14 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous system is classified into:

1.Central nervous sysyem formed by brain and spinal cord.

2.Perpherial nervous system which includes:

i)cranial nerves ii)spinal nerves

iii)autonomic nervous system.

BRAIN

Brain is the part of central nervous system which lies within the cranial cavity.It consists of the following
parts:

1.Cerebrum (made of two cerebral hemispheres)

2.Cerebellum

3.Mid brain

4.Pons These three structures form the

5.Medulla oblangata BRAIN STEM

CEREBRUM:It is the largest part of the brain.

Parts:Cerebrum consists of two hemispheres namely right and left hemispheres.These two hemispheres
are separted by

1.Falx cerebri(a fold of dura mater)in the midline.

2.Corpus callosum(a bridge of white matter)below.

Lobes:Each cerebral hemisphere has four lobes.They are:

1.Frontal lobe 2.Temporal lobe

3.Parietal lobe 4.Occipital lobe

Fissurees:The surface of the hemispheres have some fissures.The four important fissures are 1.Central
sulcus 2.Parieto occipital sulcus 3.Callaso-marginal fissures 4.Sylvian fissures.

Grey matter:It consists of nerve cells which constitute the surface of hemispheres.It is also called as
cerebral cortex.It contains a number of folds or convolutions.These convolutions are separted by
fissures(described above)
White matter:It is present in the interior of the hemispheres.It contains nerve fibres.

Functions of cerebrum:

1.Motor functions like control of voluntary movements.

2.Sensory functions which include:

i)Analysis of touch,temperature,pain,pressure,shape etc.

ii)Governing of conditional reflexes.

iii)Control of intelligence,speech,,memory etc.through higher centre of cerebrum.

These functions are governed by two parts of the cerebral cortex namely motor cortex ans sensory
cortex.The central sulcus divides the cerebal cortex to form these two parts.

1.Motor cortex:It lies in front of central sulcus.The motor cortex controls voluntary movements of the
body.The controlling areas are arranged form above downwards (feet ,lower limbs,hip,trunk,arms and
head in that order).

2.Sensory cortex:It lies behind the central sulcus.It deals with sensations like
touch,pressure,temperature etc.

SPECIALISED STRUCTURES OF GREY MATTER:

Deep in the cerebral hemispheres,there are some collections of grey matter which form specialized
structures. They are basal ganglia,thalamus and hypothalamus.

Basal ganglia:They are the following four pairs of grey matter:1)caudate nuclei 2)lentiform nuclei
3)amygdaloid nuclei 4)claustrum. The caudate nuclei and lentiform nuclei together form the corpus
striatum.These nuclei have connections with each other and also with other brain centres.The basal
ganglia control the fine movements of the body.

Internal capsule is a narrow tract of white matter which is near the basal ganglia.Many important nerve
fibres which pass to and form the brain lie in this narrow tract.

Thalamus:Thalamus is situated at the base of the body cerebrum.It consists of two ovoid masses
separted by the third ventricle.Thalamus is an important relay station for the incoming fibres of spinal
cord and brain stem on their way to cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus:It is present below the thalamus.It forms the floor and part of the lateral walls of the
third ventricle.The functions of thalamus are:

1.Synthesis of oxytocin and vasopressin (the two posterior pituitary hormones).

2.Production of releasing factors (like GH-releasing factor,FSH-releasing factor and LH-releasing factor).
3.Regulation of body temperature.

4.Co-ordination of autonomic nervous system.

5.Control of appetite.

CEREBELLUM:It lies below the cerebrum.It is situated in the posterior cranial fossa behind the pons and
medulla.Tentorium cerebelli is a layer of dura mater which separates the cerebrum and
cerebellum.Cerebellum consists of two hemispheres.The two cerebellar hemispheres are separted by
partition of dura mater called falx cerebella.The cerebellum also contains:

i)an outer grey matter which has numerous convolutins.

ii)an inner white matter.

Functions of cerebellum

1.co-ordination of muscular movements.

2.To keep the muscules in a normal state of tension.

3.Maintenance of balance and equilibrium.

MID BRAIN: It is a short constricted segment of brain which forms a connection between cerebrum and
other parts of brain.

1. cerebral peduncles which are two thick bundles present ventrally. They are separated by a deep
depression.

2. cerebral aqueduct, a narrow canal which passes through the centre of mid brain. This canal connects
the cavity of third and fourth ventricle.

3. superior colliculi which are a pair of rounded bodies present at the root of adueduct. They are the
reflex centres for hearing.

4. inferior colliculi (which is an inferior pair) are also present at the root of aqueduct. They contain the
reflex centres for hearing.

5. nuclei of 3rd and 4th cranial nerves are present in the mid brain.

PONS: It lies under the cerebellum. It contains both grey matter and white matter. It forms a bridge
between the two lobes of cerebellum. Nerve fibres pass through pons to mid brain above and medulla
oblongata below. Pons contains nuclei for the 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th cranial nerves.

