UNIT – I

Nature and Scope of business research- Research process- Defining the research
Problem and setting the objectives- Preparing research proposal-Review of literature.
What is Research?
The task of research is to generate accurate information for use in decision making.
The emphasis of research is on shifting decision makers from intuitive information gathering
to systematic and objective investigation. Research is defined as the systematic and objective
process of gathering, recording and analyzing data for aid in making decisions.
Why is Research needed / Important / Necessary?
Research facilitates effective management. At many companies research drives every
aspect of major decision making. For example, at ford motor company, research is to
fundamental that management makes hardly any significant decision without the benefit of
some kind of research.
Characteristics of Research
1. Research begins with a problem in the form of a question in the mind of the
researcher.
2. Research demands the identification of a problem, stated in clear, unambiguous terms.
3. Research requires a plan.
4. Research deals with the main problem through appropriate sub-problems.
5. Research seeks direction through appropriate hypotheses and is based upon obvious
assumptions.
6. Research deals with facts and their meaning.
7. Research is circular.
When Research is Needed?
A manager faced with two or more possible courses of action faces the initial decision
of whether or not research should be conducted. The determination of the need for research
centers on –
Time constraints-
Conducting research systematically takes time. In many instances management
concludes that, because a decision must be made immediately, there will be no time for
Research.
Availability of data -
Often managers already possess enough information to make sound decisions with
business research. When they lack adequate information, however, research must be
considered. Managers must ask themselves if the research will provide the information
needed to answer the basic questions about a decision. Furthermore, if a potential source of
data exists, managers will want to know how much it will cost to obtain the data.
Types of Business Research
: The two main types are Basic and Applied research.
Basic Research -
The basic research is fundamental research driven by a scientist's curiosity. The main
motivation behind it is to expand his knowledge, not to invent something.
Applied research
- Applied research on the other hand is designed to solve practical problems, rather than to
gain knowledge. Applied research sets out to prove a specific hypothesis of value to the
clients paying for the research. For example, a cigarette company might commission research
that attempts to show that cigarettes are good for one's health. Many researchers have ethical
misgivings about doing applied research.
 Descriptive Vs Analytical
 Applied (Basic) Vs Fundamental (Applied)
  Quantitative Vs Qualitative
 Conceptual Vs Empirical
 Special types of research
Other Types of Research -
Based on the purposes for which the researches are conducted, they may be divided into
following categories:
1. Baseline/Bench-mark survey/Research.
2. Evaluation Research:
a) Formative Evaluation (Mid-term)
b) Terminal Evaluation.
3. Impact assessment/research
4. Feasibility studies.
Baseline Survey-
A baseline survey is a research in which data on pre-project socio-economic and business
aspects are generated in order to facilitate the assessment of future impact of project
intervention. A baseline survey is conducted in the absence of available published data on
various socio-economic and business aspects.
Evaluation Research –
a. Formative or mid-term evaluation is done to assess whether the project is in the
right track. It is usually done to identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and
threats. On the basis of the findings of the formative evaluation research corrective
measures are taken to attain the goals of the project.
b. Terminal evaluation research is conducted to assess the efficiency and effectiveness
of the project / intervention.
Effectiveness is the ratio of actual and planned activities. The extents of attainment of goal or
the degree of target fulfilment determines the level of effectiveness.
Efficiency:- Attaining maximum output with minimum input.
Impact Assessment-
The research, which is undertaken to measure the quantitative benefits derived out of project
intervention and qualitative changes that occurred due to project intervention, is known as an
impact assessment research. This type of research also provides information for identifying
the negative impact of the project.
Feasibility Studies -
This type of research is undertaken prior to starting of any business enterprise or any business
related project. This type of research is done to assess the technical, economic, market and
financial viability of the project. The issue whether the project is socially desirable and
environmentally acceptable is also taken into consideration.
Objectives
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to explore new ideas
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated
4. To establish a cause and effect relationship and test the relationship between two
variables
Nature of Research
a. BR- As an economic resource
b. BR- As a system of authority
c. BR- as an activity of business management
d. BR- As a Team effort
e. BR- AS an art or science
 f. BR- As a profession
g. BR- as an interdisciplinary system

Scope & Its applications in different functions of management

1. Advertising Research
a. Motivation research
b. Copy research
c. Media research
d. Studies of advertisement effectiveness
e. Other
2. Business economic and corporate research
a. Short range forecasting
b. Long range forecasting
c. Studies of business trends
d. Pricing studies
e. Plant and warehouse location studies
f. product mix studies
g. Acquisition Studies
h. Export and international studies
i. Others
3. Corporate responsibility research
a. Consumers’ “ rights to know” studies
b. Ecological impact studies
c. Studies of legal constraints
d. Social values and policies studies
e. Others
4. Product research
5. Packaging research
6. Sales and market research
a. Measurement of market potential
b. Market share analysis
c. Sales analysis
d. Establishment of sales quotas & territories
e. Distribution channel studies
f. Test markets
g. Consumer panel operation
h. Sales compensation studies
i. Promotional studies
j. Others
THE RESEARCH PROCESS:
Steps of Business Research Process
I. Defining the Research problem & Research Objective:-
Two steps are involved defining the research problem
a. Understanding the problem thoroughly and
b. Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from analytical point of view
Techniques for preliminary investigation
a. Situation Analysis
b. Informal investigations
Researcher can review two types of literature
a. The conceptual literature
 b. The empirical literature
II. Review of theories, concepts and previous research findings
III. Development of Working Hypothesis
Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test
its logical or empirical consequences.
Approach
 Discussion with colleagues and experts
 Examination of data and records
 Review of the same
 Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews

Define Research Problem

& Research Objective

Review concepts and (II) Review previous

theories research finding

Formulate Hypothesis

FF Design research (Including F

sample design)

FF Collect data (Execution)

F
Analyse data (test hypotheses) Report Preparation

F
Actionable Proposition
Interpretation and implications
Where,
F = Feedback (Helps in controlling the sub-system to which it is transmitted)
FF = Feed forward (Serves the vital function of providing criterion for evaluation)
IV. Determining Research designs (including sample design)
 Research Design is the basic framework which provides guidelines for the rest
of the research work. It is a map or a blueprint according to which the research is to
be conducted
Research design categories
a. Exploratory research designs
b. Descriptive research designs
c. Causal research designs
Following points must be considered while selecting any of the research designs
available.
1. The means of obtaining the information
2. The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff
3. Time available
4. Cost factor
5. Sampling plan
Sample design:
A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data is actually
collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. It provides answer to the
following four questions;
1. What sampling unit should be studied?
2. What should be the sample size?
3. What sample procedure should be used?
4. What contact method should be used?
V. Data collection
a. By observation
b. Through personal interview
c. Through telephone interviews
d. Through Schedules
e. By mailing questionnaire
VI. Analysis of data
The researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable
categories. Three operations have to be done before the raw data is brought in a form
to be analyzed further
a. Coding
b. Editing
c. Tabulation
After successful completion of above operations following three steps are there to
follow to complete Data analysis.
After successful completion of above operations following three steps
are there to follow to complete Data analysis
1. Hypothesis Testing
a. Chi Square
b. F- test
c. Z test
2. Generalization
3. Interpretation
VII. Interpretation and Implications
VIII. Actionable Implications
IX. Report preparation
PROBLEM IDENTIFIACTION AND DEFINITION:
What is a research problem?
It refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in context of either a
theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
Components of a research problem
 There must be an individual or a group or an organization
 There must be at least two courses of action
 There must be at least two possible outcomes
 The courses of actions available must provide some chance of obtaining the objective
 There must be some environment to which the difficulty pertains
Selecting a problem
Following points to be avoided while selecting a problem,
 Overdone Subject
 Controversial subject
 Too narrow and too vague problem
 Unfeasible subject
 Uneconomical and time consuming problem
Steps involved in defining a problem
 General definition of the problem
 Understanding the nature of the problem
 Surveying the literature available
 Developing the ideas
 Rephrasing the problem
Research question
 Questions in the mind of researcher
 All are able to achieve research objective/ to solve research problem if
put together
Three types of Research questions
 Descriptive questions
 Comparison Questions
 Relational Questions
o Association Questions (Happening together)
o Causal Questions
 Concomitant Variation (two things vary together)
 Time sequence of the variable (Occurrence of two variables)
 Cause variable (Reasons behind)
 Illustration
(1) What sport matches your personality?
Research questions
1. Sociability
2. Spontaneity
3. Discipline
4. Aggressiveness
5. Competitiveness
6. Mental focus
7. Risk taking
Variables Very High High Medium Low Very Low
1 *
2 *
3 *
4 *
5 *
6 *
7 *
Possible Answers
 Swimming
 Carom
 Jogging
HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION
Hypothesis: A tentative explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested
by further investigation. A hypothesis describes in concrete terms, in the form of a statement, what you expect
will happen in your study.
Following aspects should be kept in mind when formulating a hypothesis:
 Hypothesis can only be formulated after the researcher has gained enough knowledge regarding the
nature, extent and intensity of the problem.
 Hypotheses should figure throughout the research process in order to give structure to
the research.
 Hypotheses are tentative statements/solutions or explanations of the formulated
problem. Care should be taken not to over-simplify and generalize the formulation of
hypotheses.
 The research problem does not have to consist of one hypothesis only. The type of
problem are investigated, the extent which encircles the research field are the
determining factors on how many hypotheses will be included in the research
proposal.
Criteria for the formulation of a hypothesis: Following criteria are of importance in
formulating hypotheses. A hypothesis should:
1. Stand a test
2. Be expressed in clear language
3. Be in accordance with the general theme of other hypotheses statements in the same
field of study, and study should be regarded as valid.
4. Be coordinated with the theory of science
5. Be a tentative answer to the formulated problem
6. Be logical and simplistic
7. Consider available research techniques (to be able to analyse and interpret the results)
8. Be specific, and
9. Be relevant to the collection of empirical phenomenon and not merely conclude value
judgements
10. In case of exploratory research generally there exists no hypothesis.
Steps in Formulating a Hypothesis
1. Decide what you want to explain: choose a dependent variable
2. Choose independent variables that also show variation
3. Think of multiple causes of the dependent variable
4. Consider alternative measures of both the dependent and independent variables
VARIABLES AND ATTRIBUTES:
Variable: Any entity that can take on different values. Anything that can be assigned a value.
Age can change. Nationality can differ. Variables are not always ‘quantitative’ or numerical.
Attribute: A specific value on a variable.
The variable sex or gender has two attributes: male and female
or,
The variable agreement might be defined as having five attributes:
1=strongly agree
2=disagree
3=neutral
4=agree
5=strongly agree
TYPES of VARIABLES
1. Independent Variable
2. Dependent Variable
Example
Research question – “How could extended use of the Internet negatively affect college
students’ academic performance?
”Extended use of the Internet negatively affects most college students’ academic
performance
Independent variable - Internet use
Attributes- high, moderate, low, none
Dependent variable = Performance
Attributes: Good, average, Bad
Variable Traits
A. Exhaustive
B. Mutually exclusive
Different forms of Hypothesis
A. Non Directional Hypothesis:
All examples of associated difference, sometimes called non directional hypotheses
B. Directional Hypothesis
1. With magnitude
2. Without magnitude
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
 The prediction is that variables A and B are related.
 The only other possible outcome is that variables A and B are not related
A. Null Hypothesis
B. Alternative Hypothesis
 A. The Alternative Hypothesis:
 The alternative hypothesis is simply the question you are asking.
 Denoted by HA or H1
 Just opposite to Null Hypothesis
H1: μ1 = μ2
TWO TAILED V/s ONE TAILED TEST
EXAMPLE
You are investigating the effects of a new employee training program and that you believe
one of the outcomes will be that there will be less employee absenteeism. Your two
hypotheses might be stated something like this:
The null hypothesis for this study is;
H0: As a result of the XYZ company employee training program, there will either be no
significant difference in employee absenteeism or there will be a significant increase.
Which is tested against the alternative hypothesis?
Ha: As a result of the XYZ company employee training program, there will be a significant
decrease in employee absenteeism.

HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PROPOSAL:

The goal of a research proposal (RP) is to present and justify a research idea you have
and to present the practical ways in which you think this research should be conducted.
Having decided on the research topic and defined a clear research question or set of
questions, together with appropriate methods of seeking answers, you now need to convey
your plan of research clearly in a research proposal.
Research proposals serve a number of purposes. Among them:
 They convince others that your research is worth undertaking.
 They enable you to demonstrate expertise and competency in your particular area of
study.
 They may serve as a contract between the researcher and her funders.
 They serve as a planning tool for the researcher
Regardless of your research area and the methodology you choose, all research proposals
must address the following questions:
 What you plan to accomplish,
 Why you want to do it and
 How you are going to do it.
1. Title:
 It should be concise and descriptive
 Often titles are stated in terms of a functional relationship, because such titles clearly
indicate the independent and dependent variables.
 However, if possible, think of an informative but catchy title. An effective title not
only pricks the reader's interest, but also predisposes him/her favourably towards the
proposal.
2. Abstract: It is a brief summary of approximately 300 words. It should include the
research question, the rationale for the study, the hypothesis (if any), the method and the
main findings.
3. Introduction:
 The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the necessary background or context for you
research problem.
 Try to place your research question in the context of either a current
"hot" area, or an older area that remains viable.
 Secondly, you need to provide a brief but appropriate historical backdrop.
 Thirdly, provide the contemporary context in which your proposed
research question occupies the central stage.
 Finally, identify "key players" and refer to the most relevant and representative
publications.
The introduction generally covers the following elements:
 State the research problem, which is often referred to as the purpose of the study.
 Provide the context and set the stage for your research question in such a way as to
show its necessity and importance.
 Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth
doing
 .Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be addressed by your research
 Identify the key independent and dependent variables of your experiment. Alternatively,
specify the phenomenon you want to study.
 State your hypothesis or theory, if any. For exploratory
or phenomenological research, you may not have any hypotheses. (Please do
not confuse the hypothesis with the statistical null hypothesis.)
 Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear
focus.
 Provide definitions of key concepts. (This is optional.)
4. Literature Review:
 Ensures that you are not "reinventing the wheel".
 Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research.
 Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem.
 Demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research i s s u e s
r e l a t e d t o y o u r research question.
 Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information.
 Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature.
 Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as
t h e c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k f o r y o u r research.
 Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a significant and
substantial contribution to the literature (i.e., resolving an important theoretical
issue or filling a major gap in the literature).
Literature reviews suffer from the following problems
1. Lacking organization and structure
2. Lacking focus, utility and coherence.
3. Being repetitive and verbose
4. Failing to cite influential papers
5. Failing to keep up with recent developments
6. Failing to critically evaluate cited papers
7. Citing irrelevant or trivial references
 8. Depending too much on secondary sources
5. Methods (Methodology):
 The Method section is very important because it tells your Research Committee how
you plan to tackle your Research problem
 In short, what actions are you going to take in order to answer the question? When
will you know whether the hypothesis has been proven wrong, or has survived enough
tests to be considered, for now, valid? Those tests and the way you are supposed to
handle them to give rigor to you research is what is understood under methods.
 Methods divide in qualitative (interviews, questionnaires) and quantitative (statistics,
stuff that deals intensively with numbers)
For quantitative studies, the method section typically consists of the following sections:
 Design – Is it a questionnaire study or a laboratory experiment? What kind of design
do you choose?
 Subjects or participants – Who will take part in your study? What kind of sampling
procedure do you use?
 Instruments – What kind of measuring instruments or questionnaires do you use? Why
do you choose them? Are they valid and reliable?
 Procedure – How do you plan to carry out your study? What activities are involved?
How long does it take?
6. Results & discussion:
You also need to mention the limitations and weaknesses of the proposed research, which
may be justified by time and financial constraints as well as by the early developmental
stage of your research area.
Common Mistakes in Proposal Writing:
 Failure to provide the proper context to frame the research question
 Failure to delimit the boundary conditions for your research.
 Failure to cite landmark studies.
 Failure to accurately present the theoretical and empirical contributions by other
researchers.
 Failure to stay focused on the research question.
 Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research.
 Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues.
 Too much rambling – going “all over the map” without a clear sense of direction.
(the best proposals move forward with ease and grace like a seamless river).
 Too many citation lapses and incorrect references.
7. Synopsis
 Statement of Problem
o Introduction to subject
o Specific problem formulation
 Objective of study
 Scope of study
 Research methodology
o Hypothesis Formulation
o Data collection
o Analysis and presentation of data
o Limitation of study
 Presentation of Study
 Bibliography
REVIEW OF LITERATURE:
Writing a Literature Review
Definition: “A literature review is an objective, critical summary of published research
literature
relevant to a topic under consideration for research. Its purpose is to create familiarity with
current
thinking and research on a particular topic, and may justify future research into a previously
overlooked or understudied area. “
Purpose of the Literature Review
Writing a Literature Review
Definition: “A literature review is an objective, critical summary of published research
literature
relevant to a topic under consideration for research. Its purpose is to create familiarity with
current
thinking and research on a particular topic, and may justify future research into a previously
overlooked or understudied area. “
Purpose of the Literature Review
Writing a Literature Review
Definition: “A literature review is an objective, critical summary of published research
literature
relevant to a topic under consideration for research. Its purpose is to create familiarity with
current
thinking and research on a particular topic, and may justify future research into a previously
overlooked or understudied area. “
Purpose of the Literature Review
Writing a Literature Review
Definition: “A literature review is an objective, critical summary of published research
literature
relevant to a topic under consideration for research. Its purpose is to create familiarity with
current
thinking and research on a particular topic, and may justify future research into a previously
overlooked or understudied area. “
Purpose of the Literature Review
Definition: “A literature review is an objective, critical summary of published research
literature relevant to a topic under consideration for research. Its purpose is to create
familiarity with current thinking and research on a particular topic, and may justify future
research into a previously overlooked or understudied area.”
Purpose of the Literature Review:
 Readers get easy access to research on a particular topic.
 Provides a starting point for researchers in a new area by forcing them to summarize,
evaluate, and compare original research in that specific area.
 Ensures no duplication is done.
 Provide clues as to direction of research of recommended focus areas
 Highlights key findings
 Identifies inconsistencies, gaps and contradictions in the literature.
 Provides a constructive analysis of past methodologies and approaches of other
researchers.
A typical literature review consists of the following components:
1. Introduction::
  A concise definition of a topic under consideration.
 The scope of the related literature being investigated.
 The introduction should also note intentional exclusions / limitations
 Another purpose of the introduction is to state the general findings of the
review
 Comment on the availability of sources in the subject area.
2. Main Body:
 Can be organised through
o Chronological approach
o Theoretical approach
o Thematic approach
 Summarize and evaluate each article for its premise, methodology, and
conclusion. Point out inconsistencies, omissions, and errors, as it is to
identify accuracy, depth and relevance.
 Use logical connections and transitions to connect sources.
3. Conclusion:
Summarises the key findings in general terms
Includes notable commonalities between works.
Opportunity to justify a research proposal, hence the idea should be clearly re-
stated and supported according to the findings of the review.
4. References:
Adapted from : Thompson Rivers University (no date). Retrived from:
Https://www.tru.ca / _shared/assets/Literature_Review_Template30564.pddf

