the year, nut particularly in the winter. This is linked to the high levels
of seston in the water (Sornin et al. 1983). The energy from this accounts for 73,8 % of
the energy consumed by the young oysters. This gives mean annual assimilation rates
of 26,2 % for juveniles and only 7,9 % for adults. The yields are much lower than those
given in the literature for other species. Bernard (1974) showed that large quantities of
organic matter were not assimilated, but rejected either directly by the labial palps as
pseudofaeces or remain undigested during their passage through the gut, suggesting
that C. gigas is either inefficient of highly selective qualitatively in its digestive capacity or
not adapted to life in the extremely turbid water which clogs the gills and has a negative
effect on assimilation.
In practice, the high turbidity in winter linked with a low level of organic matter induces a
high production of pseudofaeces and, correspondingly, an expenditure of energy in
sorting the particles, mucus secretion, and brachial cleansing. This explains the poor
performance of adulty oysters in the arennes-Oléron Basin. However, after reproduction
which is an important part of the energy balance (84 % of production of adult oysters),
the negative yields in September and October may come from a lack of food, particularly
phytoplankton; the mollusc may not have sufficient usable energy available. This
autumnal deficit varies from year to year; it depends on the quantity of phytoplankton as
well as the density of consumers which include other molluscs in culture and wild
competitors.
Transfer of energy between the water column and the mollusc population
At the same time the quantity of energy from the particulate food has been studied every
month in relation to time and the tidal coefficient. Taking the currents into account, this
allows the establishment of the mean monthly quantities of energy available (Heral et al.
1983 - Deslous-Paoli & Heral 1984).
Thus it can be seen that in the same region (Marennes-Oléron) the quality of the food
available is controlled by the huge input of detritus. The potential food available for the
mollusc was given by Widdows et al.(1974) in terms of the sum of protein, lipids, and
glycogen, and represented only 2,6 % of the total seston and 24,385 of the organic
matter, on average. However, phytoplankton appear to play major role with the periods
of development corresponding to high production of the oyster. The heterotrophic
bacteria appear to be only a nutritional complement as they represent a mean of only 0,6
% of the total energy.
Examination of the quantity of food which passes through the 10 cm of water around the
banks of oyster shows that the transfer of energy with the surface water appears to be
very low, around 1 % (Figs. 11, 12). This does not take into account factors such as the
density of molluscs in the surroundings and the cumulative effect of the progressive
exhaustion of the water column. No account is taken of the length of time for which the
water mass remains above the areas of intensive rearing and thus the new cumulative
effect linked with the time taken for wastes to be removed from the system. This time
may be relatively long, particularly in semi-enclosed areas.
Elsewhere, for year old oysters, % of the energy is used for production of flesh? % for
the shells, while for adults, the energy is distributes as 3,6 %, 78,4 %, and 17,8% for the
flesh, gametes and the shell. This shows that 1 year old C. gigas oysters concentrate on
flesh production while hose in their second year direct energy towards reproductive
products.
Figure 11 - (1) Annual energy flux (1979) between the water column (0,1 m) deep in a
current of 0,3 m/s and a population of two-year-old oysters reared an a
density of 200 individuals/m2 (calculated per m2) ( from Deslous-Paoli &
Heral 1984)
(2) Percentage of the total energy consumed calculated from levels of
proteins, lipids, glucides
Construction of energy budgets gives information on the amount of food needed by a
population of oyster, and it serves as a base for the development of models of food
consumption in oyster culture basins.
Similar studies are under way for the principal species which compete with the oysters
for food. These include mussels, Japanese clams, cockles, and slipper limpets. Deslous-
Paoli & Heral (1984) Produced such a budget (Fig. 13) for the slipper limpet (Crepidula
fornicata). They showed that 4,1 kg of slipper limpets consumed energy equivalent to
that consumed by 1 kg of oysters. By studying the action of animals competing for food it
should be possible to develop methods of managing and controlling their development
(e.g. destruction of 2.100 tones of slipper limpets in the Marennes-Oléron bassin in
1982, 1983 and 1984).
Traditional oyster culture in France
Figure 12 - (1) Annual energy flux (1980) between the water column (0,1 m) deep in a
current of 0,3 m/s and a population of two years old oysters reared at a
density of 200 individuals/m2 (calculated from Heral et am. 1983)
(2) Percentage of the total energy consumed calculated from proteins, lipids
and glucides
3- STUDIES CARRIED OUT ON CULTURES STOCKS
The amount of oysters produced from culture operations can be determined from
statistics available from the marine fisheries service (Fig.1). This generally corresponds
to the quantity of oysters sold with a health certificate by each producing area (hasin).
However, these figures give no information on the numbers of oysters in culture, which
must be available to biologists designing methods of managing the oyster beds. Growth
and fattening of oysters depends not only on the quantity of food available but also on
the abundance of competitors for food and particularly on the size of the stock in culture
which fluctuates from one year to another according to the size of the spat settlement in
the preceding year.
The culture of molluscs and echinoderms
Figure 13 - Annual energy balance for an individual of mean energy content 1,8 KJ,
representative of the population of Crepidula in the Marennes-Oléron Basin B : biomass;
C : energy R : energy expended in metabolism; P : energy fixed for flesh production (g),
gametes (r), and the shell (s) (after Delous-Paoli 1984)
The study of stock in culture needs the implementation of a carefully designed sampling
system, The most simple technique is to make a plan of the oyster beds which shows
the layout of concessions, and then to take a certain number of points (2 % of the area)
either by random sampling, simple sampling, or stratified sampling.
Two parameters must be estimated : the rate of exploitation and the biomass. Five
geographical strata and two types of culture (flat and raised) were, for example, chosen
for the Marennes-Oléron Basin (Bacher 1984). In 1984, the amount of oysters in culture
was 30.235 in flat culture with 59 % of the total area exploited, and 38.594 tones in
raised culture with 30 % of the parks exploited. The error in this method of sampling is
around 25 %. To improve the of estimation, aerial photography on the scale 1:10,000
allows the drawing of an improved plan, excluding unexploited areas. Aerial photographs
can be used to count small culture areas and the number of culture units, and used
together with actual sampling to obtain figures for biomass. On the West Contentin
coast, the stock of oysters in culture in 1983 was 18,000 tones (Deschamps, in press),
and in the Bay of Bourgneuf, in 1982, 36.400 tones (St Felix et al. 1982) with an error of
3 %. For the largest areas it is possible, either by counting only randomly chosen stocks
or by systematic sampling, using a 3 mm grid, to estimate exploited areas to an
accuracy of 3 % (Bacher 1984, Bacher et al. 1986). These estimates of the stocks of
oysters in cultivation have been made annually since 1985 in the Marennes-Oléron
Basin, in Arcachon, and in the Bay of Bourgneuf. Accuracy of estimation is to within 6 %
through stratifying into types of culture and breaking down into age classes, which
reduces the variance.
Actual measurements with computer-assisted analysis allows rapid treatment with
optimum precision, using the image obtained from a high-resolution video. At the same
time, attempts to use satellite remote sensing (simulation of SPOT) have shown that the
obtainable resolution (20 mm) allows only the outlines of the cultivated areas to be
determined. The absence of any unique spectral character for the oyster culture areas
and the interference caused by algae which covers part of the rearing structure
complicate the use of this method.
In the Mediterranean, estimation of stock size has been carried out in the étang de Thau
(Hamon & Tournier 1981) by boat. The number or ropes per table is counted in each
rearing zone, and then 3–4 % of the cultivated area is sampled at random by divers fir
different depths (5m, 5–7m, deeper than 7m). The different type of culture and the ages
are thus determined, and the biomass on each rope weighed on land. 18.923 tones of
cupped oysters and 611 tones of flat oysters were grown in the étang de Thau in 1984.
This figure was estimated to have a possible error of 7 % (Hamon pers comm.)