MEDULLA OBLANGATA: It is the part of brain which forms the upward continuation of spinal cord. It
lies on the base of skull just in front of foramen contain magnum. The medulla oblongata contain two
ridges on the ventral surface called pyramids. The pyramids are formed by a number nerve fibres which
descend from cerebral hemisphere into the spinal cord. Before they enter into the spinal cord, the fibres
of one side cross with those of the other side. This crossing of nerve fibres is called as ‘decussation of
pyramids’. Because of this crossing injury to one side of the brain produces paralysis of the muscles of
opposite side.

The medulla oblongata contain nuclei for 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12t cranial nerves.

SPINAL CORD

Position: Spinal cord is a part of central nervous system which is present in the vertebral canal. The
upper end of spinal cord commences at the level of foramen magnum. This upper end is continues
above with medulla oblongata. The lower end lies at the level of first lumbar vertebra. So, it does not fill
the lower part of vertebral canal. The lower end of spinal cord terminates in a bunch of nerves
(resembling the tail of a horse) called as cauda equine. The longest of these nerves is called as filum
terminate which ends at the coccyx.

Enlargement: the spinal cord shows two enlargements in its course. They are cervical and lumbar
enlargements Nerves to the arms and legs arise from these enlargements.

Structure: a cross section of the spinal cord shows the following structures.

1. While matter on the surface and grey matter in the interior (reverse of what is seen in the brain).

2. The gray matter is H-Shaped. It divides the white matter into interior , posterior and lateral columns.

3. Anterior fissure separates the anterior columns of each side.

4. The H- shaped gray matter contains anterior and posterior horns.

5. the anterior horns cells are concerned with motor functions. Anterior root of spinal nerves arise from
the anterior horn.

6. the posterior horn cells are sensory in function. The posterior root of spinal nerves enter the spinal
cord through the posterior horns.

7. The posterior root contains a ganglion as dorsal ganglian.

8. A minute canal is present in the centre of spinal cord. It is called as central canal. It contains
cerebrospinal fluid and it is continuous above with the fourth ventricle .

The meninges: The brain and spinal cord are protected by three coverings called meninges.They are:

1.Dura mater - which forms the outer layer.

2.Arachnoid mater - which forms the middle layer.

3.Pia mater -which forms the inner layer.

1.Dura mater:It is the outermost fibrous membrane.It lines the interior of the skull.It contains two folds
which project into cranial cavity.They are:

i)Falx cerebri which lies in the mid line.It separates the right and left cerebral hemispheres.

ii)Tentorium cerebelli which lies horizontally.It separates the cerebrum and cerebellum.

2.Arachnoid mater:It is a thin , transparent membrane.It lies between dura mater and pia mater.The
space between arachnoid mater and pia mater is called as subarachnoid space.This space contains the
cerebrospinal fluid.

3.Pia mater:It is the innermost layer.It closely covers the brain and spinal cord.Also it dips into the
fissures of brain .It contains the minute blood vessels which supply the brain and spinal cord.

1.The right and left lateral ventricles which lie one in each cerebral hemisphere.

2.The third ventricle which is present in the mid line.The third ventricle communicates with the two
lateral ventricles and also with the fourth ventricle.

3.The fourth ventricle lies in front of cerebellum and behind pons and medulla oblangata.It is continuous
below with the central canal of spinal cord.

CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF):It is a clear,colourless alkaline fluid present in 1)subarachnoid space

2)ventricles of brain 3)central canal of spinal cord. CSF bathes the entire surface of brain and spinal cord.

Secretion of CSF: CSF is secreted by a net work of blood vessels called choroid plexus.This plexus is
situated in the lateral ventricles.

Composition of CSF: CSF contains water,glucose,proteins,nitrogenous substances,electrolytes (like

sodium , potassium and calcium chlorides)and a few cells (mostly lymphocytes).

Functions of CSF:

1.It protects the brain and spinal cord from shock.

2.It conveys nutrients to the brain and spinal cord.

3.It removes the waste products of brain ans spinal cord.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

CRANIAL NERVES:They are 12 pairs of nerves attached to the brain.These nerves may be:

1.Sensory-carrying impulses to the brain.

2.Motor-carrying impulses from the brain to the periphery.

3.Mixed-containing both sensory and motor fibres.

The following are the 12 pairs of cranial nerves:

1st Olfactory nerve (sensory)-It is the nerve of smell.

2nd Optic nerve (sensory)-It is nerve of vision.

3rd Oculomotor nerve (motor)-supplies the muscles of eye ball.

4th Trochlear nerve (motor)-supplies the muscles of eye ball.

5th Trigeminal nerve (mixed)-sensory fibres to face and forehead.

Motor fibres to muscles of mastication.

6th Abducense nerve (motor)-It supplies the muscles of eye ball.

7th Facial nerve (motor)-It supplies the muscles of expression.

8th Auditory nerve (sensory)-It consists of two parts:

i)cochlear nerve-It nerve of hearing.

ii)vestibular nerve-the nerve of equilibrium and balance.

9th Glossopharyngeal nerve(mixed)-sensory to tongue and motor to the pharyngeal muscles.

