UNIT-II

Advanced Mechanical Processes

ULTRASONIC MACHINING
1. Introduction

Ultrasonic machining is a non-traditional machining process. USM is grouped under the

mechanical group NTM processes.
In ultrasonic machining, a tool of desired shape vibrates at an ultrasonic frequency (19 ~ 25
kHz) with an amplitude of around 15 – 50 μm over the workpiece. Generally the tool is
pressed downward with a feed force, F. Between the tool and workpiece, the machining zone
is flooded with hard abrasive particles generally in the form of water based slurry. As the tool
vibrates over the work piece, the abrasive particles act as the indenters and indent both the
work material and the tool. The abrasive particles, as they indent, the work material, would
remove the same, particularly if the work material is brittle, due to crack initiation,
propagation and brittle fracture of the material. Hence, USM is mainly used for machining
brittle materials {which are poor conductors of electricity and thus cannot be processed by
Electrochemical and Electro-discharge machining (ECM and ED)}.

The USM process

2. Mechanisms of Material Removal in USM

As has been mentioned earlier, USM is generally used for machining brittle work material.
Material removal primarily occurs due to the indentation of the hard abrasive grits on the
brittle work material. As the tool vibrates, it leads to indentation of the abrasive grits. During

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indentation, due to Hertz a contact stresses, cracks would develop just below the contact site,
then as indentation progresses the cracks would propagate due to increase in stress and
ultimately lead to brittle fracture of the work material under each individual interaction site
between the abrasive grits and the work piece. The tool material should be such that
indentation by the abrasive grits does not lead to brittle failure. Thus the tools are made of
tough, strong and ductile materials like steel, stainless steel and other ductile metallic alloys.

3. Process Parameters and their Effects

The process parameters which govern the ultrasonic machining process have been identified
and the same are listed below along with material parameters:

 Amplitude of vibration (a) – 15 – 50μm

 Frequency of vibration (f) – 19 – 25 kHz

 Feed force (F) – related to tool dimensions

 Feed pressure (p)

 Abrasive size – 15μm – 150μm

 Abrasive material – Al2O3, SiC ,B4C, Boronsilicarbide ,Diamond

 Flow strength of work material

 Flow strength of the tool material

 Contact area of the tool – A

 Volume concentration of abrasive in water slurry – C

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 Effect of machining parameters on MRR

4. Machine

The basic mechanical structure of an USM is very similar to a drill press. However, it has
additional features to carry out USM of brittle work material. The workpiece is mounted
on a vice, which can be located at the desired position under the tool using a 2 axis table.
The table can further be lowered or raised to accommodate work of different thickness.
The typical elements of an USM are
 Slurry delivery and return system
 Feed mechanism to provide a downward feed force on the tool during machining
 The transducer, which generates the ultrasonic vibration
 The horn or concentrator, which mechanically amplifies the vibration to the required
amplitude of 15 – 50μm and accommodates the tool at its tip.

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Schematic view of an Ultrasonic Machine

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The ultrasonic vibrations are produced by the transducer. The transducer is driven by suitable
signal generator followed by power amplifier. The transducer for USM works on the
following principle:
 Piezoelectric effect
 Magnetostrictive effect
 Electrostrictive effect
Magnetostrictive transducers are most popular and robust amongst all. Fig. shows a typical
magnetostrictive transducer along with horn. The horn or concentrator is a wave-guide, which
amplifies and concentrates the vibration to the tool from the transducer.

Working of horn as mechanical amplifier of amplitude of vibration

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The horn or concentrator can be of different shape like :
 Tapered or conical
 Exponential
 Stepped
Machining of tapered or stepped horn is much easier as compared to the exponential one. Fig.
shows different horns used in USM

Different Horns used in USM

5. Applications
 Used for machining hard and brittle metallic alloys, semiconductors,glass, ceramics,
carbides etc.
 Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes and surface impressions.
 Machining, wire drawing, punching or small blanking dies.

 Suitable for both non-conductive and conductive materials.

 Tungsten and other hard carbides and gem stones, such as synthetic ruby are being
successfully machined.

6. Limitations

 Low MRR
 Rather high tool wear
 Low depth of hole
 Tool wear increases the angle of the hole, while sharp corners become rounded.

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WATER JET MACHINING
INTRODUCTION

Water Jet Machining (WJM) is a mechanical energy based non-traditional machining process
used to cut and machine soft and non-metallic materials. It involves the use of high velocity
water jet to smoothly cut a soft workpiece. It is similar to Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM).

