___________________________________________________M.

Sc Final(Mycology)__

(A) Introduction:
Biodeterioration is an inexorable, continuous & irreverable process where the
associated micro-organisms obtain their nutritional requirement in post-harvest crops under field
& storage condition in favorable environment for their growth & sporulation. Among other
microbes, fungi play an important role in deterioration of stored seeds.

The term Biodeterioration is being applied to both biological & non-biological

material. Delouche (1968) have defined Biodeterioration as impairment in function resulting
from detrimental changes that occurs in material till it dies. Deteriorative changes in seed are
little consequences unless some essential component is affected. Until only recently the effects
of deterioration did not extend beyond germination. All seedlings that merged from deteriorated
seeds are survived until they become autotrophic.

Kidd & West (1918-19) have proposed the hypothesis and advance their ideas that
physiological condition of seeds pre-determined by subsequent growth & performance of plants,
exhibits valid relation to the process of biodeterioration. They have hypothesized that
“Deteriorated seeds are more susceptible to environmental stresses than less deteriorated seed”.

After nearly 50 years, the idea advanced by Paul Neergaard (1970) has changed the
previous concept. According to him “High humidity favours the fungal growth in
storage condition, which results to deterioration of substrate like seeds”.

Clark (1969) reported that 4% World’s stored grain is lost through deterioration of
fungi & other microbes. He added that the rate of deterioration is determined by (i) genetic
factors, (ii) duration of storage & (iii) storage environment.

(B) Classification of Fungi involved in deterioration:

On the basis of seed moisture requirement, Christensen & Kaufman (1969) have
classified ecologically fungi infecting seeds into three groups.

(i) Field fungi : They invade seeds in the field before harvest; It require moisture content in
equilibrium of 90-100 per cent humidity.

(ii) Post-harvest field fungi : They resemble field fungi in their moisture requirement but
invade seeds after harvest.

(iii) Stoage fungi :They grow on seeds having moisture content is in equilibrium of 70-90% relative
humidity. They can grow on decaying food, food stuff, leather goods, house dust etc that
are rich in organic & inorganic subs. They generally do not invade seed before harvest.

(C) Structural & Physiological Changes in diseased plants by Field fungi:

After establishment of infection by field fungi, the normal physiological activities of host
cells are disturbed. It results in appearance of anatomical & morphological changes in infected
crop plants.
1. Structural changes : In diseased plants, usually abnormal structures like
hypertrophy, sterile flowers, phyllody, hairy roots, bunchy top, crown gall, root knots
etc appears due to physical reactions. but chemical reactions occurring within plant body
shows expression of physiological malfunctioning of the host cells.
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 2. Physiological changes:Physiological symptom appears in diseased plant are as follows:
(a) Disintegration of tissues by the action of enzymes secreted by fungal pathogen.
(b) Effect of pathogenesis in growth of the host plant due to growth regulators
produced by pathogen or by the host under the influence of the pathogen.
(c) Effects on reproduction of host plant.
(d) Effect on uptake & translocation of nutrients and water.
(e) Abnormal respiration of the host tissues due to disturbed enzyme system
associated with respiration.
(f) Reduction in rate of photosynthesis due to destruction of leaves or loss of chlorophyll.

(D) Losses occurs to seeds by storage fungi:

According to Christensen (1973) the following disorders occurs in infected stored seeds.
(a) Decrease in germination percentage
(b) Discoloration of part or whole of the seed.
(c) Heating and mustiness.
(d) Loss in weight
(e) Production of mycotoxins in seeds by storage fungi due to biochemical changes.

Dolouche & Baskin (1975) postulated the sequence of deteriorative changes in stored seeds
(a) The first consequence of deterioration of aged seed is the leakage of substances such as
sugars & free amino acids.
(b) When such deteriorated seeds come in contact with film of water, due to degradation of
cellular membrane, cells lost the control of permeability & metabolic activity.
(c) The other adverse effects are reported such as respiration rate reduced & biosynthesis,
plant dev. & yield reduced, emergence potential decreases, seedling abnormalities
increases and seed germination decreases,
(d) Rate of seedling growth & storability increases.

Gupta, Dey, & Mukherjee (1986) reported formation of free acids & increased
activity of enzymes like lipase & peroxidase was correlated with storability of the seeds of
mustard, soybean & maize when they are stored under high relative humidity. Hydration-
dehydration treatment with both short & long duration increases the storage life of mustard &
maize seeds. They also reported greater ability of dehydrogenase, peroxidase enzymes and
lowering the formation of free acid & lipase activity. The lipase, peroxidases are suggested to
have constricted to germinability of treated seeds over untreated control.