The methodology at present being developed to monotor stocks in culture is allowing the
development of models for the management of culture beds which take into account the
growth and maturity of the stock to be made.
4- OVERALL MODEL
It is only in the medium term, when the period of acquisition of precise information on
stocks and their performance in culture has been sufficient and a knowledge of the
extent of variation has been gained, that a dynamic overall model can be constructed. At
present, in some culture areas (Marennes-Oléron, By of Bourgneuf) there are obvious
signs of changing yields. An approach to the understanding of this problem can be made
through the reconstruction of a historical treatment has the advantage of supplying, for
the present time, overall laws covering the exploitation of the ecosystem through the
culture of molluscs and supplying a basis for control. The Marennes-Oléron Basin was
chosen for this method as it has almost half of the production of cupped oyster.
This model is based on the hypothesis that for the given period, environmental factors
have a constant mean, although there is a certain variation around this mean. The
development of production of cupped oyster in the Marennes-Oléron Basin is estimated
from 1885–1984 from three different sources, as shown in Fig. 14. The time series
shows that the growth rate has decreased for both Portuguese and Pacific oysters at the
same time as the chronic mortality rate has increased (Fig. 15). The stocks in culture
have been calculated from annual production, taking into account growth and mortality
(Fig. 16). These calculations give results comparable with the estimates of stock size
obtained by sampling.
The establishment of a relationship between the stock and production shows that,
overall, for a given biomass in culture, production tends to platform out at a maximum
level of 40.000 tones. This level corresponds to the maximum production capacity of the
ecosystem which is limited by the trophic capacity of the bay (Fig. 17). Maximum
production of the ecosystem can be determined by modeling the development of the
production curve, using an equation similar to that used in modeling population growth.
Thus the von Bertalanffy equation takes the form P=Pmax (1-e-kb) where P is the
maximum production in the Arennes-Oléron and B is the stock under culture. For C.
angulata. K=0.026 and Pmax =41.873 tones; for C. gigas, K=0.0288 and Pmax =42.450
tones. At the same time the relationship between production and stock (P/B) as a
function of the total stock in culture follows a negative exponential. Leading to a decline
in yields from culture.
The culture of molluscs and echinoderms
Figure 14 - Annual production of oysters in the Marennes - Oléron Basin (after Heral et
al. 1986)
The maximum production of 40.000 tones can be obtained from a stock of 130.000
tones of C. angulata and 80.000 tones of C. gigas. This difference between the two
species can be ascribed to differences in the energetic requirements of each oyster. At
an equal biomass, the assimilation of food by the Pacific oyster is 1.7 times greater than
the Portuguese oyster (Heral et al. 1986). If a comparison of the effect of the two oyster
species on the ecosystem is made, this conversion coefficient must be taken into
account. This work demonstrates that, without management of the stock, the numbers
cultivated by the oyster growers tend to exceed the minimum biomass necessary to
reach the potential maximum production, and that control of the quantity of oysters in
culture would bring about a decrease in the duration of the rearing cycle, in mortalities
during growth, and also the probability of the occurrence of epizootics.
5 ANALYTICAL MODEL
After having shown the energy requirements of one population of oysters as well as the
transfer of energy between the population and the water column and the relationship
between the number of individuals in culture and production in the ecosystem, the
possibility opens up of constructing a model describing the division of food and the
energy requirements of the stock of molluscs to predict the growth performance of
oysters in culture. The model must contain physical factors (transport and biological
factors - energetic models of growth). This approach has been used in the Marennes-
Oléron Basin (Bacher 1987). The transport of food (on the currents) was estimated by
using a numerical model which gives the patterns of the currents and the depth of water.
The growth of molluscs was simulated (Fig. 18), taking into account assimilation,
consumption and respiration which are related to weight, temperature, to the total
available seston and the particulate energy available in the water column (Bacher 1987).
To calculate the supplies of food a compartmentalized structure is applied to the grid of
the physical numerical model. The retention time is around 1 day, the Lagrangian
residual currents are calculated from current tables, and dispersal is calculated by using
a transport time proportional to the difference in concentrations between adjacent
compartments and the tidal path estimated by using Eularian residuals at the boundary
(Bacher 1987). The food supply is a forcing variable and is put into the model differently
in three areas : the Northern oceanic sector, the Charente estuary in the South, and in
the pertuis de Maumusson.
Traditional oyster culture in France
Figure 15 - Change in growth rate needed for an oyster to reach market size.
(A) Portuguese oysters, (B) Pacific oysters and survival rates after the first year
of culture,
(C) Portuguese oysters, (D) Pacific oysters (after Heral et al. 1986)
Figure 16 - Calculated change if biomass of oysters cultured in the Marennes-Oléron
Basin (after Heral et al. 1986)
The culture of molluscs and echinoderms
Figure 20 - Impact of the fluctuation (-60% -+ 60%) of stock on individual growth for
Crassostrea gigas (after Bacher 1987)
For the calculations, the stocks of oysters in each compartment are divided into two
classes, and the growth model allows growth to be simulated as a function of the food
distributed in each compartment. Stock levels of competitors and their assimilation of
food are introduced (Fig. 20) as a forcing variable. This approach allows the stock levels
to be varied and then predictions to be made of variations of growth in the different
compartment.
This model still uses too many simplifications to be of predictive value. It could be
improved by constructing :
• a predictive energetic model where the different coefficients calculated
experimentally should be independent of those measured in situ;
• a model of the phytoplankton which allows the simulation of variations in
the supplies of nutrients and which gives an indication of the impact of
different methods of management of the Charente estuary.
However, this novel analytical approach, which needs a multidisciplinary approach
between biologists, physicists and sedimentologists is the only one which will allow
prediction of the development of the mollusc culture ecosystems in the long term in
relation to changes in densities, species cultured, food supply, run-of from the land and
man-made perturbations.
6- DISEASES
In this section, diseases which have occurred as epidemics, seriously reducing French
oyster stocks since 1965, are described.
Crassostrea angulata
Marteil (1976) described how from 1966–1969 the Portuguese oysters showed an
exceptionally high mortality rate which was apparently cased by severe lesions on the
gills and labial palps. This disease is referred to in France as «maladie des branches» or
gill disease. The necrosis observed was first attributed to an new species of protozoa,
Thanatastrea polymorpha, by Franc & Arvy (1970). However, Comps & Duthoit (1976)
found viral particles and lesions in the necrotic gills, the virus appearing to cause a
cellular hypertrophy. Viruses have only recently been shown to affect marine
invertebrates. The first description of a viral disease affecting the oyster Crassostrea
virginica was made only in 1972. The gill disease caused a decrease in respiration (His
1969) adversely affected gametogenesis (Marteil 1969) and caused a mortality of 40 %
of the stock of cupped oysters from Marennes-Oléron to Arcachon.
In relation to the disease of 1970–72, Comps et al. (1976) presented evidence of the
existence of viral particles in oysters dying in an epidemic which completely destroyed
the stocks of the Portuguese oyster under culture (Plate 1). The description of the virus,
with mature particle having an iso < > structure of 350 mm, suggested that it could be
classified as an Iridovirus. During this epidemic, around 90 % of the stock of cupped
oysters were killed.
Crassostrea gigas
This species, introduced into France in 1966, resisted both of the above viral attacks,
demonstrating the host-specificity of the pathogens. However, during limited summer
mortalities in the Arcachon Basin in 1977, viral lesions identical to those in C. angulata in
1970 found in c. gigas by Comps & Bonami (1977) which cased a reconsideration of the
Pacific oyster with respect to the Iridovirus. This work showed the precarious nature of
the French cupped-oyster rearing industry and encouraged growers to manage the
shellfish basins better to avoid the losses consequent on periods of poor growth and
physiological weakness in the oysters, which make them more susceptible to pathogenic
diseases. At the same time, all imports of molluscs from other countries must be strictly
forbidden to avoid the introduction of new parasites which, in certain environmental
conditions, form the basis of epizootics.