Format for Midterm output

Introduction
-Write a brief introduction of your topic, including the relationships of the
variables you wish to explore. What do previous research say about them? What
makes your study distinct from other previous research?
Overview of the present study
 What specific relationship of the variables do you want to explore?
 Why is your study important? What possible knowledge / benefit can
be gained from it?
Method
Participants
- Include sampling procedure, desired n
Procedure and Materials
- What ethical guidelines did you follow?
- What did you do for your control group?
- What did you do for your experimental group?
Measures
- What measures did you use for your
o Independent variable?
o Dependent variable?
5. Results- what statistical tools did you use?
- present your data tables and write a brief description for each. What conclusions
can be drawn from these tables?
Discussion
- how do you explain the results you obtained based on the introduction and
previous literature you presented?
- What type of generalizations can be made from this research?
References
- make sure to write them in APA format
 UNIT – II
Research Designs: Exploratory Research Design and Qualitative Studies-
Focus groups - Descriptive Research Design- Panel Research –
Experimental Research Designs.
Research Designs:
Exploratory Research Design:

Exploratory research is defined as a research used to investigate a

problem which is not clearly defined. It is conducted to have a better
understanding of the existing problem, but will not provide conclusive
results. For such a research, a researcher starts with a general idea and
uses this research as a medium to identify issues, that can be the focus
for future research. An important aspect here is that the researcher should
be willing to change his/her direction subject to the revelation of new data
or insight. Such a research is usually carried out when the problem is at a
preliminary stage. It is often referred to as grounded theory approach or
interpretive research as it used to answer questions like what, why and
how.
For example: Consider a scenario where a juice bar owner feels that
increasing the variety of juices will enable increase in customers, however
he is not sure and needs more information. The owner intends to carry out
an exploratory research to find out and hence decides to do an
exploratory research to find out if expanding their juices selection will
enable him to get more customers of if there is a better idea.
Another example of exploratory research is a podcast survey
template that can be used to collect feedback about the podcast
consumption metrics both from existing listeners as well as other podcast
listeners that are currently not subscribed to this channel. This helps the
author of the podcast create curated content that will gain a larger
audience.
Types and methodologies of Exploratory research
While it may sound a little difficult to research something that has very
little information about it, there are several methods which can help a
researcher figure out the best research design, data collection
methods and choice of subjects. There are two ways in which research can
be conducted namely primary and secondary.. Under these two types,
there are multiple methods which can used by a researcher. The data
gathered from these research can be qualitative or quantitative. Some of
the most widely used research designs include the following:
Primary research methods
Primary research is information gathered directly from the subject. It can
be through a group of people or even an individual. Such a research can
be carried out directly by the researcher himself or can employ a third
party to conduct it on their behalf. Primary research is specifically carried
out to explore a certain problem which requires an in-depth study.
 Surveys/polls: Surveys/polls are used to gather information from a
predefined group of respondents. It is one of the most important
quantitative method. Various types of surveys or polls can be used
to explore opinions, trends, etc. With the advancement in
technology, surveys can now be sent online and can be very easy to
access. For instance, use of a survey app through tablets, laptops or
even mobile phones. This information is also available to the
researcher in real time as well. Nowadays, most organisations offer
short length surveys and rewards to respondents, in order to
achieve higher response rates.
For example: A survey is sent to a given set of audience to
understand their opinions about the size of mobile phones when
they purchase one. Based on such information organisation can dig
deeper into the topic and make business related decision.
 Interviews: While you may get a lot of information from public
sources, but sometimes an in person interview can give in-depth
information on the subject being studied. Such a research is
a qualitative research method. An interview with a subject matter
expert can give you meaningful insights that a generalized public
source won’t be able to provide. Interviews are carried out in person
or on telephone which have open-ended questions to get
meaningful information about the topic.
For example: An interview with an employee can give you more
insights to find out the degree of job satisfaction, or an interview
with a subject matter expert of quantum theory can give you in-
depth information on that topic.
 Focus groups: Focus group is yet another widely used method in
exploratory research. In such a method a group of people is chosen
and are allowed to express their insights on the topic that is being
studied. Although, it is important to make sure that while choosing
the individuals in a focus group they should have a common
background and have comparable experiences.
For example: A focus group helps a research identify the opinions
of consumers if they were to buy a phone. Such a research can help
the researcher understand what the consumer value while buying a
phone. It may be screen size, brand value or even the dimensions.
Based on which the organisation can understand what are consumer
buying attitudes, consumer opinions, etc.
  Observations: Observation research can be qualitative
observation or quantitative observation. Such a research is done to
observe a person and draw the finding from their reaction to certain
parameters. In such a research, there is no direct interaction with
the subject.
For example: An FMCG company wants to know how it’s consumer
react to the new shape of their product. The researcher observes
the customers first reaction and collects the data, which is then
used to draw inferences from the collective information.
Secondary research methods
Secondary research is gathering information from previously published
primary research. In such a research you gather information from sources
likes case studies, magazines, newspapers, books, etc.
 Online research: In today’s world, this is one of the fastest way to
gather information on any topic. A lot of data is readily available on
the internet and the researcher can download it whenever he needs
it. An important aspect to be noted for such a research is
the genuineness and authenticity of the source websites that the
researcher is gathering the information from.
For example: A researcher needs to find out what is the
percentage of people that prefer a specific brand phone. The
researcher just enters the information he needs in a search engine
and gets multiple links with related information and statistics.
 Literature research: Literature research is one of the most
inexpensive method used for discovering a hypothesis. There is
tremendous amount of information available in libraries, online
sources, or even commercial databases. Sources can include
newspapers, magazines, books from library, documents from
government agencies, specific topic related articles, literature,
Annual reports, published statistics from research organisations and
so on.
However, a few things have to be kept in mind while researching
from these sources. Government agencies have authentic
information but sometimes may come with a nominal cost. Also,
research from educational institutions is generally overlooked, but in
fact educational institutions carry out more number of research than
