Resumão de Estatística 1

Introduction

1. Inferential statistics is the newer area of statistics.

2. Descriptive statistics is the area of statistics that organize and summarize information
about a collection of actual observation.
3. Generalizing is the best word that best describes inferential statistics.
4. A statistical analysis is based on data.
5. Quantitative observations consist of numbers
6. An independent variable is defined as a variable that the investigator manipulates.
7. A distinctive property of an experiment is the manipulation of the independent variable.
8. When compared to correlation studies, well-designed experiments provide more clear-
cut conclusions about cause-effect relationships.

Levels of Measurement

9. Nominal is the simplest level of measurement.

10. Ratio is the most complex level of measurement.
11. Interval is the level of measurement that there are a few clear-cut examples.
12. Qualitative data are associated with ordinal and nominal measurement.
13. Quantitative data are associated with ratio and interval measurement.
14. Order is the distinctive property of ordinal measurement.
15. A true zero is the distinctive property of ratio measurement.
16. Interval and ratio are data that approximate interval measurement receive the same
statistical treatment.

Describing data with tables

17. Frequency distributions can be constructed for grouped, ungrouped and qualitative
data.
 Describing data with graphs

18. The intersection of two axes defines the lower boundary (divisa) of the bottom class
interval.
19. Adjacent bars in histograms share (dividem) common boundary in order to present the
data without artificial disruptions (transtorno).
20. A frequency polygon may be viewed as a line graph.
21. To convert a histogram to a frequency polygon, first place dots at the midpoints of each
bar top.
22. A histogram is more appropriate than a frequency polygon when the original frequency
distribution is to be portrayed (descrever) with complete accuracy.
23. Histogram and frequency polygon may be viewed as the graphic counterpart
(equivalente) of frequency distributions for quantitative data.
24. A stem and leaf display is ideal for summarizing distributions when we want to preserve
the identities of the individual scores.
25. Stem and leaf display is a device for sorting data on the basis of leading (importante)
and trailing (arrastar) digits.
26. An important characteristic of histograms, frequency polygons and stem and leaf display
is the shape.
27. Frequency distributions that approximate a bell-shaped silhouette are described as a
normal distribution.
28. The term positively skewed implies that a minority of observations are located in the
positive direction relative to the rest of the distribution.
29. The feature (caracteristica) that distinguishes any bar graph from any histogram is the
use of gaps between bars.
30. Bar graphs are designed for use with qualitative data.
31. When constructing graphs, it`s considered good practice to make the vertical axis about
as tall as the horizontal axis is wide.
32. To constructing a graph, first we must decide on the type of graph. This decision
depends on whether data are quantitative or qualitative.
33. Used to signal scale breaks, wiggly lines can appear along the horizontal and vertical
axis.

Describing data with averages

34. The mode reflects the value of the most frequently occurring observation.
35. The shape of the bimodal distribution has two obvious speaks.
36. The value of the mode identifies that which is “fashionable”.
37. Median is associated with the 50th percentile.
38. Median splits the distributions into upper and lower halves.
39. Median is associated with the middle value when observations are ordered from least to
most.
40. The mean is the sum of all observations divided by the number of observations.
41. The means balanced the combined distance of all observations above the mean against
the combined distance of all observations below the mean.
42. The sum of the deviations of all observations about the mean equals to “zero”.
43. When a distribution is skewed, report the mean and the median.
44. Mean NOT always describe the central tendency of distribution.
45. A qualitative data can be ordered. It’s possible to use the median and the mode.