Figure 21 - Life cycle of Martelia refringens for Ostrea edulis (after Grizel et al. 1974)
This protozoan disease was first noticed in the Ile Tudy in France, in 1979 (Comps et al.
1980). The parasite Bonamia ostreae spread rapidly through all the Breton culture
centers. It induces ulceration's in the gills with perforations and indentations as well as
lesions in the connective tissue. This parasite affects the older oysters particularly and
causes the mortality of 50–80% of the stock. The percentage infection is lower in young
oysters.
As the seed oysters show a low rate of infection with Bonamia ostreae and infection
levels correlate with age, the plan to re-introduce the flat oyster after massive eradication
of the adults entails low-density culture in deep, open water (Cancale). This technique
allows the culture of several hundred tones of flat oysters on a three years cycle.
To improve the control of the parasites and to develop methods to prevent their spread,
immunodiagnostics have been developed (Mialhe et al. 1987). Use of monoclonal
antibodies specific for the purifies parasite Bonamia ostreae allows rapid determination
with a reliability which relates to the level of infection of the flat oysters (Fig. 22).
7- TECHNIQUES USED IN REARING
7.1 Spat production
Seed oysters for culture can be supplied in one of three ways : regulated fishing of
juveniles from natural classified beds; natural capture of juveniles produced by spawners
in culture; and supply from a hatchery or nursery (See Part 2 Chapter 1). The production
of spat in hatcheries is of secondary importance in the French mollusc culture industry,
except to make up for deficiencies in natural settlement. In this context, the development
of hatcheries will go ahead only if the seed produced has benefits which make its extra
cost worthwhile. If disease-resistant strains of flat oysters could be selected, or if
research on the genetics of cupped oysters made triploid stocks with better growth
characteristics available, the future pattern of the oyster culture industry in France would
be different. The settlement of spat on a collector provides major supply of oysters for
rearing. It has already been noted that the development of oyster culture has gone hand-
in-hand with the development of the technique of settlement on collectors.
The culture of molluscs and echinoderms
Figure 22 - Principle of the immunodiagnostic test developed for the parasite of the flat
oyster (after Mialhe et al. 1987)
Types of collectors
C. gigas appears to be indifferent to the type of substrate on which it settles, which
explains the great diversity of types of collectors used for spat. However, while the
larvae are searching for a substrate on which to attach, fouling matter, particularly algae
and silt, should be excluded. O. edulis is more particular in its choice of substrate for
attachment.
For the cupped oyster the farmers keep to the traditional calcareous stones in the
Charentes region. In the Arcachon Basin tiles coated with lime are used. These make it
possible to remove the very young oysters by scraping. The tiles are arranged in cages
or stacks in the parks. Stakes and wooden planks are no longer used. In all the rearing
areas, on the culture tables (Fig. 23) various types of support can be used; slate posts or
rods, iron bars, oyster shells, scallop shells, and slates strung out or arranged in special
bags. Plastic collectors came into use at least 10 years ago; these are light, resistant,
and practical from the point of view of removal of the oysters. They are either plastic
tubes of various size or moulded plastic cells with oblique lamellae (Pleno).
Limed tiles are the most frequently used collector for the flat oyster. They are placed in
groups at the appropriate time. The type of lime differs according to the culture region
and the collector (Marteil 1979). A new type of collector consists of «sausages» of
mussel shells suspended form metal frames (Grizel et al. 1979) and is used in the parks
in the deepest water. The mussel shells covered in spat are then separated; this
removes the need for scraping.
Many studies have been carried out with the aim of determining the numbers of
collectors which need to be installed as a function of the abundance of spat. Thus, in
Arcachon, it has been estimated that the potential for recruitment is around 5 thousand
million spat (20 million collectors with 250 spat/collector). Berthomé et al. (1984)
measured the length of collectors by aerial photography, and, after having determined
the abundance of spat on each type of collector by sampling, calculated theoretical
production from settlement in 1978, 1980 and 1982 in the Seudre and Bonne Anse
regions, taking into account growth and cumulative mortalities in the rearing beds. These
studies clearly demonstrate the significant differences in settlement from one year to
another; 1982 hat a production four times greater than that in 1981. Martin et al. (1980)
estimated the quantity of tiles positioned in the Auray region as well as using a sampling
technique to estimate the settlement on each tile. They showed, from 1983 to 1986, a
fall-off in the number of spat settling on each collector.
7.2. Rearing
After a period varying from 6 to 18 months, according to growth and the techniques used
in culture in each Basin or even sector, the seed oysters are detached from the
collectors. This operation is generally carried out by hand, although mechanization is
beginning to be introduced. Mortality occurring during this operation approaches 25%.
During the second year of culture the oysters may remain on the collectors which can be
spaced out on the sea bed or attached to culture tables; they may be separated and
place individually on the sea bed or raised above the sea bed. They are usually reared
until they are 3 years old.
Flat culture
Flat culture is carried out ont he uncovered sea bed. Concessions, leased to the oyster
growers by the state, are protected around the perimeter by plastic mesh nets so that
the oysters are retained in the parks during storms. In the Gulf of Morbihan, parks for
young oysters are protected from predation by crabs by mesh fences which are 30–50
cm high and are supported by wooden posts onto which horizontal planks are fixed. In
the Arcachon Basin, the areas of flat culture are surrounded by hedges of twigs or
stones which provide extremely effective protection. Densities of oyster vary between
sectors. In the Marennes-Oléron region the mean figure is 500 kg/100 m2 for oysters in
the middle of the culture cycle, and 700 kg/100 m2 for adult oysters (Bacher1984). In the
Arcachon region densities are of the same order of magnitude. However, according to
Marteil (1979), for flat oysters it is 50–60 Kg/100 m2 in the second year, 100–120 kh/100
m2 in the third year, and from 300 to 450 kg/m2 in the fourth year. These densities
applied before the epidemics of parasitic diseases. During their growth the oysters are
regularly harrowed or forked over to avoid the beds becoming silted up.
Rearing on the sea bed in deep water
This is a rearing technique which has been developed in the South of Brittany, mainly in
the Bay of Quiberon, but is also used in the Bay of Cancale in Northern Brittany. The
densities at planting out are 50kg/100 m2 for seed and 70–90 kg/100 m2 for 2 years old
oysters. Since the epizootics, a plan to safeguard the flat oyster has been implemented.
The first stage was the destruction of 1.367 tones in the parks of South Brittany and in
Cancale in North Brittany. This plan was based on results from experiments which
showed that densities 5 times lower than previously (100 kg/100 m2) allowed growth
over 2 to 3 years and avoided the parasitic outbreaks. All maintenance operations arc
carried out by dredging.
Raised culture
The oysters are either still attached to the collector or enclosed in baskets which were
originally made from wood but are now usually made from plastic. The most frequently
used method uses net bags whose mesh increases with the size of the oysters. The
standard bags which measure 1 m × 0,5 m are arranged in a line on metal tables which
are 50 cm high and 4 m in length. The bag are turned over regularly to prevent the
development of algae, and the numbers in the bags are halved when the biomass
becomes excessive. The biomass allowed in each bag is very variable, from 5 to 15 kg
depending on the age of the oyster; the mean varies from 9 to 11 kg. There are several
advantages to this form of culture : better growth and quality, ease of maintenance, and
low mortality from storm damage. However, they are some disadvantages : the danger
of putting too many oysters in the culture system which causes poor growth and silting
up (Sornin 1981) and the growth of fouling organisms on the installations which may
prevent the use of this type of apparatus at certain times of year. Theses disadvantages
have led professional operators and administrators to regulate this method of culture
very strictly. For example, in the Marennes-Oléron only 1/3 of the area of the concession
may be cultivated in this way, and the tables must be removed in the winter to improve
the transport of silt?. They are installed again when the settlement of mussel spat is
over.