Moreover, some species of storage fungi bring about biochemical changes & produced
toxic metabolites or mycotoxins in stored seed commodities that create alarming situation with
regards to their consumption by human being. Chester & Christensen (1974) reported high
conc aflatoxin B1 (1000 PPb; avg. 225 PPb) in high aflatoxin risk crop mostly cultivated in
India, South Africa, Uganda, Thailand and Philippians. It may be detrimental to public health.

Biodeteriorational changes in nutritional content in harvest crop & stored seeds:

(a) Sugar content: In view of fungal efficiency, sugars & some of their derivatives have
been widely utilizable source of carbon. A few fungi utilize inorganic carbon in the form
of CO2. Most of the fungi & other microbes utilized the substrate as carbon sources
including carbohydrates, organic acids & their derivatives. Some storage & field fungi
used polycyclic compounds & alkaloids as carbon source.

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(b) Protein content : The field & storage fungi utilize meet their nitrogen requirement
from nitrate, ammonium & organic sources especially the amino acids available in stored
seeds. In general, unlike carbon, the nitrogen is essential for both mycelial growth &
sporulation. Most of these fungi utilizes the amino acids directly and are incorporated
into protein as such, without undergoing enzymatic degradation of stored seeds. Tandon
& Bilgrami (1980) stated that most of the amino acids are recorded as good nutritional
source for storage fungi. They have investigated that these substrate are generally
assimilated as such and exist in fungal mycelium both in free as well as in bound state.

(c) Organic acids : The field & storage fungi always prefer slightly acidic medium for
their better growth. They utilize non-fatty organic acids like citrate, succinate & malate,
which are useful products of glucose metabolism. It has been investigated that because
of lower pH of the media containing organic acids, the cells are often impermeable. The
utilization of organic acids causes increase the pH of culture medium, which often
interfere with growth. Srivastava (1955) reported that field & storage fungi utilize
organic acids, if nitrogen is supplied in the form of ammonium salt.

(d) Food Spoilage:

Every kind of food is a susceptible to microorganism. In addition to bacteria,
both field & storage fungi grow well on food & food products causing deterioration
by producing off flavours. The contamination of food by microbes decreases the food
value especially fats, carbohydrates & proteins. It made the food unsuitable for
consumption due to production of mycotoxins.

The fungi of Mucorales such as Geotrichum candidum, Penicillium sp

Alternaria sp., Cladosporium sp., Rhizopus stolonifer etc are mostly responsible for
spoilage of food. Among these, Rhizopus stolonifer mostly grow on bread & utilize its
carbohydrate content hence it is called “Bread Mold”. Moreover, Aspergillus niger &
Penicillium sp also grow well on bread & make it unfit for human consumption. They
produce mycotoxins, which is hazardous to health. To overcome this situation, an
inhibitor like Calcium propionate is added in bread to keep it free from moulds for few
days. The better house keeping & maintaining a degree of cleanliness is Bakeries also
essential step to keep baked material free from moulds.

Pickles & Sauerkraut are spoiled by film yeast, pick yeast particularly Rhodotorula
sp. The Cured meat is spoiled by species of Aspergillus, Penicillium & Rhizopus.

Fruits & vegetables are attacked by field parasitic & storage fungi hence they
undergo spoilage during storage, transport & marketing. Penicillium digitatum grow on
Citrus fruit; Rhizopus stolonifer on Sweet potato; Penicillium rubrum on maize;
Aspergillus ochraceus on barley; Penicillium patulum on apple juice; Fusarium
sporotrichoides on millet, wheat, rye, oat & rice; Aspergillus flavus on peanut
(groundnut), cotton seeds; Penicillium islandicum on rice etc

The Grains are commonly infected during storage by many storage & field
fungi which include the species Aspergillus, Penicillium, Phoma, Alternaria,
Cladosporium, Fusarium, Curvularia, Drechsleria, Mucor etc. They cause heavy
losses & make them unsuitable for human consumption. These fungi also produce
several types of mycotoxins in the food & feed stuff. The consumption of such toxic
food & feed stuff causes various diseases to man & other animals.