any other entities.
Furthermore, commercial sources provide information on major
topics like political agendas, demographics, financial information,
market trends and information, etc.
For example: A company has low sales. It can be easily explored
from available statistics and market literature if the problem is
market related or organisation related or if the topic being studied is
regarding financial situation of the country, then research data can
be accessed through government documents or commercial
sources.
 Case study research: Case study research can help a researcher
with finding more information through carefully analyzing existing
cases which have gone through a similar problem. Such analysis are
 very important and critical especially in today’s business world. The
researcher just needs to make sure he analyses the case carefully in
regards to all the variables present in the previous case against his
own case. It is very commonly used by business organisations or
social sciences sector or even in the health sector.
For example: A particular orthopedic surgeon has the highest
success rate for performing knee surgeries. A lot of other hospitals
or doctors have taken up this case to understand and benchmark
the method in which this surgeon does the procedure to increase
their success rate.
Exploratory research: Steps to conduct a research
 Identify the problem: A researcher identifies the subject of
research and the problem is addressed by carrying out multiple
methods to answer the questions.
 Create the hypothesis: When the researcher has found out that
there are no prior studies and the problem is not precisely resolved,
the researcher will create a hypothesis based on the questions
obtained while identifying the problem.
 Further research: Once the data has been obtained, the
researcher will continue his study through descriptive investigation.
Qualitative methods are used to further study the subject in detail
and find out if the information is true or not.
Characteristics of Exploratory research
 They are not structured studies
 It is usually low cost, interactive and open ended.
 It will enable a researcher answer questions like what is the
problem? What is the purpose of the study? And what topics could
be studied?
 To carry out exploratory research, generally there is no prior
research done or the existing ones do not answer the problem
precisely enough.
 It is a time consuming research and it needs patience and has risks
associated with it.
 The researcher will have to go through all the information available
for the particular study he is doing.
 There are no set of rules to carry out the research per se, as they
are flexible, broad and scattered.
 The research needs to have importance or value. If the problem is
not important in the industry the research carried out is ineffective.
 The research should also have a few theories which can support its
findings as that will make it easier for the researcher to assess it
and move ahead in his study
 Such a research usually produces qualitative data, however in
certain cases quantitative data can be generalized for a larger
sample through use of surveys and experiments.
Advantages of Exploratory research
 The researcher has a lot of flexibility and can adapt to changes as
the research progresses.
 It is usually low cost.
  It helps lay the foundation of a research, which can lead to further
research.
 It enables the researcher understand at an early stage, if the topic is
worth investing the time and resources and if it is worth pursuing.
 It can assist other researchers to find out possible causes for the
problem, which can be further studied in detail to find out, which of
them is the most likely cause for the problem.
Disadvantages of Exploratory research
 Even though it can point you in the right direction towards what is
the answer, it is usually inconclusive.
 The main disadvantage of exploratory research is that they provide
qualitative data. Interpretation of such information can be
judgmental and biased.
 Most of the times, exploratory research involves a smaller sample,
hence the results cannot be accurately interpreted for a generalized
population.
 Many a times, if the data is being collected through secondary
research, then there is a chance of that data being old and is not
updated.
Importance of Exploratory research
Exploratory research is carried out when a topic needs to be understood in
depth, especially if it hasn’t been done before. The goal of such a research
is to explore the problem and around it and not actually derive a
conclusion from it. Such kind of research will enable a researcher to set a
strong foundation for exploring his ideas, choosing the right research
design and finding variables that actually are important for the analysis.
Most importantly, such a research can help organisations or researchers
save up a lot of time and resources, as it will enable the researcher to
know if it worth pursuing.
Descriptive Research Design:
Definition
Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes the
characteristics of the population or phenomenon that is being studied.
This methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research subject
rather than the “why” of the research subject.
In other words, descriptive research primarily focuses on describing the
nature of a demographic segment, without focusing on “why” a certain
phenomenon occurs. In other words, it “describes” the subject of the
research, without covering “why” it happens.
For example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the fashion
purchasing trends among New York buyers will conduct a demographic
survey of this region, gather population data and then conduct descriptive
research on this demographic segment. The research will then uncover
details on “what is the purchasing pattern of New York buyers”, but not
cover any investigative details on “why” the patterns exits. Because for
the apparel brand trying to break into this market, understanding the
nature of their market is the objective of the study.
Characteristics of Descriptive Research
The term descriptive research then, refers to research questions, design of
the research and data analysis that would be conducted on that topic. It is
called an observational research method because none of the variables
that are part of the research study are influenced in any capacity.
Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:
1. Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative
research method that attempts to collect quantifiable information to
be used for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is an
popular market research tool that allows to collect and describe the
nature of the demographic segment.
2. Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the
variables are influenced in any way. This uses observational
methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables
or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.
3. Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-
sectional study where different sections belonging to the same
group are studied.
4. Basis for further research: The data collected and analyzed from
descriptive research can then be further researched using different
research techniques. The data also can help point towards the types
of research methods are to be used for the subsequent research.
Applications of Descriptive Research with Examples
Descriptive research can be used in multiple ways and for multiple
reasons. Before getting into any kind of survey though, the survey goals
and survey design is very important. Despite following these steps
though, there is no way to know if the research outcome will be met. To
understand the end objective of research goals, below are some ways
organizations currently use descriptive research today:
 Define respondent characteristics: The aim of using close-
ended questions is to draw concrete conclusions about the
respondents. This could be the need to derive patterns, traits and
behaviors of the respondents. It could also be to understand from a
respondent, their attitude or opinion about the phenomenon in
question. For example, understanding from millenials the hours per
week they spend on browsing the internet. All this information helps
