18 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system consist of gastrointensinal tract (alimentary canal) and its glands. The functions of
gastrointestinal tract are ingestion, digestion and absorption of food and excertion of waste products.

PARTS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: Digestive system consists of the following parts: 1. Mouth 2. Pharynx
3. Oesophagus 4. Stomach. 5 small intestine 6. Large intestine 7. Rectum 8. Anus

MOUTH (BUCCAL CAVITY)

It is the upper expanded portion which forms the beginning of a alimentary canal. It can be divided into
two parts:

1. vestibule, an outer part. It lies between lips and inner lining of cheeks externally and gums and teeth
internally.

2. Cavity of mouth an inner part. It is bounded by teeth and mastoid bone at the sides, palate above and
tongue below.

Palate forms the roof of mouth cavity. It consist of hard palate which is in front and soft palate which is
behind. Uvula is a conical process which hangs from the middle of soft palate. Two folds of mucous
membranes called anterior and posterior pillars of faces lie on either side of uvula. Tonsils lie in between
these folds.

The important structure of mouth are

1. tongue 2. Teeth 3. Salivary tongue

Tongue: Tongue lie in the floor of the mouth and it attached to hyoid bone. Tongue contains:

1. A root at which blood vessels and nerves pass.

2. A tip which is pointed when the tongue is protruded and rounded when the tongue is in the mouth.

3. two margins which are in contact with lower teeth.

4. an upper surface which contains a small elevation called dorsum.

5 a lower surface which contains a soft ligamentous structure called frenulum.

The two important structure of tongue are:

1. taste buds which are on the lateral aspects of tongue.

2. three types of papillae present on the upper suface. They are: Circumvallate papillae, Fungiform
papillae and filiform papillae.
TEETH: Teeth are concerned with mastication. Depending on the age at which they arise, teeth can be
classified into two types:

1. permanent teeth the teeth of adult life.

2. Temporary or milk teeth – the teeth of childhood.

Permanent Teeth: They are 32 in number and 16 are present in each jaw . each half of the upper and
lower jaw contains 8 teeth. They are : 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars and 3 molars.

TEMPORARY TEETH: Teeth are 20 in number and each jaw has 10 teeth. Each half of the jaw has 2
incisors, 1 canine and 2 molars

ERUPTION OF TEETH: Even at birth, all the permanent and temporary teeth are buried in the alveolar
process of jaws. The first tooth appears in a child at the 7th month, later, the full set of temporary teetah
is completed at the age of two years.

The first permanent tooth to appear is the first molar which appears at the age of 6 years. The set of
permanent teeth is completed at the age of 12 years. But the third molar (wisdom tooth) appears
between 17 and 25 years.

STRUCTURE OF TOOTH: Tooth contains:

1. a crown- which projects above the gum.

2. A neck - which IS surrounded By Gum.

3 A root- which lies beneath the gum.

Tooth is made of:

1. dentine: the main mass and it is a hard material

2. pulp- the central cavity which contains connective tissues, blood vessels and nerves.

3. enamel- the covering, a part of which projects above gums.

SALIVARY GLANDS: There are three pairs of salivary glands in the mouth. They are parotid,
submandibular and sublingual glands.

Parotid glands: one on each side is present below and in front of each ear. Each gland has a duct called
stenson’s duct. This duct opens on the inner side of cheek opposite to the second upper molar tooth.

Submandibular gland ( Submaxillary glands): They are smaller than parotid glands. One on each side
lies under the angle of jaw. Each gland has a duct called wharton’s duct which opens near the mid line
under the tongue.
 SUBLINGUAL GLANDS: they are the smallest salivary glands which lie under the tongue. They pour the
secretions directly into the mouth through several small openings.

Saliva: It is a mixed secretion of allthe three pairs of salivary glands. It is an alkaline. Fluid containing
water to the extent of 99% . the solid contents of saliva are:

1. mucin which is a glycoprotein 2. Ptyalin, an enzyme which converts starch into maltose. Also it
contains salts of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium.

Functions: 1. It converts cooked starch into a soluble sugar called maltose.

2. it acts as a solvent for food and helps in its swallowing.

3. it moistens, lubricates and cleans the mouth.