Suspended culture
This technique is used in the Mediterranean, particularly in the étang de Thau where
fixed tables are constructed from old railway lines measuring 50 m in length and 10–12
m across. Each one has 5l wooden bars to which around 1.000 supports can be
attached (Hamon é Tournier 1981). The C. gigas collectors which are brought from the
Atlantic are strung on lines and can be put directly onto the culture tables. Part of the
stock is sold after 18 months in culture; the remainder is attached singly, with cement, by
the «heel» onto rods made from foreign hardwood. After this second year of culture, the
oyster is of superior quality (Raimbault 1984). The advantage of this culture method is
that the entire water column is available to the molluscs. However, the constant
immersion in water leads to the development of competitors (Ascidians) and seaweed
(Sargassum) on the rearing structures.
In Corsica (étang de Diane and d'Urbino) rafts are formed by floats made in the same
way as the structure used in the rearing of mussels in Galicia. Oysters and mussels are
reared together in suspended culture.
Recently, on the coast of Brittany and around the Golfe du Lion, cultures using
suspended ropes have given promising results (See Part 2, Chapter 54).
7.3. The use of «claires» to «finish» oysters
The use of «claires» was developed in the ancient salt marshes. They now cover an
area of 3.500 ha in the Marennes-Oléron Basin (Grelon 1978) and are also found on the
Ile de Ré, the Bay of Bourgneuf, and in the Ile de Noirmoutier. There ponds are used for
«greening» and fattening the oysters which are stocked at a density of 25–30/m2 for
«fines de claires» and from 4–5/m2 for special oysters (huîtres spéciales). The fine de
claires remain in these ponds for several weeks while the huîtres spéciales remain there
for several months. These ponds have a high biomass of phytoplankton (Rindé 1979),
particularly of a diatom Navicula ostrearia which is responsible for the greening of the
oysters. The oysters absorb the green pigment liberated by the breakdown of the
diatoms through their gills. Many studies have been carried out on the biology of this
diatom in culture (Neuville & Daste 1970), while Moreau (1970) and Robert (1983) have
examined the ecosystem of the claires, particularly in relation to Navicula ostrearia.
Robert (1983) showed that nitrogen was the major limiting factor in the production of
unicellular algae, and the Navicula ostrearia is a species which, to develop, uses organic
matter excreted by the oysters. The research carried out on the development of the
greening and the factors which control the development of Navicula ostrearia have been
aimed at making the process less uncertain in the oyster claires of the Atlantic marshes.
8- ECONOMIC ASPECTS AND PERSPECTIVES
The production of cupped oysters oscillates around 100.000 tones (130.000 tones in
1986), which puts French oyster culture in 4th place in worldwide terms, behind the
USA, Japan and Korea. In 1982, France produced 12% of the worldwide production
(FAO, 1980).
The financial return from oysters is the highest of any species under the French maritime
fisheries control, reaching 1.1 thousand million francs in 1984 or 20 % of the total for
marine fish and shellfish, 98 % of the turnover comes from cupped oysters (Fig. 24).
Activities connected with the culture of oysters occupy a large part of the littoral zone.
There are 20.000 ha of concessions : 14.000 in estuaries and 6.000 in deeper waters.
According to Bonnet et al. (1983) the oyster culture industry employs 23.000 fulltime
staff and 31.000 seasonally. No estimate was made of land-based jobs, but these
represent a far from negligible contribution to employment : there are plastics factories
making equipment for culture and packaging, boat builders, manufacturers of specific
tools (graders, calibrators, etc…). The market for oysters is largely internal; there are few
imports and exports. This implies that production is almost entirely dependent on the
national market. According to the SECODIP panel (1983), direct sales represent 20 %
on average. Dumont (1983) found that between 1978 and 1982 there had been an
increase form 7,9 to 178 % in the proportion of the oysters going through the
hypermarkets and supermarkets. 50 % of sales take place in December, which requires
well-organized marketing. The price received by the farmer is determined by syndicates
in relation to the quantity and quality available. However, individual markets find their
own level by mutual agreement, and prices fluctuate in relation to the product offered by
the producer and the demand from the market.
The culture of molluscs and echinoderms
CAPTURE INSTALLATIONS
On the left seen from above, on the right oblique
view. These are made from wooden posts linked
by iron bars. Their height above the sea bed
varies between 0.5 m to 1 m.
Slates CHARACTERISTICS
threaded on a Mean number of slates per spindle = 12
spindle Maximum number of spindles per metre of installation -
arrangement 50
Maximum area for spat collection = 22m2/m
True capture area = 15.4 m2/m
Relative capture index - Standard collector
String of CHARACTERISTICS
scallops/shells Number of shells per spindle = 12
Maximum number of spindles per meter of installation =
100
Maximum area of spat collection = 30 m2/m
True captive area = 21 m2/m
Relative captive index = 1.05
Figure 23 - Different type of collector used in the Marennes-Olérin Basin (after Berthomé
et al. 1984)
Figure 24 - Distribution of cupped oysters sold with health tickets in the principal French
producer departments in 1985 and 1986
The mechanism for fixing the price is far from straightforward (Fig. 25). It depends on the
quantity of oysters available both locally and nationally; there is a great deal of trade
between the different culture basins. The market for the cupped oyster has had to
absorb an increase in production caused by improvements in techniques (raised culture)
and the development of new areas (Normandy), changing over from the production of
flat oysters. 90% of the increase in the production of cupped oysters comes from the
new regions, while the ancient basins of Marennes-Oléron and Arcachon, for example,
have seen no increase in production and even a decline, linked to the biotic capacity of
these over-exploited areas; Production techniques and equipment differ from one region
to the next; this gives rise to differences in the sale price. Small family businesses in the
old growing areas which have been divide up into small parcels have high operating
costs in comparison with those in the new «industrial» oyster culture in the developing
areas.
With this competition between regions and the increase in the production of C. gigas, the
problem of overproduction must be addressed, particularly as the price of oysters is
increasing at a rate below the rate of inflation, reducing returns and causing dumping
when the sale price is lower than the rearing costs. Dumont (1983) demonstrated the
elasticity of the demand of for cupped oysters in relation to price and income, and
concluded that the difficulties faced by the oyster farmer in years of high production
result from a surplus of production in relation to the marketing and distribution
mechanisms. According to this author, the term «overproduction», a surplus of
production in relation to demand at a price acceptable to producers, cannot strictly be
applied to cupped oysters. The problem is to determine the cost price of each oyster in
the different rearing procedures and to assess whether the sale price is acceptable to
the farmer. The future of the small family units in the old rearing centers will depend on
reaching a relationship between rearing costs and sale price.
Two studies on the economic effects of disease in the oysters in Brittany have been
carried out recently (Grizel 1983 - Meuriot & Grizel in press). These authors have shown
that the two epizootics have cause modifications to be made to the culture practice :
developments towards the sea, where parasites have less effect, collection of flat oyster
spat from deeper water, and an increase in the culture of C.gigas since 1974 with
production increasing from 3.000 to 16.000 tones. In economic terms, the accumulated
losses are high : 1.6 thousand million francs in turnover and 1.3 thousand million francs
n added value. Comparing this with estimates of the economic consequences of the
wreck of the Amoco-Cadiz (Bonnieus et al. 1980) where losses were estimated to be
114 million francs to the mollusc culture industry, it can be seen that the losses are not
of the same order of magnitude. However, more care has been taken to prevent further
grounding of tankers than to avoid further epizootics.
