1.

Meaning of meta-ethics

• a branch of analytic philosophy which explores the status, foundations, and scope
of moral values, properties, and words

2. Questions of meta-ethics

• What is the meaning of moral terms or judgments?

• What is the nature of moral judgments?

• How may moral judgments be supported or defended?

3. Focus or subject matter of meta-ethics

• focuses on what morality itself is

• focus on the issues of universal truths

• focus on the meaning of ethical terms themselves

4. Two main camps of meta-ethics

a. Cognitivism vs. Non-cognitivism

b. Realism vs. Anti-realism

c. Objectivism vs. Relativism

Cognitivism Non-cognitivism

Truth-apt moral statements Not truth-apt moral statements

Default view of moral disclosure Other view of moral disclosure

Moral distinctions are derived Moral distinctions are derived

from reason. from emotions or feelings.

Beliefs Desires, approval, or disapproval

5. Meta-ethical theories or schools of thought

Realism
Main Argument Anti-realism
Theory/Proponent Advantages Disadvantages
Moral properties exist.
Claims Moral properties do not exist.

OBJECTIVISM
There are• certain
There are
moral • If ethical • Relationships
Moral properties exist mind-
properties that
universal
exist mind-
moral sentences are may suffer under
dependently.
Ayn Rand: independently.
truths that propositions, then objectivism’s fact-
transcend what they can be printed rules.
• Reality is not to any individual or evaluated and
be rewritten or even an entire used to draw • Ignoring
escaped, but, culture might
Objectivism conclusions by
Relativism emotions and
solemnly and think about them. means of logic in focusing on logic
Moral values are eternal truths Moral values are human
proudly,that
faced
exist in a spirit-like realm. the way that other
conventions. are not the best
• Moral values are propositions can. ways to achieve a
Other-worldly view This-worldly view
• Man as a heroic objective in the This can lead to goal — emotions
Objective Subjective
being, with his sense that they certain and are real
own happiness Universal,
as absolute
exist in a spirit- Relative, flexible
unambiguous motivators for
Does
the moral not depend
purpose likeon perception
realm beyond Dependsabout
conclusions on perception
ethical decisions.
of his life, with subjective human ethical decisions.
productive conventions. • If all humans
achievement as • One can learn to were to act
his noblest • Moral values are reason and selfish, we would
activity, and eternal, in that thereby attain a never progress as
reason as his only they never sense of earned a race.
absolute. change. confidence and
genuine serenity
• Moral truths exist in making ethical
independently decisions.
from opinion.
 RELATIVISM • Moral values are • It creates a • No one can be
human society where actually wrong —
Franz Boas conventions/ equality is this would create
social norms. possible — a chaos and
• All people have society without promote a lack of
equally • Truth and judgment. diversity.
developed justification are
cultures. The plural. There • It allows for a • If what everyone
differences could be more wide variety of is doing right now
between peoples than one correct cultures and is right, relative to
were the result of account of how practices. So, it their own culture,
historical, social, things stand in at preserves human then there’s never
and geographic least some cultures. any reason to
conditions. domains, and change anything.
their correctness • Tolerance
• He subscribed to has to be decided • Does not allow for
an ethical relative to a • The ability to the existence of
utilitarianism framework of evolve and adapt an absolute set of
and sustained a context of is encouraged ethics, so
strong separation assessment. because the relativism would
of science and definitions of be inconsistent,
ethics. • There are no ethical and moral since it would
moral absolutes, “right” and deny beliefs of
• The only culture no moral right “wrong” can absolute values.
an individual and wrongs. change as people
truly knows is change.
that individual's • All morals in the
own culture. world are subject
to circumstance.
 ABSOLUTISM • Certain actions • Order & stability, • For morals to be
are right or wrong prosperity truly absolute,
Immanuel Kant regardless of the they would have
context of the • It makes the to have a
creation of laws
• All humans act. universally
and the upholding
should have the unquestioned
of the judicial
right to common • Morals are source,
system much
dignity and inherent in the interpretation and
simpler: if a moral
respect. laws of the rule is right, then authority, which
universe, the there would be no critics claim is an
• He believed that nature of need to have impossibility.
there was a humanity, the different rules for
supreme principle will of God or different people • There is a sheer
of morality — the some other because the diversity of moral
categorical fundamental absolute rules are opinions which
imperative. source. universal. exists between
Morality must be societies (and
• It is fair as people
based on this • There is a even within
are treated the
because morality universal moral societies) in the
same as the rules
is such that you standard. world today,
are the same for
are commanded everyone. which suggests
by it, and is such • This makes a that there cannot
that you cannot distinction • Without be a single true
opt out of it or between what is absolutism, morality.
claim that it does thought right nothing can be
not apply to you. and what is true and