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Biodeterioration of cellulosic & Non-cellulosic materials of economic importance:
At high humid environment, several storage fungi are reported to deteriorate the
Cellulosic & Non-cellulosic materials of economic importance. The cellulosic material include
(i) Wood; (ii) Wood products e.g., paper & broad; (iii) Plant fibres e.g., cotton, flax, jute &
sisal. They are used as cordage, textiles, packing & filling materials.

The Non-cellulosic material includes plastic, glass, electric equipments, fuel, paints, paint
films, leather, glue etc.

(A) Biodeterioration of Cellulosic Materials: These include the followings:

(1) Deterioration of wood:
The wood is one of the main important products of the forest. It is xylem-
conducting element of the trees. It consists of sclerenchymatous dead tissues. The xylem is
made up of fibres or vessels or tracheids. Its cell wall composed of lignin & cellulose. It also
contains polysaccharides including mannans, xylans & other hemicelluloses. The hard wood
obtains from Angiosperm trees whereas soft wood obtains from Gymnosperm conifer trees.
Hard & soft wood differs in their cellular composition.

The wood is deteriorated by mostly saprophytic fungi belong to order Agaricales &
Aphyllophorales of class Basidiomycetes. The imp genera involved are Armillariella,
Collybia, Lentinus, Pholiota, Schizophyllum, Echnodontium, Polyporus, Polystictus, Poria,
Aerpula, Trametes, Coniophor, Hymnochaete, Peniophore and Stereum. The fungus Merulis
lacrymans causes a decay of sawn timber in British which resulted loss of several million
pounds of revenue per year.

Types of Decaying of wood:

(a) Destruction of lignin (infrequent cellulose): Trametes pini causes rotting sap
wood. The rotted wood becomes white & sponge like. It causes ring rot of conifer.
Ganoderma applanatum causes white rotted rot of hard wood.

(b) Destruction of cellulose: The Red brown butt rot of Conifers is caused
by Phaeolus schweinitzii whereas Brown cubical rot of conifers is caused by
Lentinus lepideus. The rotten wood becomes brown, soft and easily powdered indicate
biodeterioration of cellulose.

Some wood such as Chestnut, White oaks & Red gums are more resistant while woods of Red
Oaks, Birch, magnolia, Sycamore, Basswood & Willows are more susceptible to fungal attack.

Similarly conifer woods of Juniper, Bald Cypress & Red wood are very resistant.
The woods of Pines, Hemlock and Spure are comparatively less resistant. Among
angiosperms the wood of Black Locust, Red mulberry, Catalpa & Black Walnut
are more resistant. The susceptibility of wood in invasion by fungi is due to deposition of
metabolic products such as resins and tannins in heart wood of tree.

The deterioration of cut trees, stored wood, & wood in building can be prevented by
minimizing the moisture content of wood such that growth of fungi does not take place. The
practices such as methods of drying of timber, steam sterilization, and application of fungicides
of biological & chemical origin increase the wood resistant capacity to fungal invasion. These
treatment acts as preservative such as Creosote, coal, tar, zinc chlorate, Mercuric chloride,

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Sodium fluoride, Potassium dichromate, arsenic compounds, many trade compounds etc. To
prevent wood deterioration, many biological & chemical agents developed by scientists proved
most effective. They not only prevent the soft & hard wood by fungal invasion but also secure &
keep the important properties intact.

(2) Staining of Wood (Soiling):

Some fungal species belong to genera Alternaria, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Mucor,
Rhizopus, Trichoderma, Aureobasidium and Cladosporium sp. cause staining in wood.
Ceratocystis pilifera, C. minor & Phialophora spp. causes “Blue Staining” due to presence
of fungal hyphae. This staining can result in severe losses in timber industry. However, the
wood coloured green by Chlorociboria aeruginascens is used in making “Tunbridge Ware”.
Also wood having “Zone Lines” is used for ornaments. In North East India especially Assam,
the perfume commodity called “Agaru” is obtained from wood of tree Aguilaria ogallocha
infected with a fungus Epicoccum granulatum.

(3) Spoilage of paper:

The raw material such as pulpwood (90% of the raw material for paper) & paper are
important cellulosic medium to fungus attack at every stage of paper manufacture. Certain
fungal species belong to genera Aspergillus, Alternaria, Cladosporium, Penicillium,
Trichoderma, Mucor and Polyporus are commonly associated with cellulosic raw material used
for making paper. These cellulolytic fungi in association with bacteria deteriorate the pulpwood
that cause loss of cellulose & form a coloured slime in watery suspension of pulp, which foul
smells. The slime affects the quantity of paper & increases the cost maintenance of the
machines. Once the paper is finished, it provide suitable material for cellulolytic fungi that
bring about deterioration. They may cause black, brown or yellow discoloration & spotting
through “Mildewing” or destruction of paper mainly by Aspergilli, Penicilli & Chaetomium sp.