The culture of molluscs and echinoderms
Figure 25 - Change in the price of farmed oysters in francs (1985 prices) (•),
in relation to national production (®) and production in the Marennes-Oléron
Basin (‡)
While the first disease (Bonamia) had only a slight effect on the numbers employed it
caused the changeover to the rearing of cupped oysters. As the culture of the cupped
oyster is less lucrative than that of the flat oyster, growers experienced a mean reduction
in revenue, and the second epizootic in 1980 appeared to have a more direct effect on
employment (drop of 20 %) in salaries between 1980 and 1982).
As has been seen from the biology, to put forward models for the management of the
mollusc culture basins, which define optimum densities, it is necessary to know what
stocks are being cultured. At the same time the economic approach can give reliable
statistics on production and on the revenue to producers. All the politics of buying and
selling should be based on a better understanding of the level of national production
because the increase in the size of all the culture centers for cupped oysters increases
the complexity of the market. Accurate statistics are also important for use in defending
aquaculture in the competition for management of the space around the coasts.
The future development of oyster culture must take into account :
• spat settlement and the maintenance of environmental quality to give good larval
survival and also the regulation of settlement with the eventual determination of a
quota of collectors in order to avoid the production of surplus juveniles in relation to
the food supply in the culture basins and in relation to the market;
• the distribution of cultured oysters within the basins. For good growth and fattening it
is essential that the oysters should be in equilibrium with the biotic capacity of the
basin;
• outbreaks of parasitic disease and, particularly, the conditions for their appearance,
should be controlled by strict prohibition of the import of all molluscs and also by
ensuring that the cultured stock is kept in conditions under which it can defend itself
against disease. Basins must not be overstocked;
• genetic research on new stocks, aimed at directing energy ingested by C.gigas to the
production of flesh rather than to gametogenesis. Juveniles from these new
improved strains are already being produced in hatcheries;
• the development of more diverse culture. Monoculture techniques are more prone to
epizootics than culture of complementary species in the ecosystem;
• marketing, particularly a study of the financial returns to each type of rearing system,
allows the development of several standards of financial profitability for the
development of the cupped oyster in France.
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383–385
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Marit. - 33 (2) : 171–175
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le copépode parasite Mytilicola orientalis Mori dans le bassin d'Arcachon. Cons.
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MIALHE, E., PAOLUCCI, F., ROGIER, H. & GRIZEL, H. - 1987, Monoclonal antibodies :
a new tool in mollusc pathology, In : Disease Process In Marine Bivalve Molluscs
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Economics
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marine française, bilan et perspectives. Note A.P.P. : 17 p.
BONNIEUX, F., DAUCE, P. & RAINELLI, P. - 1980 - Impact soio-économique de la
marée noire provenant de l'Amoco-Cadiz. Rapport INRA-UVLOE : 100 P
DUMONT, P. - 1983 - Le marché de L'huître creuse - Essai de modélisation
économique. Rapport ENGREF: 58 P. + annexes
MEURIOT, E. & GRIZEL, H. - Note sur l'impact économique de maladies de l'huître
plate en Bretagne (in press).
STUDY OF THE MOLLUSC STOCKS IN THAU LAGOON
By P.Y.HAMON & H. TOURNIER
INTRODUCTION
Centre conchylicole le plus ancien et le plus important du sud de la France, l'étang de
Thau, d'après les statistiques officielles, produit à lui seul 12 % de la production
nationale d'huîtres et de moules La connaissance précise de la biomasse en élevage et
de ses fluctuations est essentielle pour comprendre la variation de la production, de la
croissance et de la qualité des coquillages. Cette connaissance est aussi primordiale
pour évaluer l'impact des cultures sur le milieu.
Depuis 1979 le laboratoire de Ressources Aquacoles de Sète s'est attaché, chaque
année, à évaluer les stocks de mollusques en élevage. Ces observations ont déjà fait
l'objet de publications (HAMON et TOURNIER - 1981 et 1984).
Rappelons que l'année 1979 a été une année de mise au point des méthodes, et que
les données de 1982 et 1983 sont partielles, des malaïgues locales ayant empêché
d'effectuer toutes les observations nécessaires.
Le présent rapport fourni à un double but :
• faire le point sur l'évolution du cheptel et des techniques d'élevage en 9
années d'observations, et essayer d'en interpréter l'impact éventuel sur le
milieu;
• mettre à la disposition des programmes nécessitant ces informations, des
données détaillées sur la répartition spatiale de la biomasse en élevage,
en précisant les évaluations par zone, strate, espèce et type de culture,
et, dans certains cas, notamment pour les moules, la composition en
taille des stocks.
I- RAPPEL DES CONDITIONS D'ÉLEVAGE DANS L'ÉTANG DE THAU
L'ensemble de la surface exploitée pour la culture des coquillages en suspension sur
table se répartit en trois zones appelées A, B, C (Fig. 1). Les surfaces présentées par la
figure 1 sont le résultat d'un plan de remembrement décidé en 1966, dont la réalisation,
commencé e en 1970, est en cours d'achèvement.
L'unité de production est la «table» qui mesure 50 m sur 12 m. Elle est constituée de
trois rangs de onze rails plantés verticalement dans le sédiment et dépassant la surface
de l'eau d'environ 1,80 m. Le sommet des rails de chaque rangée est relié
longitudinalement par des madriers formant trois lignes continues de 50 m. Enfin, 51
barres transversales, appelées localement «perches», d'environ douze mètres, forment
le dessus de la table; elles permettent de suspendre les cordes, éléments qui portent
directement les animaux à élever.
Pour notre étude, il est nécessaire de définir ce que les conchyliculteurs appellent un
«carré» : c'est la fraction de table définie par quatre rails et cinq «perches», c'est-à-dire
cinq demi-barres transversales. Une table comporte ainsi vingt carrés (Fig. 1).
Figure 1 - Situation des trois zones conchylicoles de Thau et plan d'une table
L'ensemble de la zone conchylicole occupe sensiblement 1/5 de la surface de l'étang.
La surface concédée est égale à 352 hectares et la surface des tables, surface
effectivement cultivées, atteint à peu près 150 ha. La tableau l donne la répartition des
surfaces exploitées par zone.
Zone A Zone B Zone C Total
Surf. des attribuées 159,75 101,37 77,62 339
concessions attribuables (ha) 160 106 86 352
Surf. totale des zones, couloirs compris 550 460 314 1.324
Figure 2 - Évolution du nombre de corde par perche dans chacune des trois zones
conchylicoles
Le tableau 3 donne le nombre de cordes par table obtenu à partir des observations
effectuées en plongée.
Tableau 3- Nombre total de cordes par table
Zone A B C Moyenne
1980 841,4 844 918 867
1981 1 026 940 989,6 985,2
1983 809,9 968,9
1984 1 014,3 959,6 980,4 984,7
1985 860,2 946,6 927,6 911,5
1986 1 002,8 947,7 965 971,8
1987 1 061 894,8 1.041 998,9
Moyenne 992,8 906 956,6
Pour l'évolution des stocks, il a été distingué distingué trois catégories de moules : le
naissain (inf. à 2 cm), la demi-moule (jusqu'à 4 cm) et la commerciale (> 4cm).
L'abondance des trois catégories diminue brutalement au cours des années; la chute la
plus spectaculaire se remarquant naturellement sur les commerciales. Cependant, le
naissain représente toujours entre 12 et 13 % des demi-moules et ces dernières
représentent entre 22 et 27 % des commerciales. Le rapport entre les trios catégories
n'a donc pas changé.
On trouve donc toujours très peu de naissain, un peu plus moyenne et, en pourcentage,
beaucoup de commerciale.
Ce tableau ne donne pas la répartition précise (fournie en annexe) dans les trois zones
de l'étang, mais en schématisant, on peut dire que les deux premières catégories ont
complètement disparues en zones B et C. Seul les professionnels de la zone A
continuent à utiliser du naissain et de la moyenne.