Describing variability

46. An attractive feature of the range is that it can be easily understood.

47. A key liability of the variance is that it remains unaffected by increases in the total
number of observations.
48. When calculating the variance, each desviation is squared in order to eliminate negative
sings from desviation scores.
49. The variance cam be describe as the mean of the square desviations.
50. The standard desviation cam be describe as a measure of variability, as a square root
away from the variance and as a measure that reflects the contribution of all
observations.
51. Among measure of variability, the standard desviation occupies the same position as
does the mean among measures of central tendency.
52. For most distributions a majority of all observations are within one standard desviation
of the mean.
53. For most distributions a large majority of all observations are within tree standard
desviation of the mean.
54. The standard desviation never cam be negative.
55. Measure of variability for qualitative data are virtually nonexistent.
56. If qualitative data can be ordered, it`s appropriate to describe variability by identifying
extreme observations.
57. The value of the standard desviation most closely resembles that of the mean absolute
desviation.
58. The interquatile range is defined as the range for the middle 50% of all observations.
59. A key propriety of the interquartile range is resistance to distorting effect of extreme
observations.
60. The interquartile range is often used with the median.

Normal distribution

61. The theoretical normal curve ignores irregularities.

62. It`s most correct to view the normal curve as a theoretical frequency distribution.
63. The normal curve emerges from a mathematical equation.
64. If a set of scores approximates a normal curve, scores having intermediate value will be
most prevalent.
65. The value of the mean, mode and median for a normal curve are usually the same.
66. To use the normal curve it presume that the mean and the standard desviation are
known.
67. Any particular normal curve is transformed into a new normal curve whenever changes
occur in the mean and the standard desviation.
68. A “z” score indicates how many standard desviations an observation is above or below
it`s mean and the position of the corresponding original e=score relative to it`s mean
and standard desviation.
69. The standard normal curve retains (conserva) the shape of the original normal
distribution.
70. The standard normal curve is the single normal curve for which tables are available.
71. The total area under the normal curve is always equals to “1.0”.
72. Proportions of area under the normal curve are always positive.
73. The area to the left of a given score (along the base of a normal curve) represents the
proportion of smaller or lower score.
74. In many statistical applications, we wish to distinguish between controlled and
uncontrolled events.
75. The standard normal curve produces a distribution with a mean of “0”and standard
desviation of “1”.
76. Transformations from “z” score to other type of standard scores not change the shape
of the original distribution nor the relative standing (posição) of any test score within
the distribution.

Populations and samples

77. In inferential statistics the likelihood of erroneous generalizations can be controlled.

78. Is better to survey (pesquisa) an entire population if the population is small.
79. A real population is one in which all observations are accessible.
80. Pollsters (eleições) conduct survey based on real population.
81. Subjects in experiments are viewed are samples from populations that are hypothetical.
82. Any generalization in inferential statistics should be limited to the real population that
has been sampled.
83. Generalization to hypothetical population should be viewed as provisional.
84. Typically, sample size is small relative to the population size.
85. Whether or not a sample is random depends entirely on the selection process.
86. The optimal sample size for any situation depends on answers to a number of questions.
87. In experiments, subjects are assigned randomly.
88. The random assignment of subjects to two or more experimental conditions tends to
produce groups that are similar at the outset of the experiment.
89. In a experiment, it`s highly that subjects be assigned to the experimental and control
groups in equal numbers.
90. Whether a survey or a experiment, a well-desired investigation always uses same form
of randomization.

Probability

91. Probability refers to the proportion of times some event will occur.
92. The probability of an outcome can be determined by speculations and observations.
93. If an outcome has a probability of “zero”, the occurrence the occurrence of this
outcome is impossible.
94. An entire set of probabilities always sums to “one”.
95. Two outcomes are mutually exclusive if they can`t occur together.
96. Consider using the “addiction” rule when simple outcomes are connected by the word
“or”.
97. Consider using the “multiplication” rule when simple outcomes are connected by the
word “if”.
98. If outcomes are dependent, the multiplications rule is too small or too large, depending
on circumstances.
99. If scores on two successive statistics exams are dependent, the probability of both occur
one another other is equal the probability of one occur multiplied by the conditional
probability of another, given probability of the first.
100. Given the conditional probabilities are easily misinterpreted, it can helpful to
convert probabilities to frequencies.