the organization conducting the research make informed business
decisions.
 Measure data trends: Data trends can be measured over time
with statistical capabilities provided by descriptive research.
Consider if an apparel company conducts research between
different demographics like age groups from 24-35 and 36-45 on a
new range launch of autumn wear. If one of those groups doesn’t
take too well to the new launch, this provides an insight into what
clothes are like and what are not and the ones that are not, are
dropped.
 Conduct comparisons: Organizations also use descriptive
research to understand how different groups respond to a certain
product or service. For example, an apparel brand creates a survey
asking general questions that measure the brands image. The same
 survey also asks demographic questions like age, income,
gender, geographical location etc. This consumer research helps the
organization understand what aspects of the brand appeal to the
population and what aspects do not. It also helps in making product
or marketing fixes or in some cases even create a new product line
just to cater to a high growth potential, group.
 Validate existing conditions: Descriptive research is widely used
to help ascertain the prevailing conditions and underlying patterns
of the research object. Due to the non invasive method of research
and the use of quantitative observation and some aspects
of qualitative observation, each variable is observed and an in-depth
analysis can be concluded. It is also used to validate any existing
conditions that maybe prevalent in a population.
 Conduct research at different times: To ascertain if there are
any similarities or differences, the research can be conducted at
different periods of times. This also allows any number of variables
to be evaluated. For the purpose of verification, studies on
prevailing conditions can also be repeated to draw trends.
Descriptive Research Methods
There are 3 distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They are:
 Observational Method
The observational method is the most effective method to conduct
descriptive research and both quantitative observation and qualitative
observation are used in this research method.
Quantitative observation is the objective collection of data which is
primarily focused on numbers and values – it suggests “associated to, of
or depicted in terms of a quantity”. Results of quantitative observation are
derived using statistical and numerical analysis methods. It implies
observation of any entity that can be associated with a numeric value
such as age, shape, weight, volume, scale etc. For example, the
researcher can track if current customers will refer the brand by using a
simple Net Promoter Score question.
Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but
instead just monitoring characteristics. In this case the researcher
observes the respondents from a distance. Since the respondents are in a
comfortable environment, the characteristics observed are natural and
effective. In descriptive research, the researcher can chose to be either a
complete observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as an
observer or a complete participant. For example, in a supermarket, a
researcher can from afar monitor and track the selection and purchasing
trends of the customers. This offers a deeper insight into the purchasing
experience of the customer.
 Case Study Method
Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups.
Case studies lead to a hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a
phenomenon. However, case studies should not be used to determine
cause and effect as they don’t have the capacity to make accurate
predictions because there could be a bias on the part of the researcher.
The other reason why case studies are not an accurate way of conducting
descriptive research is because there could be an atypical respondent in
the research and describing them leads to poor generalizations and move
away from external validity.
 Survey Research
In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or
questionnaires, or polls. They are a popular market research tool to collect
feedback from respondents. In order for a survey to gather good quality
data, it should have good survey questions, which should be a balanced
mix of open-ended questions and close ended-questions. The survey
method can be conducting online or offline which is makes it the go-to
option for descriptive research where the sample size is very large.
Learn more: Survey Questions: Survey Examples and Sample Survey
Questions
Examples of Descriptive Research
Some examples of descriptive research are:
1. A speciality food group launching a new range of barbecue rubs
would like to understand what flavors of rubs are favored by
different sets of people. To understand the preferred flavor palette,
they conduct a descriptive research study using different methods
like observational methods in supermarkets. By also conducting a
survey whilst collecting in-depth demographic information, offers
insights about the preference of different markets. This can also
help tailor make the rubs and spreads to different preferred meats in
that demographic. Conducting a thorough descriptive research helps
the organization tweak their business model and amplify marketing
in core markets.
2. Another example of where descriptive research can be used is if a
school district that wishes to evaluate teachers attitudes about
using technology in the classroom. By conducting surveys and
observing their comfortableness using technology through
observational methods, the researcher can gauge what the can help
understand if a full-fledged implementation can face an issues. This
also helps in understanding if the students are impacted in any way
with this change.
Some other problems and/or research questions that can lead to
descriptive research are:
 Market researchers that want to observe habits of consumers.
 A company that wants to evaluate the morale of its staff.
 A school district that wants to understand if students will access
online lessons rather than textbooks.
 An organization to understand if its wellness programs increase the
overall health of the employees
Advantages of Descriptive Research
Some of the major advantages of descriptive research are:
 Data collection: Descriptive research can be conducted by using
specific methods like observational method, case study method and
survey method. Between these 3, all major methods of data
collection are covered which provides a lot of information. This can
 be used for future research or even developing hypothesis of your
research object.
 Varied: Since the data collected is
both qualitative and quantitative, it gives a holistic understanding of
a research topic. This causes data that was not planned to be
collected gets tracked and the data is varied, diverse and thorough.
 Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the research
to be conducted in the natural environment of the respondent and
this ensures that high-quality and honest data is collected.
 Quick to conduct and cheap: As the sample size is generally
large in descriptive research, the data collection is quick to conduct
and is cheap.
 Forms basis for decision-making: As the data collected in
descriptive research represents a larger population and is robust, it
is easy to make decisions on the basis of the statistical analysis of
that data.
Disadvantages of Descriptive Research
Some of the major disadvantages of descriptive research are:
 Confidentiality: Respondents aren’t always truthful if questions are
too personal or they feel that they are being “watched”. This may
negate the validity of the data.
 Halo effect: If the research observer has a potential bias towards
the research topic or some respondents in the research, the
observations then maybe considered as invalid or untrue.
 Sample isn’t representative: Due to the randomness of the
sample, it is very tough to validate that the sample is an accurate
representation of the whole population.
 No scope to learn cause: Since descriptive research only focuses
on the “what” of an objective or phenomenon, it does not delve into
the “why or how” and that is a limitation in learning specific causes.
Panel Survey Research:

Panel Survey:
Definition
Panel survey as a market research method is a type of longitudinal survey.
It can be a qualitativeor quantitative survey used to measure people’s
behavior. Using panel survey, data can be collected in various ways,
starting from conducting interview to using online surveys or even
scanning barcodes.
User-centered design (UCD) aims at increasing usability of a product or
service. It involves the users to design a process of have iterations of
design solutions. In such cases where UCD is applied, qualitative data is
most valuable and this data can be collected using panel survey.
History of Panel Survey
Panel survey helps in collecting the same data, for a longer period of
time, from a group of people, target audience. The commercial use of
panel survey started as early as 1948. However, during that time panel
surveys were mostly restricted to paper and pencil.
Since then, panel survey has come a long way. Electrical
instruments have been used since long to collect data using panel survey.
The Internet has made the revolution in the way data is collected in the
last decade or so.
The validity of the survey is ensured by a large sample size. From a
market research point of view where the maximum focus is to have valid
and extensive data, this data is quantitative and can be measured using
statistical methods. Panel surveys are quite handy in collecting such data.
Data collected through panel enable the possibility of combining accurate
measurement of parameters and individual behavior.
Learn More: Build a strong panel with QuestionPro Audience
Panel Survey Examples
As mentioned above, panel surveys are used to measure accurately
certain parameters and human behaviors. For example, this type of
survey is used to collect and analyze data regarding pricing of a
product, effectiveness of an advertisement or to project sales numbers.
 Panel survey is used for panel research to track continuous
consumer purchasing habit, like purchasing groceries, food and drinks,
electronic gadgets, clothing items, toiletries etc.
User-centered design for panel surveys makes use of focus groups.
In this, a moderator is assigned to a small group of people usually 6-10.
The moderator facilitates discussions amongst the people in the
group. Focus groups consist of participants who have fair knowledge of
the subject matter being discussed for the purpose of data collection.