In water jet machining, high velocity water jet is allowed to strike a given workpiece. During
this process, its kinetic energy is converted to pressure energy. This induces a stress on the
workpiece. When this induced stress is high enough, unwanted particles of the workpiece are
automatically removed.

Construction of Water Jet Machining (WJM):

The apparatus of water jet machining consists of the following components:

1. Reservoir: It is used for storing water that is to be used in the machining operation.
2. Pump: It pumps the water from the reservoir.
3. Intensifier: It is connected to the pump. It pressurizes the water acquired from the
pump to a desired level.
4. Accumulator: It is used for temporarily storing the pressurized water. It is connected
to the flow regulator through a control valve.
5. Control Valve: It controls the direction and pressure of pressurized water that is to be
supplied to the nozzle.
6. Flow regulator: It is used to regulate the flow of water.
7. Nozzle: It renders the pressurized water as a water jet at high velocity.

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Schematic diagram of Water Jet Machining:

Schematic diagram of Water Jet Machining:

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Working of Water Jet Machining (WJM):

 Water from the reservoir is pumped to the intensifier using a hydraulic pump.
 The intensifier increases the pressure of the water to the required level. Usually, the
water is pressurized to 200 to 400 MPa.
 Pressurized water is then sent to the accumulator. The accumulator temporarily stores
the pressurized water.
 Pressurized water then enters the nozzle by passing through the control valve and
flow regulator.
 Control valve controls the direction of water and limits the pressure of water under
permissible limits.
 Flow regulator regulates and controls the flow rate of water.
 Pressurized water finally enters the nozzle. Here, it expands with a tremendous
increase in its kinetic energy. High velocity water jet is produced by the nozzle.
 When this water jet strikes the work piece, stresses are induced. These stresses are
used to remove material from the work piece.
 The water used in water jet machining may or may not be used with stabilizers.
Stabilizers are substances that improve the quality of water jet by preventing its
fragmentation.
 For a good understanding of water jet machining, refer the schematic diagram above.

Advantages of Water Jet Machining (WJM):

1. Water jet machining is a relatively fast process.

2. It prevents the formation of heat affected zones on the work piece.
3. It automatically cleans the surface of the work piece.
4. WJM has excellent precision. Tolerances of the order of ±0.005″ can be obtained.
5. It does not produce any hazardous gas.
6. It is eco-friendly.

Disadvantages of Water Jet Machining:

1. Only soft materials can be machined.

2. Very thick materials cannot be easily machined.
3. Initial investment is high.

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Applications of Water Jet Machining:

1. Water jet machining is used to cut thin non-metallic sheets.

2. It is used to cut rubber, wood, ceramics and many other soft materials.
3. It is used for machining circuit boards.
4. It is used in food industry.

ABRASIVE FLOW MACHINING (AFM)

Abrasive flow machining (AFM), also known as abrasive flow deburring or extrude
honing, is an interior surface finishing process characterized by flowing an abrasive-laden
fluid through a workpiece. This fluid is typically very viscous, having the consistency of
putty, or dough. AFM smooths and finishes rough surfaces, and is specifically used to
remove burrs, polish surfaces, form radii, and even remove material. The nature of AFM
makes it ideal for interior surfaces, slots, holes, cavities, and other areas that may be difficult
to reach with other polishing or grinding processes. Due to its low material removal rate,
AFM is not typically used for large stock-removal operations, although it can be.

Process
In abrasive flow machining, the abrasive fluid flows through the work piece, effectively
performing erosion. Abrasive particles in the fluid contact raised features on the surface of
the work piece and remove them. The fluid is forced through the work piece by a hydraulic
ram, where it acts as a flexible file, or slug, moulding itself precisely to the shape of the work
piece. The highest amount of material removal occurs in areas where the flow of the fluid is
restricted; according to Bernoulli's Principle, the flow speed and pressure of the fluid increase
in these areas, facilitating a higher material removal rate (MRR). The pressure exerted by the
fluid on all contacting surfaces also results in a very uniform finish.

AFM may be performed once, as a one-way flow process, or repeatedly as a two-way flow
process. In the two-way flow process, a reservoir of medium exists at either end of the work
piece, and the medium flows back and forth through the work piece from reservoir to
reservoir.

