SETTLING

AND
SEDIMENTATION
 Introduction (1/4)

• Filtration versus settling and sedimentation:

Filtration
 The solid particles are removed from the slurry
by forcing the fluid through a filter medium, which
blocks the passage of the solid particles and allows the
filtrate to pass through.
Settling and sedimentation
 The particles are separated from the fluid by
forces acting on the particles.
 Introduction (2/4)

• Applications of settling and sedimentation:

* Removal of solids from liquid sewage wastes

* Settling of solid food particles from a liquid food

• Free settling versus hindered settling:
Free settling
 A particle is at a sufficient distance from the
walls of the container and from other particles so that the
fall is not affected.
 Interference is less than 1% if the ratio of the particle
diameter to the container diameter is less than 1:200 or
if the particle concentration is less than 0.2 vol% in the
solution.

Hindered settling
 Occurred when the particles are crowded so that they
settle at a lower rate.
• What is sedimentation?
 The separation of a dilute slurry or suspension by
gravity settling into a clear fluid and a slurry of higher
solid content.
THEORY OF PARTICLE MOVEMENT THROUGH
A FLUID
For a rigid particle of mass m moving in a fluid, there are
three forces acting on the body:
(1)Gravity force, Fg, acting downward
Fg = mg
(2) Buoyant force, Fb, acting upward
mρg
Fb = ρgV s =
ρs
where ρ = density of the fluid
ρ s = density of the solid particle
Vs = volume of the particle
 THEORY OF PARTICLE MOVEMENT THROUGH A FLUID

For a rigid particle of mass m moving in a fluid, there are three forces acting
on the body:

(3) Drag force, FD, acting in opposite direction to the

particle motion
ρv 2
FD = CD A
2
where CD = the drag coefficient
A = the projected area of the particle

The resultant force equals the force due to acceleration.

dv mρg ρv 2
m = mg − − CD A
dt ρs 2
 THEORY OF PARTICLE MOVEMENT THROUGH A FLUID

The falling of the body consists of two periods:

(1) The period of accelerated fall
 The initial acceleration period is usually very short,
of the order of a tenth of a second or so.

(2) The period of constant velocity fall

dv
Set =0 and solve the above equation for v.
dt

dv m ρg ρv 2
m = mg − − CD A =0
dt ρs 2
2( ρ s − ρ )mg
 v = vg =
ρ s ρC D A

* vg is called the free settling velocity or terminal velocity.

 THEORY OF PARTICLE MOVEMENT THROUGH A FLUID

2( ρ s − ρ )mg
v = vg =
ρ s ρC D A

For spherical particles of diameter d,

ρ sπd 3 πd 2
m= and A =
6 4

4( ρ s − ρ )dg
 vg =
3ρC D
 THEORY OF PARTICLE MOVEMENT THROUGH A FLUID

The drag coefficient for rigid spheres has been shown to be

a function of the Reynolds number.
 THEORY OF PARTICLE MOVEMENT THROUGH A FLUID

In the Stokes' law region (NRe < 1),

24 24
CD = =
N Re ρvd / µ

4( ρ s − ρ )dg 4( ρ s − ρ )dg ρv g d d2
vg = = × = ( ρ s − ρ ) gv g
3ρCD 3ρ 24 µ 18µ

d2
 vg = (ρ s − ρ )g
18µ
 THEORY OF PARTICLE MOVEMENT THROUGH A FLUID

• Brownian motion: the random motion imparted to the

particle by collisions between the molecules of the fluid
surrounding the particle and the particle.
* If the particles are quite small, Brownian motion is
present.

 This movement of the particles in random

directions tends to suppress the effect of gravity.

 Settling of the particles may occur more slowly

or not at all.
 THEORY OF PARTICLE MOVEMENT THROUGH A FLUID

• Brownian motion (continued)

* At particle sizes of a few micrometers, the Brownian

effect becomes appreciable and at sizes of less than
0.1 µ m, the effect predominates.

 In very small particles, application of centrifugal

force helps reduce the effect of Brownian motion.
[Example] Many animal cells can be cultivated on the
external surface of dextran beads. These cell-laden beads
or “microcarriers” have a density of 1.02 g/cm3 and a
diameter of 150 µ m. A 50-liter stirred tank is used to
cultivate cells grown on microcarriers to produce a viral
vaccine. After growth, the stirring is stopped and the
microcarriers are allowed to settle. The microcarrier-free
fluid is then withdrawn to isolate the vaccine. The tank has
a liquid height to diameter ratio of 1.5; the carrier-free
fluid has a density of 1.00 g/cm3 and a viscosity of 1.1 cP.
(a) Estimate the settling time by assuming that these beads
quickly reach their maximum terminal velocity. (b)
Estimate the time to reach this velocity.

d2
Hint: v g = 18µ ( ρ s − ρ ) g

(To be continued)
Example: settling of dextran beads
Data: d = 150 µ m = 0.015 cm; µ = 1.1 cP = 0.011 g/cm-s; ρ s = 1.02
g/cm3; ρ = 1.00 g/cm3; g = 980 cm/s2
(a) Estimate the settling time by assuming that these beads quickly
reach their maximum terminal velocity.