(4) Deterioration of textile:

Textile & Cord are made up of cotton, manila or jute. They are composed of
cellulose which forms basic carbon source for several cellulolytic fungi. The fungal species that
bring deterioration of textile & cause damage belong to genus Aspergillus, Penicillium,
Trichoderma, Humicola, Chaetomium globosum and Cladosporium herbarum. These fungi
are responsible for production of variety of pigments, enzymes or presence of fungal mycelial
content or both causes damage to textile. The main damage to textile includes the production of
musty, odour, spotting & discoloration; loss in water repellency, loss in strength & decrease in
flexibility. A marine fungus Zalerion does cause serious damage to twines & ropes used in sea water.

(5) Deterioration of Leather:

Hide is proteinaceous material. It is attacked by leather destroying fungi belong to genus
Aspergillus & Penicillium during its manufacture into leather.

In use, decay of leather & leather goods is occurred due to fungi which many damage &
mask leather. In storage, conditions are poor having much humidity & optimum temp for fungal
growth. The leather deteriorating fungi cause rotting of the stitching threads to leather material.
Such deteriorated leather is unsuitable for making leather goods. The tanned leather is less
suitable for fungal attack. The fungi do not attack the chrome-tanned leather.

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(B) Biodeterioration of Non-cellulosic material:
(1) Deterioration of Optical Equipments:
The storage fungi as such do not utilize a Glass as a nutrient source. These fungi
belong to genera Aspergillus, Penicillium and Scopulatiopsis cause damage to optical
equipments such as Binoculars, Range finder cameras, Gun-sights, Microscopes, Telescopes
and Surveying instruments. The fungi attack the lenses (lens surface) and shows profuse growth
on surface. They produce a corrosive secretion and damage lenses by etching the lens surface.

The fungal deterioration of optical instruments may be prevented by regular inspection &
cleaning. An improved good storage environment is essential for saving the high cost material
from its damage by molds.

(2) Deterioration of Electrical equipments:

In tropical climate, the fungi belong to genus Aspergillus, Penicillium and Scopulatiopsis
attack the electrical equipments & bring about deterioration. The fungal growth results in losses
in insulating properties of components. They also direct short circuits via fungal hyphae. The
fungal deterioration of electrical equipments can be prevented by use of non-nutrient
components, fungicides, the total sealing of assemblies after manufacture etc.

(3) Deterioration of Plastics:

According to Kaplan et al (1968) the polymers are mainly resistant to fungal attack
except polyurethane. Eggins et al (1971) first time reported the deterioration plastic
components by storage fungi resulting in decolonization of materials. The infected material
becomes brittle & cracked. The fungi belong to genus Aspergillus, Penicillium; Mucor &
Rhizopus are responsible to bring out deterioration of plastic material like Refrigerator, Air
conditioners etc when these instruments remains closed due to power failure for 3 or 4 days
continuously during summer days. The molds may utilize components of plastic material. The
surface growth often draws on surface debris for nutrients, the plastic itself being unaffected.

(4) Deterioration of fuels:

Hydrocarbon fuels such as Kerosene & Lubricants such as a cutting oil
emulsions are attacked by fungus like Cladosporium resinae. The growth may occur
throughout an emulsion or in case of fuels, as a fuel/water interfere. It results in change in the
properties of oil. It results to shortening of tool life, poor finish, creation of an odour problem. It
also increase the risks of skin infection in the operators.

The mold growth indirectly affects by forming matted mycelium, which clogs fuel lines &
filters, and corrosion of several types. It is initiated by fungal growth. It results to weaken the
tanks or surrounding structures. Eggins & Allsopp (1975) reported common fuel
deteriorating fungus Amorphotheca resinae, popularly identified as “Kerosene fungus” or
“Creosote fungus” on Creosoted wood & corroding aircraft fuel tanks.

(5) Deterioration of Paint & paint Films:

The storage fungi belong to genus Cladosporium, Phoma and Pullularia attack paints &
paint films. Mold growth may lead to grassing, discoloration & change in properties of the
paint. The fungal deteriorated films may become brittle & cracked by fungus growth.

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