Panel Survey Design

It is important that a survey is designed carefully and with a goal in mind.
A reliable and meaningful data can be collected when there is a maximum
response to a survey. When you design and deploy panel survey, the
same principles are applicable. Let us now understand the key attributes
while designing a panel survey:
1. First, set your goals: One of the most important attributes to
designing a panel survey is defining a purpose of the survey. If at
any point in time, the goal of survey is unclear it is recommended to
reinstate the purpose of survey and then start with defining other
attributes. Asking “why” is the first vital step. For example, the goal
of a survey could be to analyze the impact of the royal wedding on
the micro-economy of the country.
2. Know your target audience: Once “why” is answered, to be able
to collect data relevant to study purpose, it is important to reach out
to the right set of people. Identifying the right panel to deploy
survey is a critical aspect and is heavily dependent on structure and
mode of survey. For example, if a researcher needs to understand
the microeconomy of a country target audience for this particular
survey would be respondents between the age group of 25-60, who
would have fair understanding about the subject matter.
3. Ask the right questions: As mentioned earlier, panel survey can
be deployed to collect both qualitative and quantitative data.
Researcher needs to be careful which type of survey questions they
need to ask, whether quantitative or qualitative questions to be able
to gather correct data that can be used to make informed decisions
by businesses and organizations. A good mix of open-ended
questions and close ended questions can help respondents answer
survey with maximum efficiency.
4. Structure the survey: Once the type of questions are decided, it
is equally important to structure the panel survey so that the
questions are not randomly placed and confuse respondents. If
respondents get confused while answering survey they might end
up leaving it half filled or possibilities are they might not fill it at all.
A well-structured survey will help respondents understand and
respond well to the survey.
5. Take your survey for a spin: Once all the above attributes are
covered, it is advisable to deploy the survey first to a test group and
take feedback on the length of survey, types of questions asked,
structure of survey, if they had any other issues while filling it out.
 Work on changes if necessary and finally deploy survey to the target
audience.
Experimental Research Design
Definition
Experimental research is any research conducted with a scientific
approach, where a set of variables are kept constant while the other set of
variables are being measured as the subject of experiment.
Experimental research is one of the founding quantitative research
methods.
The simplest example of an experimental research is conducting a
laboratory test. As long as research is being conducted under scientifically
acceptable conditions – it qualifies as an experimental research. A true
experimental research is considered to be successful only when the
researcher confirms that a change in the dependent variable is solely due
to the manipulation of the independent variable.
It is important for an experimental research to establish cause and
effect of a phenomenon, which means, it should be definite that effects
observed from an experiment are due to the cause. As naturally, occurring
event can be confusing for researchers to establish conclusions. For
instance, if a cardiology student conducts research to understand the
effect of food on cholesterol and derives that most heart patients are non-
vegetarians or have diabetes. They are aspects (causes) which can result
in a heart attack (effect).
Experimental research is conducted in the following situations:
 Time is a vital factor for establishing a relationship between cause
and effect.
 Invariable behavior between cause and effect.
 The eminence of cause-effect relationship is as per desirability.
Types of Experimental Research Design
There are three primary types of experimental research design:
 Pre-experimental research design
 True experimental research design
 Quasi-experimental research design
The different types of experimental research design are based on the how
the researcher classifies the subjects according to various conditions and
groups.
1. Pre-Experimental Research Design: This is the simplest form of
experimental research design. A group, or various groups, are kept under
observation after factors are considered for cause and effect. It is usually
conducted to understand whether further investigation needs to be
carried out on the target group/s, due to which it is considered to be cost-
effective.
The pre-experimental research design is further bifurcated into three
types:
 One-shot Case Study Research Design
 One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design
 Static-group Comparison
2. True Experimental Research Design: True experimental research is
the most accurate form of experimental research design as it relies on
statistical analysis to prove or disprove a hypothesis. It is the only type of
Experimental Design that can establish a cause-effect relationship within a
group/s. In a true experiment, there are three factors which need to
be satisfied:
 Control Group (Group of participants for research that are familiar to
the Experimental group but experimental research rules do not
apply to them.) and Experimental Group (Research participants on
whom experimental research rules do apply.)
 Variable which can be manipulated by the researcher
 Random distribution
This experimental research method is commonly implemented in physical
sciences.
3. Quasi-Experimental Research Design: The word “Quasi” indicates
resemblance. A quasi-experimental research design is similar to
experimental research but is not exactly that. The difference between the
two the assignment of a control group. In this research design, an
independent variable is manipulated but the participants of a group are
not randomly assigned as per conditions. The independent variable is
manipulated before calculating the dependent variable and so,
directionality problem is eliminated. Quasi-research is used in field
settings where random assignment is either irrelevant or not required.
Advantages of Experimental Research
 Researchers have a stronger hold over variables to obtain desired
results.
 Subject or industry is not a criterion for experimental research due
to which any industry can implement it for research purposes.
 Results are extremely specific.
 Once the results are analyzed, they can be applied to various other
similar aspects.
 Cause and effect of a hypothesis can be derived so that researchers
can analyze greater details.
 Experimental research can be used in association with other
research methods.