Solution:
d2
vg = ( ρ s − ρ ) g  vg = 0.022 cm/s
18µ
ρvd 1 × 0.022 × 0.015
Check: N Re = = = 0.03 < 1
µ 0.011
2
 πd t2  π h 
Liquid volume, V =   × h =   h = 50 L
 4  4  1.5 
h 52.3 cm
 h = 52.3 cm  Settling time = = = 2379 s
v g 0.22 cm/s
(To be continued)
Example: settling of dextran beads
(b) Estimate the time to reach the terminal velocity.

Solution (cont’d):
dv mρg ρv 2
Force balance: m = mg − − CD A
dt ρs 2
πd 3 ρ s ρv 2  24 µ  πd 2  ρv 2 
m= ; CD A =     = 3πdµv
6 2  ρvd  4  2 
dv ρg 18µv
 =g− − 2
dt ρs d ρs

dv 18µ  ρ 
 
+ 2 v = 1 −  g (I.C.: t = 0, v = 0)
dt d ρ s  ρs 

d2   − 18µ 
 v= ( ρ s − ρ ) g 1 − exp 2 t 
18µ   d ρ s 
(To be continued)
Example: settling of dextran beads
(b) Estimate the time to reach the terminal velocity.

Solution (cont’d):

d2   − 18µ 
v= ( ρ s − ρ ) g 1 − exp 2 t 
18µ   d ρ s 

d2
At steady state (t → ∞), v = v g = (ρ s − ρ)g
18µ
18µt
 When >> 1 , v = v g
d ρs
2

 When t >> 1.16 × 10−3 s, v = vg

 For v = 0.99vg, t = 5.34 × 10−3 s

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ISOPYCNIC (SAME-DENSITY) SEDIMENTATION
 To capture particles in a solution having density gradient.
 Application: determining the density of the solute or
suspended particle.

* There are three methods for establishing conditions for

isopycnic sedimentation:
(1) Layer solutions of decreasing density, starting at the
bottom of the tube.
(2) Centrifuge the solution containing a density-forming
solute (such as CsCl) at extremely high speed.
(3) Use the gradient mixing method.
[Example] You wish to capture 3 µ m particles in a linear
density gradient having a density of 1.12 g/cm3 at the
bottom and 1.00 g/cm3 at the top. You layer a thin particle
suspension on the top of the 6 cm column of fluid with a
viscosity of 1.0 cp and allow particles to settle at 1 g. How
long must you wait for the particles you want (density =
1.07 g/cm3) to sediment to within 0.1 cm of their isopycnic
level? Is it possible to determine the time required for
particles to sediment to exactly their isopycnic level?
Solution:
(a) dx d 2 18µ dx
v= = (ρ s − ρ )g  dt = 2
dt 18µ d g ρs − ρ

(To be continued)
 18µ dx
dt =
d 2g ρs − ρ

The dependence of liquid density ρ on the distance x is:

1.12 − 1.00
ρ = 1.00 + x = 1.00 + 0.02 x
6
The isopycnic level of ρ = 1.07 g/cm3 is:
1.07 − 1.00
x= = 3.5 cm
0.02
The time needed for the particle to sediment to 3.4 cm can
be obtained from:
18µ
t 3.4
dx
∫0 dt = d 2 g ∫0 ρ s − ρ
(To be continued)
 18µ
t 3.4
dx
∫0 dt = d 2 g ∫0 ρ s − ρ
3.4
18 × 0.01 dx
 t= ∫
( 3 × 10 ) × 980 0 1.07 − (1.00 + 0.02 x)
−4 2

3 .4
2041 d (0.07 − 0.02 x )
=
− 0.02 ∫0 0.07 − 0.02 x
2041 0.002
=− ln = 362,823 s = 100.8 h
0.02 0.07
(b) It is not possible to determine the time required for
particles to sediment to exactly their isopycnic level (3.5
cm).
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DIFFERENTIAL SETTLING (or CLASSIFICATION)
 Separation of solid particles into several size
fractions based upon the settling velocities in a medium.
If the light and heavy materials both have a range of
particle sizes, the smaller, heavy particles settle at the same
terminal velocity as the larger, light particles.
The terminal settling velocities of components A and B are:

4( ρ sA − ρ ) gd A 4( ρ sB − ρ ) gd B
v gA = and v gB =
3ρC DA 3ρC DB
For particles of equal settling velocities, vgA = vgB.
( ρ sA − ρ )d A ( ρ sB − ρ )d B d A ρ sB − ρ C DA
= or = ×
C DA C DB d B ρ sA − ρ C DB
 d A ρ sB − ρ CDA
= ×
d B ρ sA − ρ CDB

In the turbulent Newton's law region, CD is constant.

d A ρ sB − ρ CDA d A ρ sB − ρ
= ×  =
d B ρ sA − ρ CDB d B ρ sA − ρ
For laminar Stokes’ law settling,
24 µ 24 µ
C DA = and C DB =
ρv gA d A ρv gB d B
0.5
d A ρ sB − ρ C DA ρ sB − ρ d B d A  ρ sB − ρ 
= × = ×  =  
d B ρ sA − ρ C DB ρ sA − ρ d A d B  ρ sA − ρ 
 d A ρ sB − ρ CDA
= ×
d B ρ sA − ρ CDB
d A ρ sB − ρ
In the turbulent Newton's law region, CD is constant, =
d B ρ sA − ρ

0.5
d A  ρ sB − ρ 
For laminar Stokes’ law settling, d =  ρ − ρ 
B  sA 

For transition flow between laminar and turbulent flow,

n
d A  ρ sB − ρ  1
=   where < n <1
d B  ρ sA − ρ  2
• Settling a mixture of particles of materials A (the
heavier) and B (the lighter) with a size range of d1 to d4
for both types of material:
* Size range dA3 to dA4:
pure fraction of A
 No B particles
settle as fast as
the A particles in
this size range.

* Size range dB1 to dB2:

pure fraction of B
 No particles of A
settle as slowly.
* Size range of A particles from dA1 to dA3 and size range of B
particles from dB2 to dB4: form a mixed fraction of A and B
* Increasing the density ρ of the medium.
 The spread between dA and dB is increased.
[Example] A mixture of silica and galena ( 方鉛礦 ; PbS)
solid particles having a size range of 5.21 × 10-6 m to 2.50 ×
10-5 m is to be separated by hydraulic classification using
free settling conditions in water at 20°C. The specific
gravity of silica is 2.65 and that of galena is 7.5. Calculate
the size range of the various fractions obtained in the
settling. The water viscosity at 20°C is 1.005 × 10-3 Pa-s.

Solution: A particles: galena; B particles: silica

d2
Assuming Stokes’ law settling, v g = (ρ s − ρ)g
18µ

 Check the validity of the Stokes’ law region.

(To be continued)
Solution (cont’d):
d2
vg = (ρ s − ρ)g
18µ
For the largest particle and the biggest density,
dA = 2.50 × 10-5 m and ρ sA = 7.5 g/cm3 = 7500 kg/m3

( 2.50 × 10 −5 ) 2 −3
v gA = −3
( 7500 − 1000 )( 9 .8) = 2 . 20 × 10 m/s
18(1.005 × 10 )

ρvd 1000( 2.20 × 10 −3 )( 2.50 × 10 −5 )

Check N Re = = = 0.0547 < 1
µ 1.005 × 10 −3
:
 O.K. with the Stokes’ law region.
(To be continued)
Solution (cont’d):
For particles of equal settling
velocities,
0.5
d A  ρ sB − ρ 
=  
d B  ρ sA − ρ 
0.5
d A3  ρ sB − ρ 
=  
d B 4  ρ sA − ρ 
0.5
d A3  2.65 − 1 
 2.50 × 10−5 =  7.5 − 1 
 
 dA3 = 1.260 × 10-5 m
The size range of pure A (galena) is:
dA3 = 1.260 × 10-5 m to dA4 = 2.50 × 10-5 m
(To be continued)
Solution (cont’d):
0.5
d A1  ρ sB − ρ 
=  
d B 2  ρ sA − ρ 
0.5
5.21 × 10 −6  2.65 − 1 
 = 
d B2  7.5 − 1 
 dB2 = 1.033 × 10-5 m

The size range of pure B (silica) is:

dB1 = 5.21 × 10-6 m to dB2 = 1.033 × 10-5 m
The mixed-fraction size range is:
dA1 = 5.21 × 10-6 m to dA3 = 1.260 × 10-5 m
dB2 = 1.033 × 10-5 m to dB4 = 2.50 × 10-5 m
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