4. it excretes organic and inorganic substances and some drugs.

PHARYN

Pharynx lies between the mouth and oesophagus pharynx consist of three parts:

1. Nasopharynx: It lies behind the nasal cavity. It extends from base of skull to the level of soft palate .
on either side, it has an opening for Eustachian tube.

2. OROPHARYNX: it lies behind the mouth. It extends between soft palate above and upper opening of
larynx below. The lateral walls of oropharynx contain the tonsisls.

3. LARYNGOPHARYNX: it is the lowest part and it lies behind the larynx.

Oropharynx and laryngopharynx serve as a common channel for the passage of food and air. Through
both these parts, food is

OESOPHAGUS

It is a muscular tube which extends between pharynx above and cardiac orifice of Stomach below. It lies
between trachea in front and vertebral Column at the back. From the thorax, it enters the abdomen
through the oesragmophagial opening of diaphragm.

The oesragmophagus contains sphincters at its upper and lower ends. These sphincters relax during
swallowing.

Deglutition (the act of swallowing): in the mouth, food is masticated and mixed well with saliva. The
action of tongue and cheeks convert food into a round mass called bolus. This bolus is swallowed.

Swallowed occurs in the following three stages.

Stages1: Closing of the lips and raising of the tongue against the palate forces the bolus into oropharynx.
Now the nasopharynx is closed by soft palate and larynx is closed by epiglottis. This prevents the entry
of food into respiratory passages.

Stages 2: by the contraction of the muscle of pharynx, the bolus is forced into oesophagus.

Stages 3: in the oesophagus, contraction of its muscular walls carries the food down to stomach.

It must be noted that the first stages is a voluntary act but it is performed automatically. But the second
stage and third stage are voluntary acts.

ABDOMINAL CAVITY AND ITS CONTENTS

Abdomen is the largest cavity in the body. It is oval in shape`and it contain a variety of organ . It is
classified into parts :

1. Abdominal proper - an upper large cavity

2.Pelvis - a smaller cavity

Boundaries of abdomen :

1. above by the lower surface of the diaphragm.

2.below by the brim of true pelvis

3. in the front and sides by abdominal muscles ,ribs and iliac bones .

4. at the back by vertebral column, psoas , quadrates lumborum muscles.

Content of abdomen : The abdomen contains stomach ,intestines ,liver, sleen , pancreas ,kidney
,adrenal gland ,abdominal aorta , inferior vena cava ,peritoneum, fats etc.

STOMACH AND ITS DIGESTIVE FUNCTION

Stomach is dilated portion of alimentary canal and it receives food from oesophagus . It lies in the upper
part of abdominal cavity below the left half of the diaphragm .

Parts of stomach :

1. Two surfaces : an anterior and posterior surface

2. Two borders : an upper border called lesser curvature , lower border called greater curvature

3. Two ends : upper end called cardiac end, and lower end is called pyloric end.

4. Fundus : dome shaped part lying to the left o f cardiac end.

5. body :the main part of stomach

6.pyloric antrum : the lower part

Structure of stomach :

1.Peritoneal coat

2. Muscular coat

3. submucous coat

Secretions of stomach : The mucus membrane of stomach contains glands which secrete gastric juice
continuosly.

1. a reflex mechanism through which vagus nerve

2.gastrin , hormone secreted by the action of food stuffs on gadstric mucous membrane .

3. psychological effects produced by taste or smell of food . gastric juice contain pepsin ,rennin ,
hydrochloride acid .

Pepsin : It is an enzyme produced by glands present in the fundus and body. In present HCL, pepsin
convert in to peptone.

Renin: it is an enzyme which curdless milk. It involves the conversion of caseinogens, they soluble
protein of milk in soluble casein.

Hydrochloric acid: it is secreted by parietal cells of gastric gland. Its concentration is about 0.4% oin the
gastric juice.

1. neutralization of saliva

2. helping the action of pepsin in converting protein

3. Antiseptic action by killing bacteria

Instrinsic factor : it is a content of gastric juice which is necessary for the absorption of b12.

Chyme: it is a product of digestive food in the stomach . it is in semiliquid form and it is passed on to
duodenum.