4.2.5. Biomasse totale par zone (Tableaux 13 et 14)
Tableau 13 - Biomasse totale par zone pour les huîtres (en tonnes)
Zone A B C Total
1980 7.130 5 823 6 236 19 189
1981 9.484 8.569 6 498 24 501
1982 5 149
1983 6 415 6 875
1984 10.456 8 600 7 598 26 654
1985 10.463 8 752 7 180 26 395
1986 14.694 9 349 8 109 32 152
1987 8.970 5 728 5 848 20 546
Tableau 14 - Biomasse totale par zone pour moules (en tonnes)
Zone A B C Total
1980 8.550 2.590 718 11.758
1981 7.327 1 339 336 9 062
1982 1 165
1983 1.314 1 405
1984 6.400 929 818 8 147
1985 4.295 455 925 5 675
1986 2.345 213 787 3 345
1987 3.251 823 869 4 943
1988
Suivant ces équations les quantités de matières organiques présentes dans le milieu
sont comprises entre 0,15 et 0,029 g/m3, donc tout à fait compatibles avec les
exigences des mollusques d'autant que les quantités de chlorophylle citées par
TOURNIER et PICHOT ont été calculées après un dégrillage sur filtre de 50 m. La
quantité totale de chlorophylle a sans filtration serait, d'après ces auteurs, supérieure de
1/3 aux quantités citées d'où une quantité de 0,20 à 0,28 g/m3.
Ces estimations sont certes sujettes à critique, notamment du fait que l'on admet en
première approximation que les quantités de plancton prélevées par les coquillages se
trouvent reconstituées en 24 h, mais elles peuvent cependant donner une indication non
négligeable sur la capacité biotique du milieu.
On peut rapprocher ces chiffres des observations de WIDDOW et WORRALS (1979) qui
en laboratoire ont déterminé ce qu'ils appellent «the maintenance ration» c'est-à-dire le
poids minimum de nourriture pour maintenir les activités vitales. Ce poids pour une
moule de 1 g de poids sec est de 0,28 mg de plancton sec par litre, donc proche des
estimations faites.
Les différents chiffres cités sont assez proches les uns des autres et il semblerait que
l'étang de Thau ait une capacité trophique suffisante pour assurer une bonne croissance
des coquillages.
Cependant, les quantités de plancton calculées l'ont été comme si les mollusques
étaient répartis sur les 7.500 hectares de l'étang.
Nous n'avons pris aussi en considération dans cette étude que les mollusques d'élevage
or des compétiteurs comme les ascidies et les divers gisements naturels utilisent aussi
du plancton.
Les stocks d'ascidies n'ont encore jamais été estimés, mais nous savons qu'à certaines
époques de l'année, leur consommation planctonique est extrâmement importante. Il
apparaît comme primordial d'étudier l'impact de l'ensemble des épibiontes sur le milieu.
On doit admettre qu'ily a dans les calculs et dans les observations soit une surévaluation
importante de la consommation par les coquillages soit une sous-évaluation de la
productivité de l'étang.
VI- BIOMASSE RÉELLE EN ÉLEVAGE DANS L'ÉTANG
Pour permettre une meilleure comparaison des résultats, tous les calculs ont été
effectués sur la base fixe des 2.085 tables qui existaient en 1980. Or, en sept ans, ce
nombre de tables a évolué : 500 tables nouvelles environ ont été plantées. Les
biomasses sont donc sous-évaluées.
Pour 1987, les résultats en fonction du nombre réel de tables sont:
Huîtres Moules Total
24.726 5.800 30.526
RÉSUMÉ ET CONCLUSIONS
Depuis le début de nos observations, en 1979, plusieurs faits marquants apparaissent:
Dès les premières années (1979, 1980, 1981), on remarque que la mytiliculture, qui
représentait plus de 50 % de la production du bassin, a été progressivement délaissée
au profit de l'ostréiculture (la mytiliculture passe de 40 à 9 % en 7 ans);
On observe d'autre part une évolution dans les techniques de culture. Notons surtout
l'abandon presque total de la culture en barre remplacée par le collage sur fil, ainsi que
la disparition de la culture en pigne sur tringle et sa substitution par l'élevage en torons.
Ces modifications abaissent le prix des investissement et permettent de disposer le plus
d'individus en élevage par corde.
Parallèlement à cette adaptation des techniques permettant une meilleure gestion des
entreprises, on assiste au moins en zone A à une augmentation du nombre des cordes
par table.
En dehors de ces modifications strictement techniques, le point marquant durant ces
huit années d'observations reste le fait que les huîtres ont remplacé progressivement les
moules.
En donnant la prépondérance à l'ostréiculture, les conchyliculteurs ont été obligés de
modifier leur gestion du plan d'eau (ceci est visible depuis 1986 et se précise en 1987 et
1988). Les tables sont maintenant chargées de façon à pouvoir produire des huîtres
commerciales toute l'année d'où l'apparition depuis trois ans d'un pourcentage de
naissain d'huîtres très important lors de nos observations estivales. Cette tendance
semble s'amplifier en 1988 (données non encore totalement exploitées
Ces modifications constantes dans les stratégies d'élevage, et dans les charges font que
l'étude des stocks dans l'étang de Thau ne peut pas être une opération de routine.
Le plan d'échantillonnage mis au point au départ est à revoir. Avec la diminution de la
mytiliculture, on peut avec l'échantillonnage tel qu'il est pratiqué, sous-estimer ou au
contraire surestimer le stock de moules en élevage.
Le poids des cordes avec l'évolution des techniques est sans cesse à réévaluer.
La connaissance de l'impact des cultures sur le milieu doit être précisée et quantifiée de
façon précise pour que le plan le plan d'eau ne se dégrade pas. C'est sans conteste un
des points les plus importants.
Dans le cas de l'écosystème conchylicole de Thau, pour construire un modèle qui aurait
pour but de définir l'équilibre entre la richesse potentielle du milieu et la production de
coquillage, la biomasse en suspension pourrait être prise comme une variable d'état.
Cependant, il serait également judicieux pour établir ce modèle de prendre comme
variable les modifications induites sur le milieu par cette culture, c'est-à-dire un état de la
production phytoplanctonique du milieu, le prélèvement effectué par les coquillages, et
la production de biodépôts.
Il est donc nécessaire d'avoir une connaissance assez précise des élevages et de la
croissance des mollusques pour estimer les conséquences de ces cultures.
Or, ces élevages ont des cycles très courts de l'ordre de 12 à 14 mois, et les technique
d'élevage ainsi que les impératifs économiques évoluent rapidement, ce qui peut, à
court terme, modifier les interactions milieu-coquillage.
Il est donc nécessaire, si l'on veut bâtir un modèle écosystème conchylicole, avoir une
série historique fiable retraçant les variations de la biomasse, mais aussi la qualité
nutritive du milieu et l'importance des biodépôts.
Or, comme nous l'avons vu, cette capacité biotique du milieu est insuffisamment
connue, bien qu'un critère de richesse ait déjà été établi par l'étude de la chlorophylle
«a» (H. TOURNIER et Y. PICHOT). Les approximations fournies montrent que si la
nourriture semble être suffisante pour les mollusques, elle ne le serait théoriquement
plus si l'on tenait compte de la consommation par les épibiontes, les gisements
coquilliers naturels, les poissons, etc… D'où la nécessité de préciser la productivité du
milieu et la demande des consommateurs.
Le problème semble moins crucial en ce qui concerne l'évaluation des biodépôts. Les
résultats des études expérimentales menées par GRENZ (communication personnelle)
et les chiffres obtenus par le calcul théorique sont en concordance. On peut donc
admettre que lorsque la biomasse en élevage est connue, le tonnage de biodépôt peut
être estimé.
En revanche, on ne sait pas quel est l'impact exact de ces rejets sur le milieu.