10th vagus nerve (mixed)-It is distributed to pharynx,larynx,lungs,heart,stomach and intestine.

11th Accessory nerve (motor)-It divides into two parts.One parts joins the vagus ans supplies pharynx
and larynx. The other part supplies sternomastoid and trapezius muscles of neck.

12th Hypoglossal nerve (motor)-It supplies the muscles of tongue.

SPINAL NERVES:There are 31 pairs of spinal nerveswhich arise from the spinal cord.Each spinal nerve
contains an anterior root and a posterior root.These two roots unite to form a single nerve trunk which
comes out of the verterbral column.The posterior nerve root contains the posterior root
ganglion(fig.62). One spinal nerve on each side correspond with each segment of the veretebral column.

Nerve plexuses:At certain regions of the spinal cord,some individual nerve trunks unite to form
plexuses.The following re the four main plexuses.

i)Cervical plexus:It is formed by the first four cervical nerves.Phernic nerve is an important branch of
cervical plexus and it supplies the diaphragm.

ii)Brachial plexus:It is formed by the lower four cervical nerves and first throracic nerve.The important
branches of brachial plexus are:1)circumflex nerve 2)musculocutaneous nerve 3)radical nerve 4)ulnar
nerve 5)median nerve.
iii)Lumbar plexus:It is formed by the first four lumbar nerves.Its main branches are femoral nerve and
obturator nerve.

iv)Sacral plexus:It is formed by the 4th and 5th lumbar nerves and the five sacral nerves.Its main branch is
sciatic nerve.

SENSATION AND SENSORY PATH

Sensation: sensations can be classified into two types:

1.special sensation which can be felt by specialized organs e.g.sensation of smell ,taste,sight,hearing etc.

2.General sensations which can be felt by all parts of the body.General sensations can again be classified
into two types:

a)Superficial sensations (like pain,touch and temperature which are felt by the skin).

b)Deep sensations (like pain,touch and deep pain)felt by muscles ,joints and other organs.

Sensory organs:The organs which receive the sensory stimuli can be classified into:

1)Exteroceptive organs which receive sensations produced by stimuli which occur outside the body e.g.
smell,taste,sight and temperature.

2)Interoceptive organs which receive sensations produced from stimuli inside the body.

The interocetive organs are further classified into:

a)Enteroceptive organs which receive stimuli from visceral organs (e.g. thirst and hunger).

b)Proprioceptive organs which receive stimuli from muscles and joints (e.g. touching the mouth after
closing the eyes.The muscles and joints can identify the mouth or any other organ even in the absence
of vision).

Sensory path:The following is the path of sensory impulses.

1.The peripheral nerves carry superifical sensations (from skin)and deep sensations (from muscles and
joint)towards the spinal cord.

2.These sensory fibres enter the posterior horn of grey matter of spinal cord through posterior nerve
root.

3.Then the fibres of deep and superifical sensations travel by different paths as follows:

a)Fibres carrying superifical sensation travel upwards in the anterior column of spinal cord.

b)Fibres carrying deep sensations travel upwards in the posterior column of spinal cord.
4.Both these fibres cross each other and go to the opposite side of spinal cord.This crossing occurs at the
level of medulla oblongata.

5.The impulses are then conveyed to sensory areas of brain stem ,thalamus and white matter of brain.

MOTOR PATH:The motor path for voluntary movements consists of two neurons 1)the upper motor
neurone 2)the lower motor neurone.

Upper motor neurone extends from the pyramidal cells of motor cortex of brain to the anterior horn
cells of spinal cord.The path is as follows:

1.Impulses commence from the pyramidal cells of motor cortex(situated in front of central sulcus).

2.The fibres pass through internal capsule and pons and reach the medulla oblongata.

3These fibres cross each other in the medulla oblongata.

4.Then they travel through the lateral column of spinal cord and terminate in the anterior horn cells.

Lower motor neurone extends from the anterior horn to the peripheral nerve supplying the muscle.The
path is follows:

1.The fibres from anterior horn cells reach the anterior nerve root.

2.The fibres of anterior nerve root unite with the incoming fibres of posterior nerve root and form the
spinal cord.

3.The motor nerves emerging from the spinal nerves supply the muscle.

REFLEX ACTION:Reflex action occurs independent of will and it is concerned with involuntary
movements.It is a surface defence mechanism manifesting as a quick and automatic motor reponse for a
sensory stimulus.

Reflex arc:It consists of structures which are involved in the production of a reflex action.These
structures are:

1.A sensory organ like skin which receives the sensory stimulus.

2.A sensory nerve which arises from the sensory organ. Through a peripheral nerve,it terminates at the
posterior nerve root of spina cord.

3.The spinal cord.

4.A motor nerve which commence from the anterior horn cell of spinal cord. This nerve transmits the
impulses to the motor organ such as muscle.
Importabce of reflex action:The impulses of reflex action are carried only to the spinal cord and not to
the motor cortex of brain.The impulses from the spinal cord are then conveyed to the motor
organ.So,the response is quick and immediate.