SMALL INTESTINE AND ITS FUNCTIONOF DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

Small intestine is a part of alimentary canal which extends from the pyloric end of stomach to caecum.

Parts: small intestine consist of three parts :1. Duodenum 2.jejunum 3. Ileum

Duodenum: it is a C-shaped fixed part which is attached to posterior abdominal wall by peritoneum. The
head of pancreas lies in the concavity of duodenum. Also the bile duct and pancreatic duct open
together at the concave surface. A small eminence at this opening is called AMPULA OF VATER.

Jejunum: it is the continuation of duodenum and it is the middle portion of small intestine.

Ileum: it forms the last part of small intestine.

Structure: small intestine consists of the four coats which are present in stomach. They are:

1. peritoneal coat( made of serous membrane)

2. muscular coat

3. submucous coat

4. mucous coat

The ,mucous coat contains:

1. plicae circulars which are a number of folds of the mucous membrane.

2, villi: whi h observe carbohydrates, protein and fat.

Digestion in small intestine : The acidic chime from the stomach enters into the duodenum . There it
mixes with

1. the alkaline intestine juice called succus entericus

2. alkaline secretion from liver and pancreas

In the small intestine the absorption ,digestion is carried out by following enzyme :

1. Enterokinase which converts trypsinogen of pancreatic juices ito trypsin

2. Erepsin which converts polypeptides into amino acid

3.Sucrase,maltase and lactase which converts the corresponding disaccharides into monosaccrides .

Absorption in small intestine : the absorption of digested food occurs in small intestine through villi.

Villi : villi are minute projection which are present in the mucous coat of intestine . each villus has :

1. a central lymphatic vessel called lacteal . fats are absorbed into lacteal and carried to thohracic duct .
2. a network of capillaries surrounding the lacteal . digested product of carbohydrates and proteins are
absorbedinto these capillaries . They are carried into liver by portal vein .

3. lymphoid tissue which holds together the lacteals and capillaries .

LARGE INTESTINE AND ITS FUNCTION

Large intestine extend from ceacum to rectum . large intestine consists of following : parts caecum

Appendix , accending colon , transverse colon ,sigmoid colon .

Ceacum : it is a short rounder sac which lies in the right iliac fossa .it commences at ileocaecal valve their
ileum join ceacum.

Vermiform appendix:it springs out from the ceacum at about an inch from the ileocaecal junction .it is
represent ilac the lumen of appendix is communicate with thatof ceacum. The appendix is form of Same
for coat as intestine.

Ascending colon:it ascends upward from ceacum at in front of right kidney.it term to the left liver below
form the transverse colon.

Transverse colon: it is a loop of large intestine which extends between the lower surface of liver and
spleen

Descending colon: it extends from lower surface of spleen to brim of pelvis .it lies in the left lumber
region .

Sigmoid colon: it is continuation of descending colon and it continous below the rectum

FUNCTION OF LARGE INTESTINE

1 digestion: this is carry out by of colon . they act on the undigestive unabsorb residue from small
intestine.

2 ABSORPTION : all carbohydrates ,proteins and fats are already absorbed in the small intestine.only
water glucose are absorbed in the colon.

3. secretion ; mucin is only secretion . it lubricates the colon and facilitates the passage of fecal matter .

4. excretion : iron and some purgatives are excreated in large intestine .

RECTUM ,ANUS AND DEFECATION

RECTUM : It occupies the lower posterior part of pelvis . it extend between sigmoid colon and anus .the
lowerc part of rectum is dialted and it is called rectal ampulla .

Anus : It is a small canal measuring about one inch in length . the opening of asnus is guarded by the
sphincter called anal sphincter.
DEFECATION : It is defined as evacuation of the fecal matter of the rectum . defection is a reflex
mechanism . but this reflux mechanism is under voluntary control. the reflex for defecation occurs when
a sufficient quantity of feces accumulates in the rectum. This produces stretching of rectal walls and also
increases pressure in the rectum. When the pressure exceeds 40mm. the nerve endings of rectum are
stimulated.

The impulses reach the spinalcord. From the spinal cord, impulses for defecation are carried to thr
retum through motor nerves.