L'étang de Thau étant périodiquement le siège de crises dystrophiques estivales plus ou
moins importantes, il serait bon de savoir la part prise par ces déchets dans le
déclenchement des malaïgues, en gardant à l'esprit que le tonnage de rejets sec est
supérieur à la biomasse en suspension et que les rejets sont concentrés sur 350
hectares seulement, ce qui représente presque 20 tonnes de déchets sec par an et par
table, soit 400 kg par m2 et par an. Ce qui laisse présumer que ces biodépôts
demandeurs d'oxygène ont une responsabilité évidente dans le développement des
malaïgues. Les déchets dus au détroquage et au travail des coquillages à terre ont été
estimés entre 9 et 13,000 t par an, tonnage pouvant paraître relativement faible par
rapport à celui des biodépôts sédimentés sous les tables. Ces déchets étaient
cependant nocifs il y a peu de temps du fait qu'ils étaient rejetés dans les zones côtières
peu profondes y générant des crises distrophiques limitées. La situation paraît s'être
améliorée en ce qui concerne le secteur côtier depuis qu'un réseau de ramassage des
déchets a été mis en place.
CONCHYLICULTURE EN MER, LES FILIÉRES D'ÉLEVAGE DE MOULES:
ASPECTS TECHNOLOGIQUES
By Mr. Xavier BOMPAIS
En France, on utilise trois types de filières pour élever des moules en mer:
• les filières de surface, utilisées en Bretagne : environ 50 exemplaires d'une
longueur utile de 2×100 mètres;
• les filières «subflottantes», équipées de flotteurs «perches» et utilisées en
CharenteMaritime (côte atlantique): environ 240 exemplaires, de 100 mètres
de long, dont la conception's inspire d'un modèle mis au point par
l'IFREMER;
• les filières de subsurface (immergées), utilisées en Méditerranée : environ
380 exemplaries en 1991, d'une longueur moyenne de 200 à 300 mètres.
En Bretagne et en Charente-Maritime, la production est assez modeste : environ 500
tonnes en 1991 pour la Bretagne et une première production prévue à 1,000 tonnes en
1992 pour la CharenteMaritime. C'est en Méditerranée que le développement de la
production est le plus spectaculaire puisque, en 1991, dix an après le démarrage, on a
produit entre 8.000 et 10.000 tonnes.
Sur le plan technologique, la principale contrainte pour les filières de pleine mer est de
résister à la houle ou au clapot. En effet, la houle peut provoquer de sérieux dé sérieux
dégâts sur le matériel et sur les moules elles-mêmes: efforts plus importants, diminution
de la croissance, dégrappage (chute)… Pour lutter contre ses effets néfastes, les
exploitants de Méditerranée immergent les filières à 5 mètres sous la surface car les
efforts engendrés par la houle diminuent très vite avec l'immersion.
De leur côté, les exploitants de Charente-Maritime préfèrent garder les filières à la
surface de l'eau et utiliser des flotteurs «perches», de forme élancée. Ceux-ci sont en
effet peu entraînés par la houle ou le clapot.
Une troisième technique pour lutter contre les effets de la houle consiste à ajuster le
nombre de flotteurs de la filière en fonction du poids des moules qu'elle porte (approcher
l'équilibre). Cependant, cela multiplie les sorties en mer pour ajouter des flotteurs au fur
et à mesure du développement des moules. Dans les faits, les exploitants de filières
suivent peu cette consigne.
En ce qui concerne le prix des filières, on peut faire des comparaisons simples en
ramenant leur prix au litre de flottabilité. La majorité des filières françaises coûtent entre
7 et 9 FF par litre de flotteurs (prix 1990).
Par ailleurs, l'IFREMER vient d'éditer deux documents sur les filières mytilicoles :
• un guide pratique1 : outre les éléments présentés ci-dessus, il rassemble
les renseignements nécessaires pour choisir un modèle de filière, ses
composants, ses ancrages…ainsi que pour assembler le matériel, le
mettre en place, l'exploiter…
• un film vidéo2 : reprenant, en images, les principaux thèmes développés
dans le guide pratique.
1
Les filières pour l'élevage des moules, Xavier Bompais, IFREMER 252pages, 150FF. Disponible auprès du Service de
la documentation et des Publications (SDP), Centre IFREMER de Brest, BP 70, 29280 Plouzané Cedex
2
Longues lignes d'horizon. 15 minutes. Disponible à la même adresses.
Les trois types de filières utilisées en France
Filière de surface
Implantation des filières sur les côtes de la Manche et de l'Atlantique
Filière de sub-surface
Implantation des concessions d'élevage en mer dans la région Languedoc-
Roussillon
Les principales contraintes pour une filière :
• Résister à la houle
• Être bien orientée dans le courant
• Utiliser des ancrages adaptés
• limiter l'usure du matériel
• Être exploitée dans de bonnes conditions
• Être rentable !
Coup de fouet sur une suspension de moules
Passage d'une vague sur une suspension de moules
Pour lutter contre les effets de la houle :
• Choisir des sites abrités !…
• Immerger la filière
• Utiliser des flotteurs élancés (fins)
• Ajuster le nombre de flotteurs au poids des moules
Les mouvements et les forces s'atténuent très vite avec la profondeur
Inconvénients de l'immersion :
• La hauteur d'élevage diminue
• La filière est moins accessible
• Les flotteurs subissent la pres-
Flotteurs élancés
Prégrossissement Sur site sans transfer Passage rapide en milieu ouvert Passage en nurseries intensive
5 à 10 mois 5 à 6 mois 2 à 4 mois
↓ écloserie
Pathologie expérimentale
Production G1
(purification-inoculation)
Prégrossissement
↓ milieu naturel
(2 ans minimum)
Sélection-test
↓ inoculation
(6 à 9 mois)
Immunologie
(mécanismes de défense)
Conditionnement géniteurs
↓
Production-sélection-test G2
↓
↓
Production-sélection-test G3
Stabilité et reproductibilité
Production-test individus issus de rétrocroisement: du caractère
G2 / individu non sélectionné
↓
Réponse
Longueur h.t. = 300m Longueur dun troncon = 50m Longueur utile = 5×50m = 250m
Profondeur du fond = 20 à 30m Profondeur de la filière = 5m
Flottabilité initiale = 3m3 Nb de cordes = 450 Production moyenne = 20 à 25T
CEPRALMAR
LA TECHNOLOGIE CONCHYLICOLE OFF SHORE
L'utilisation de filières fut généralisée grâce notamment à deux avantages majeurs :
• résistante, par sa souplesse et son immersion à - 5 m, à la houle et aux
courants, elle offre toutes les garanites nécessaires quant à la sécurité des
installations et du travail;
• destiné à l'élevage en suspension, elle permet l'utilisation des cordes
classiquement fabriquées en conchyliculture lagunaire.
Par leur disposition dans le profit des plus fortes houles, c'est - à - dire sur un axe
perpendiculaire à la côte, et leur dimensionnement très largement calculé, les filières ont
une excellente tenue aux intempéries, sans dommage pour les coquillages.
En 1987, à l'issue de la phase d'expérimentation, la filière flottante immergée
apparaisant donc comme un système de production fiable mais perfectible dans sa
conception et son exploitation.
Rapidement, la pratique et l'ingéniosité de nombreux professionnels allaient s'en
charger. Des adaptions variées, fonctions d'observations personnelles furent mises en
application, ce qui explique la multiplicité des types de filières rencontrées aujourd'hui, et
de leur coût compris entre 50.000 et 100.000 francs. Ainsi par exemple, l'aussière
principale de 300 mètres de longueur est subdivisée en tronçons allant de 18 m à 50
mètres suivant les entreprises, la flottabilité initiale varie de 1,5 M3 à 23 M3, d'une
extrême à l'autre. Ces ajustements sont mus par un seul et même but : amortir les très
lourds investissement en favorisant une production maximale pour un coût d'exploitation
minimal, en d'autres termes rigidifier la filière pour augmenter sa portance tout en
réduisant les interventions en mer.