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Equipment
An abrasive flow machine normally includes two medium chambers equipped with hydraulic
rams, a fixture for holding the work piece, and a clamping system that holds all the
components tightly together. Most machines allow for the loading of different types of
abrasive medium, and include the capacity to adjust the pressure used in extruding the
medium through the workpiece. They may be manually operated, or automated using CNC.
For machines designed to accommodate high production volumes, accessories such as part-
cleaning stations, unloading and reloading stations, and media re-feed devices, and media
heat exchangers may be included.
AFM can Polish and deburr parts internally, through holes, Intersecting holes, Calibrate fuel
injection nozzles to a specific flow rate

It is a process of polishing and smoothening internal surfaces and thereby producing

controlled radii. The abrasive media is flown across the surface to be super-finished either in
a single direction or two-way and this extrudes through the workpiece thereby finishing and
smoothening the surfaces. In case of one-way systems, the media is flown/ passed through the
work piece and it returns from the other end. Whereas in a two-way process, two vertically
opposite hydraulic cylinders, push the abrasive mixed media to and fro. The process is
particularly used in contours which are difficult to polish and such internal passages, cavities,
edges and bends.

The AFM process is widely used in a range of different finishing operations. At a given time,
it can process a number of parts or different areas of the same work piece. The areas which
are not accessible and such complex internal passages can also be very effectively finished.
The atomized AFM systems are capable of handling thousands of parts per day, thereby
considerably reducing the labour costs and eliminating tedious handwork. Through proper
knowledge and control of the process parameters, this process can be effectively used for
variety of super-finishing operations thereby achieving very uniform and precise results.
Practical applications of this process could be in any of the situations where in the media
could be flown across.

Abrasive Flow Machining (AFM) Principle

In the AFM process, a semi-solid media is used which comprises of a carrier in the form of a
polymer base containing abrasive powders in a desired proportion, which is extruded under

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the given pressure across the surface, which is to be machined. The media acts as a flexible
tool whenever it is subjected to some restrictions due to the uneven surface. The special
deformable ability of media is responsible for its movement through any shape of the
passage. Restricted media flow passages are necessary at the surfaces to be processed by
AFM, wherein the media behaves somewhat like flexible grinding stone, abrades the
material, and provides a good surface finish over the surface. Generally, a fixture is required
to offer restriction or to direct and focus the media to desired locations in the work piece. Fig.
illustrates the principle and basic operation of AFM process.
The clamping of workpiece is made between the two media cylinders, which are hydraulic
operated and placed in opposite directions. Lower media cylinder is filled with required
volume of abrasive laden media (refer Fig. a). The media is then extruded through the work
piece into the upper media cylinder (refer Fig. b). The procedure is reversed and the media is
fed back through the workpiece into the lower cylinder (refer Fig. c). A process cycle is
constituted by combination of these up and down strokes.

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Key Components of AFM Process

 Machine: One–way AFM, Two-way AFM, Orbital AFM

 Tooling: Work piece, Drill bit, Fixture plate, Fixture, Piston, Cylinder

 Abrasive medium: The medium that is needed to be polished deburred or finished.

Process Input Parameters of AFM

 Extrusion Pressure

 Number of cycles

 Grit composition and type

 Tooling

 Fixture design

AFM Advantages
 Inaccessible areas can be easily finished
 The finishing rate is much faster than manual methods of finishing
 The polishing and de-burring operations can be combined in one stage.
 High surface finishes with tight tolerances are possible

AFM Disadvantages
 Costly Process: Requires high capital investment.
 The cost of media is very high and is unusable after the process.
 The work-holding fixture is at times expensive
 Processing of blind holes is difficult.

AFM Applications
 The process was initially developed for effective de-burring of hydraulic control
blocks. Later on, the field of applications got rapidly diversified into defence, medical
and manufacturing units.
 The inaccessible areas in components that are very difficult to finish with traditional
methods can be easily finish machined by AFM process with up to 90 % improvement
in it with respect to the original accuracy.

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 The typical applications of AFM are in improving airfoil surfaces of compressor and
turbine components, edge finishing of holes and attachment features, improvement in
fatigue strength of blades, disks, hubs and shafts with uniform polishing on its edges.
 The adjustment of air flow resistance in blades, vanes, combustion liners, nozzles and
diffusers, finishing of fuel spray nozzles, fuel control bodies, bearing components,
reworking the components to remove coke and carbon deposits and to improve its
surface integrity.

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