We must always actually right. knowledge is

follow this despite impossible.  If

nothing is
any natural
absolutely true,
desires or
then all supposed
inclinations we
truths are
may have to the
sometimes false.
contrary.
 SUBJECTIVISM • There are no • Tolerant - • It offers no way for
the parties engaged
objective moral compatible with
in ethical debate to
John Paul-Sartre properties. our experiences of
resolve their
living in a
disagreements,
• Social • Ethical pluralistic society merely requiring
conventions are statements are in each side to

an important part fact arbitrary exercise tolerance

• Non-
by acknowledging
of governing one's because they do confrontational —
the equally factual
conduct, but only not express it creates a society
truth of the
one's individual immutable where equality is perceptions
moral identity truths. possible: a asserted by
had any real society without opponents. This
effectively skirts the
authenticity as a • Moral statements judgment. One
type of dilemmas
source of moral are made true or cannot be more
that ethics seeks to
truth. false by the right than the resolve, namely
attitudes and/or other. deciding what is the
• Man’s loneliness conventions of right thing to do.

and the observers, and • It allows for a

• Feelings and
responsibility are any ethical wide variety of
attitudes often
absolute. Despite sentence just beliefs and
change over time,
this fragile implies an opinions. as knowledge,
condition, man attitude, experience and
has to invent his opinion, personal circumstances
change, which does
way to define preference or
not make a good
who he is. feeling held by
base for ethical
someone.
decisions.
• People are
responsible for all • Moral truths are
elements of moral
themselves, their judgments.
consciousness,
and their actions.
 EMOTIVISM • Moral statements • Accounts for the • Reduces the
only express the variety of beliefs importance of
Charles Stevenson speaker's — morality isn't ethical terms
feelings about the confined to the
• The major use of issue. realm of • No unanimous
ethical objectivism. decision can be
judgements is not • Emotivism makes made, because It
to indicate facts, it clear that each • It easily explains is all internalised
but to create an is trying to how and why it is and not externally
influence. persuade the that moral testable.
Instead of merely other to adopt judgements
describing their attitude and motivate us. If • If expressing
people's interests, follow their moral language moral judgements
they change or recommendations were just is really no more
intensify them. as to how to descriptive, than expressing
behave, rather stating how things one's personal
• Any ethical theory than giving are, why would opinion, there
should explain information that that get us to act doesn't seem any
three things: that might be true or in certain ways? useful basis for
intelligent false. We need to care. arguing about
disagreement And what we care moral
can occur over • Ethical sentences about is captured judgements.
moral questions, are expressions, in our attitudes to
that moral terms not assertions, of the world. • Reduces moral
like good are approval Emotivism argument to
"magnetic" in connects caring, propaganda.
encouraging approving,
action, and that disapproving, with
the scientific the very meaning
method is of ethical words.
insufficient for
verifying moral
claims.
 NATURALISM • Moral claims are • If verified, they • We cannot move
from an objective
about features of are objective
factual statement
F.H. Bradley the natural truths that apply
about observations
world, which are to everyone,
to a subjective
• Believed that a generally meaning that moral one.
moral perspective amenable to goodness is held
was determined scientific study consistently • No amount of facts
are ever sufficient
from self- (evidence and throughout
to imply ethical
realization and proofs). societies and
conclusion — “Is
from observing therefore allows does not imply
one’s position in • Morality can be for a level of ought.” We cannot
society. judged according justice. infer from a
description of how
to particular
the world ‘is’ to how
• Rejected qualities, or in • Scientific
the world ‘ought’ to
hedonism — the ability to approach is be. Goodness can
pleasure provides promote the favored by be a multitude of
no self- greatest modern society. things, which we