La durée du cycle d'élevage, variable suivant la taille du naissain, se situe généralement
entre 6 et 8 mois. Cette croissance rapide implique des interventions fréquentes (et
coûteuses) sur les filières. Afin de rajoute de la flottabilité pour compenser la prise de
poids des moules, mais aussi pour effectuer des tris sélectifs car le captage de naissain
est très important entre 0 et 10 mètres et peut gêner l'élevage. Cette de la mytiliculture
sur les structures de type «filières immergées».
L'originalité de la structure d'élevage impose de disposer d'embarcations spécialement
conçues pur la conchyliculture en mer. Leurs caractéristiques se sont affinées au cours
des dernières années, mais il n, existe pas de modèle unique.
Les points communs à toutes embarcations sont :
• les dimensions importantes : le minimum étant 12 × 4 m, le maximum 20×6m
• le faible tirant d'eau (0, 70 mètre au maximum),
• un équipement hydraulique de relevage des filières constitué d'une grue et
de potences.
Les divergences concernent la longueur de 12 à 20 mètres, la forme de carène, la
nature du matériau de construction (aluminium, acier, résine, polyester) et
l'emplacement de la cabine.
L'exploitation courante s'effectue depuis la surface tandis que certains travaux de
surveillance du matériel et de réparation se déroulent en plongée.
Une barge de 12 mètres, d'un coût d'environ 750.000 frs, permet l'exploitation de 10 à
15 filières, tandis qu'une barge de 20 mètres exploite 29 à filières pur un coût initial 1, 2
MF.
Dans un souci de diversification des techniques et des espèces élevées, les
professionnels expérimentent d'autres structures d'élevage que la filière :les modules
ballastables, les cadres et les conteneurs, présentent la particularité de reposer sur le
fond, ce qui évite captage massif de naissain de moules. Ces techniques permettent
l'affinage d'huîtres creuses, le captage et le prégrossissement d'huîtres plates. Elle
devront encore être améliorées avant de déboucher sur des productions significatives.
Le lecteur aura compris, à travers tour d'horizon sur les technologies conchylicoles off-
shore, tout le chemin parcouru par les professionnels qui se sont lancés dans cette
aventure. L'apprentissage du milieu maritime ne s'est pas fait sans revers pour les
hommes habitués à la tranquillité des lagunes. Revers d'autant plus cruels que les
importants investissement mis en oeuvre sont lourds à supporter pour les entreprises.
C'est pourquoi, parallèlement à cet effort de mise au point technique, la conchyliculture
en mer a fait l'objet d'un soutien financier important de la part des collectivités locales et
de la CEE. Cette conjonction a permis l'organisation des structures de production et le
développement spectaculaire des trois dernières années.
ÉVOLUTION DE LA PRODUCTION DE MOULES DE PLEINE MER EN LANGUEDOC-
ROUSSILLON
CEPRALMAR
Objectif : 15.000 tonnes eu 1995?
Les perspectives pour cette nouvelle activité encore en pleine évolution sont, en premier
lieu, d'ordre quantitatif : s'agit de double la production d'ici à l'an 2000 en exploitant
l'ensemble des structures déjà en place. A l'heure actuelle, seulement 50% environ des
concessions attribuées sont équipées de filières. Au vu des résultats obtenus jusqu'à
présent par les conchyliculteurs méditerranéens, cela semble un objectif parfaitement
réaliste.
LE DINOPHYSIS
Le Dynophisis est une algue du phytoplancton qui produit une toxine. Les moules, en se
nourrissant de cette algue, concentrent la toxine et deviennent impropres à la
consommation. La première apparition du Dinophysis a eu lieu en 1987 dans la région,
alors qu'en Atlantique et en Manche, le problème est plus ancien, il est de nouveau
apparu, depuis 1989m chaque été. Dans certain cas, ses effets se sont prolongés
pendant plus d'un mois, interdisant toute commmercialisation.
Le retrempage de longue durée est la seule solution connue à ce jour. Afin d'assure
l'épuration et l'établissement d'un stock tampon, les professionnels des lotissements de
Sète-Marseullan et des Arequiers retrempent leurs moules dans l'étang de Tan; un mois
suffit à décontaminer les animaux.
Jusqu'à peésent, la lagune a été épargnée par de développement phytoplanctonique,
mais une partie des professionnels de l'étang redoutent son introduction par le
retrempage de moules de Pleine Mer. Vive polémique qui refait surface à chacune des
apparitions du Dinophysis en mer.
Mais le Véritable enjeu pour les années à venir est d'ordre commercial. Après le défi
technologique qu'ils ont su relever, les professionnels vont devoir faire face dès 1993 à
un climat de concurrence accrue, Dans ce contexte, la diversification des espèces
élevées en mer, les gains de productivité l'amélioration des techniques, et surtout la
volonté constante et partagée de mener une politique commerciale cohérente, seront
autant d'atouts que les professionnels devront développer pour garantir la rentabilité de
leurs entreprises.
D'ores et déjà, la conchyliculture en mer s'affirme comme une activité créatrice d'emplois
et de richesse pour la région Languedoc-Roussillon, elle représente également une
alternative originale pour l'aménagement et la valorisation de la bande côtière, face au
quasi monopole du tourisme dans cette région.
CONCHYLINCULTURE EN MER EN LANGUEDOC-ROUSSILLON : DESCRIPTION PAR SITE
1991 1993 Prévisions
Sète-Mars Aresquiers Vendres Gruissan Sètes-Mars. Aresquiers Vendres Gruissan
Superficie totale en mer (ha) 2.754 540 648 261 2.754 540 648 261
Concessions disponibles (3ha) 348 90 144 87 348 90 144 87
Nb concessions attribuées 328 57 51 45 340 50 70 50
Nb concessionnaires 185 29 16 8 200 15 20 10
Nb entreprises de production 80 9 8 6 90 15 7 8
Nb filières plantées 370 30 18 + 90 souc. 28 550 100 35 + 90 souc. 40
Nb bateaux spécialisés 50 7 6 6 60 10 7 8
Port en activité (0 ou 1) 0 1 1 1 1 1
Production en tonnes 8 à 9.000 600 140 600 12 à 14.000 2.000 500 1.000
Chiffre d'affaires à la
production (MF) 51 3.6 MF 0.8 3.6 MF 78 12 3 6
Chiffre d'affaires à
l'expédition (MF) 68 4.8 MF 1.1 MF 4.8 MF 104 16 4 8
Emplois directs 200 à 250 25 18 20 250 à 300 45 30 25
LES FONCTIONS
Cellule de mesure
PROCEDURE
SAMPLE PREPARATION
Opening shellfish
80 to 100g of meat and shell liquor (MSL)
Dilution (1 : 2w/v) with tryptone-salt water
INITIAL SUSPENSION
Conductance method
False positive results (within 9.2 h) : 1,1 %
False negative results : 0,7 %
CONCLUSION
On the whole, these results indicate that conductance measurement can be performed
routinely to provide rapid quantitative estimation of E. coli in shellfish by continuous
automated analysis 24h a day. Each sample can be put into or removed from analyzer at
any moment without interfacing with the preformance of other analyses. Analysis
handling time is reduced by about 70 % (35 min vs 2h) compared with the conventional
method, so that a greater number of analyses can be done in a shorter time. Moreover,
results can be obtained within 4 to 9.2h, depending on the degree of sample
contamination, as compared to 3 days for the traditional MPN method.
COMPARISON OF CONVENTIONAL MPN
AND CONDUCTANCE PROCEDURE
MPN METHOD CONDUCTANCE METHOD
Response time 3 days 4to9.2h
Sample handling time 2h 35min
Analysis and interpretation of Manual Automated continuosly
results 24 b a day
Detection threshold 18 E. coli 30E. coli
in 100g of sample in 100g of sample