The act of defecation involves the following events:

1. Relaxation of the anal sphincter which is the first voluntary act.

2. This is followed by contraction of:

*muscles of rectum increase the pressure in abdomen and pelvc cavity and help in defecation

*muscles of pelvic floor

*muscles of abdominal wall

*diaphragm

DIGESTION OF FOOD IN THE ALIMENTARY CANAL

Food contains: 1. Carbohydrate 2. Protein 3. Fat. All these constituents of food are digested canal as
follow:

1. Carbohydrate: ptyalin present in saliva converts cooked starch in food into a sugar called maltose.
This conversion occurs in the mouth . all sugar converted into simple monosaccrides like glucose by the
action of enzymes in the intestine .gulcose is absorbed by the capillaries of villi in the small intestine . it
is then carried to liver by portal vein where it is stored as glycogen .

2. Proteins : the digestive enzyme convert proteins into peptones ,polypeptides and then in amino acid .
the amino acid are absorbed through villi of small intestine and carried to liver.

3. fats : Lipase , an enzyme of pancreas which is poured into small intestine converts fat into fatty acid
vand glycerol. These two products are absorbed through lacteals of villi .they carried to to thoracic duct
through cysterna chili. From the thoracic duct they enter into blood through left brachiocephalic vein.

ABSORTION OF FOOD IN THE ALIMENTARY CANAL

1. Mouth: Absorption of food does notoccur in the mouth. Only drugs like nitroglycerine and
isoprenaline are absorbed through buccal mucosa.

2. Stomach: no absorption of food occurs in stomach except glucose. But water and Alcohol can be
absorbed in the stomach.
3. Small intestine: 1. Products of carbohydrate digestion like glucose and other simple sugars occurs
through capillaries of villi.

2. products of protein digestion like aminoacids are also absorbed through capillaries of villi.

3. products of fat metabolism like fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed through lacteals of villi.

4. large intestine: water, glucose and certain salts are absorbed through the mucous membraneof large
intestine.

PERITONEUM

Peritoneum is a serous membrane which lines the abdomen and covers the abdominal organs.it consists
of the following two layers:

1. parietal peritoneum which lines the walls of abdominal cavity.

2. visceral peritoneum which covers the abdominal organs. The space between these two layers is called
as peritoneal space. Organs completely covered by peritoneum are stomach, liver and intestine.

Organs partly covered by peritoneum are kidney.

OMENTA: the folds of peritoneum connected to the stomach are called omenta. They are divided
into:

1.greater omentum which hangs from the lower border of the stomach to the front surface of small
intestine.

2.Lesser omentum which extends from the lower border of liver to the lesser curvature of stomach.

Mesentry: it is the fold of peritoneum which attaches the different part of small intestine to the
posterior abdominal wall. Blood vessels , nerves and lymphatics enter the intestine through mesentry.

Peritoneal ligaments: they are fold of peritoneum which connect organs to the posterior abdominal wall.

Pelvic peritoneum: it is the part of peritoneum present in the pelvic region. The pelvic peritoneum is
actually the continuation of peritoneum in the abdominal cavity. The arrangement of pelvic peritoneum
is different in males and females due to presence of uterus and fallopian tubes in females.

Arrangement in males : in males the peritoneum covers the upper part of rectum . then it passes over
the posterior and upper surface of bladder . later , it becomes continuous with the peritoneum of
anterior abdominal wall.

Arrangement in females : the peritoneum covers the rectum as in males but it covers the anterior and
posterior surface of uterus before reaching the bladder. The sac of peritoneum between the rectum and
uterus is called pouch of douglas. The peritoneum covers the fallopian tubes also. The fallopian tubes
opens directly into peritoneal cavity. The mucous membrane of tubes is continuous with peritoneum.
Functions of peritoneum :

1. It forms a complete or partial covering for abdominal organs

2. It forms a smooth lining which enables the abdominal organs to move over each other without
friction.

3. The ligaments and mesentries of peritoneum hold the abdominal organs in position.

4. omentum and mesentry serve as a store house for fat.

5. The fat of peritoneum prevents infection being carried to abdominal organs.

6. The peritoneum contains some fluid which absorbs shock and prevents it from getting transmitted to
abdominal organs.

7. peritoneum itself can absorb large quantities of fluid.