understanding. happiness for the By investigating know from our

experience to be
greatest number, the impact of an
true.
• Rejected Kant’s or in something action and the
idea of duty for that fulfills its impact it has on • We don't see that
the sake of duty intended purpose. others, we have difference societies
— it doesn’t guide conclusive proof respond to these
'objective truths' in
us into morality • Ethical that something is
the same way. For
or give human statements are as good or bad.
example, sacrifice
satisfaction. verifiable as they
and the pain it
are falsifiable. brings are
observable as

• Moral judgments abhorrent in our

society, but may be
must involve a
seen as a point of
reference to what
worship in another.
is real.
PRESCRIPTIVISM • Moral judgments • Moral sentiment • If you do not like
are prescriptions is not sufficient, particular rules,
Richard M. Hare and therefore so moral action they can be
have the logical is encouraged discarded based
• Moral judgments form of because the solely on your
must be imperatives. agent’s morality feelings towards
“universalizable”: must involve them because
that is, that if one • The central doing what is there is no
judges a particular purpose of moral morally required. ethical
action to be talk is to guide authority.
wrong, one must behavior by • Hare builds into
also judge any telling someone his theory a • Seems to absolve
relevantly similar what to do. Its strong defence of many people, as
action to be main purpose is freedom as a key those with more
wrong. to element in the critical strength
"prescribe" (recom moral life. Whilst can use moral
• Believes that mend) a certain moral terms are laws as rules of
moral discourse is act, not to get prescribing and thumb, to be used
not primarily someone to do commending, or not used in
informative or that act. Hare is clear that accordance with
fact-stating we are rationally their critical
• Moral language is free from being appraisal of moral
• Moral agents must not informative prescribed. We preferences —
perform those acts — the purpose of judge and choose does this excuse
they consider moral talk is not whether and how immoral
themselves to to express moral to act in behaviour?
have an truths or moral accordance with
obligation to facts. what is
perform whenever commended.
they are physically
and
psychologically
able to do so.
 INTUITIONISM • Our intuitive • Acknowledges • Can we trust our
awareness of cultural relativism intuition when
G.E. Moore value, or intuitive there subject to
knowledge of • Acknowledges individuals' own
• Objected to evaluative facts, that morality isn't beliefs & values?
‘naturalistic forms the dependent on the Not everybody can
fallacy,' which foundation of our material world. use their sense of
states that moral ethical knowledge. intuition-as not
truths can be • No God is everyone owns the
analyzed in terms • Some moral required as the same level of
of physical or truths can be source of absolute intuition.
psychological known non- ethical principles;
things which exist inferentially (i.e., human intuition • There is no link,
in the natural known without allows us to between what is
world. Moral one needing to discover these right and what a
truths were moral infer them from ourselves. person ought to
truths, and that other truths one do. Intuitionism
was that. believes) • What is “right” is states what the

easily discovered foundational

• Basic moral principles are, but
propositions are does not explicitly
self-evident. expect the agent
to follow them.
• Moral properties
are non-natural • Presents ethical
properties. discourse as an
essentially
• Basic truths are irrational activity
known intuitively.
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https://www.iep.utm.edu/metaethi/#SH3a
https://www.iep.utm.edu/ethics/
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