600 ‘que, Paris 1947 (referred to as Essai compara Finally, @ very important text of Sibawayhi, | ‘quoted’ in the Commentary of Sirfi, on the Gifference between madjhara and mahmasa, is Published ia H. Fleisch, Larabe classique, Esguisse Pune structure linguistigue, Beirut, 1956, 134-36 (referred to as Esquisse). See also tincuisties and Puowarics, (i. Fuzisex) ALHUROF AvMUKATTAAIAT [see at woman], HUROFIYYA, unorthodox Muslim sect of | _gnostic-cabalistic tendencies founded by Fadl Allah of | ‘Astarabad in Iran atthe end of the Bth/zqth century. | ts founder was born at Astarabad in 740/2340, land, according to some sources, was named ‘Abd al Rahman; he began his career as a SUfl famed parti- clay for the care he took to avoid eating any unlawful food, 0 much $0 that he was known aS Ialal-Bhor. He was a sayyid (descendent of “Ali) and the son of a chiet justice (R4d6 al-tudd!) who died While he was still an infant. From childhood he Showed a great inclination to mysticism and to ascetic practices and while still young he possessed the gift of prophetic dreams and of the interpretation fof dreams. At the age of 28 he performed his frst pilgrimage to Mecca and on his return stayed for Some time in KhWarazm. He then decided to make @ | Second pilgrimage, but during the Tong journey he | was persuaded by a dream to make a detour to visit the tomb of the Zmdm Riga at Mashhad whence he went to Mecca and then again to KhWarazm. After various dreams (in one of which there were revealed | to him the names of four especially holy mystics, Thrahim b. Adham, Bayard Bistaml, Sahl Tustarh and Bubldl), he learned in 2 particularly significant ‘dream what his mission was to be: a star rose in the feast and a brilliant ray {rom it penetrated into Fagl AAIIH'S right eye until the whole star was absorbed. Tt was revealed to him that this ie a star which | ‘ses only every few centuries". When he awakened, Fadl heard the birds singing and partly understood | their language. He acquired his first disciples by meant of his penetrating interpretations of dreams: they consisted of a baker, Sayyid Mubammad Nanva%, a certain Darwish Al, a Darwish Bayazid land others. Fad! then went to’ Kburdsin where be found another disciple, and then to Isfahan where he settled in the mesque of TOktI. Here there became bis follower the $4/1 Mu‘in al-Din Shahrastinl, who brought to him other “seekers for God” such as Mawlina “Mutia al-Din, Mawlana Muhammed, Shaykh sa, Mawland ‘AU? al-Din Radia’, Nage Allab Natadii, the author of a KA¥ab-ndma (book of dreams), vallable for the biographical information fon Fadi Allah which it contains, and others. The fgroup increased in number and’ also many from other countries were attracted by Fadl Allah's gift of interpreting dreams and by the simple and upright life which he and is followers led, supporting themselves by their own work, mostly manual (Fadl himself was @ maker of hats} and refusing donations ‘and gifts. In addition to the Kuan, Fadi Allah had 2 thorough knowledge of the Jewish and Christian Sacred books (the Torah, the Psalms and the Gospels) Which he quotes frequently in his Didwidan-nama. Fadl's “interpretations of dreams” consisted chiefly ‘of phenomena of “thought-reading” through dreams: | he often told the dreamer his thoughts even before he | had related his dream, Unlike other mystics of the | period, Fadi Allah docs not seem to have made use of music and dancing. At the age of about 40, while Ihe was at Tabriz, be had a new experience: there was | Gear revelation (ash? wa Si)” HUROF av-HIDJA? — HUROFIYYA revealed to him the hidden meaning of letters and the significance of Prophecy (wubuwa). Alter Uhree days and nights of ecstasy, he heard voices asking: "Who is this young man? Who is this moon of the ‘arth and the sky?" and a voice which replied: "It is the Lord of Time (sahib al-zaman), the Sultan of all the Prophets: others attain faith by imitation fand learning, whereas he attains it by an inner and ‘From being @ ‘S01, Fadi Allah now became the founder of @ new religious movement. Returning to Isfahan, he lived for atime alone in a cave and, shorty afterwards, a dying dervish announced to him that, following the period of prophecy, there had now arrived the time Of the revelation ofthe divine glory (suhir- hbris@) ‘The sources give various dates for this manifestation of the divinity in Fag! Allah ("Grace of God), the ‘most likely being 788/286 oF 789[1387. In the same year Fadl is said to have written bis main work, the Diéwidan-nima-ys habiy. Like other "divine mani- festations” before and after him, Fadl Allah seems to have sought to convert ta his doctrine the princes and rulers of his time. According to Tbn Hadiar al- ‘Askalan! (his contemporary, in. Tnbi? al ghumr fé 4abnd? al“umr), he invited Timdrlang to embrace Bis feligion, and it certain that he dreamed of marrying the daughter of Toktamish, the Bhan of the Golden Horde. He spent the last part of his life at Shirwan (now Baku) where he had taken refuge with the prince Mirin-shah, son of Timtrlang, from Timbr- Tang’s sentence against him issued at Samarkand after a meeting with the orthodox juriseansults of that city. Mirdn-shih, however, instead of helping him, had him arrested. From Shirwan, where, in prison, he wrote his Wasiyyat-ndma (Testament), Fadl llth was taken to the fortress of Alandjak hear Naghéiwan, where he was executed in 796/1304. ‘The place of his execution (maal) at Alandiak ‘became for some time the Mecca of his followers, and Mirinshih became the Antichrist of the ‘new religion (the Hurifl texts refer to him as Marin- hh, "king of the serpents) ‘The first Balifa of Fadl Allgh was his disciple ‘All abA%, author of various Hurdfl books, whose ambition was to win to Hurdfism the Kara-Koyunt prince Kara Yisuf, who had defeated Miran-thah. ‘He was executed in B24/r419 after having spread Hur0fl doctrine in the country of Rm (Anatolia), where he appears as early a8 802/z400, and having helped to instil Huraft ideas into the community of the Bektashiyya [g}: he did indeed visit the fothe of Hadid Bektash ‘at Klrshehie. His propaganda Feached as far as Edirne, the Ottoman capital at that time, and to the territory of the Lar and (0 Trebizond. In 848/244 a Hurdfl missionary was the guest at Edime of the heir to the throne, Mebemmed (the fature “conqueror of Constantinople), who showed an interest in hie doctrines; but he was burnt alive as a heretic, In Anatolia the Hurafl doctrines survived, along with others, in the strange fraternity of the Bektdshls, and Turkish literature contains several good Hurd! poets, notably Nesiml {ga} (layed alive at Aleppo in 807/240) In spite of the relatively short period during which it wat an organized ‘movement, the Hurifi sect suffered from heresies and schisms, the chief of these being that of the Nuktawiyya founded by an “ex- communicated” former follower of Fadl Allah, Mabmod Pasikbant, from Gilan. ‘There are three principal works by Fadl Allah the Djaesidan-nima, in prose, written haf in Persian and half in the Persian dialect of Astarabad (a poeticHUROFIYYA — a1-HUSAM 8. DIRAR bor version was produced by ‘Ali al-ASIa in 802/1400), the Blubabbat-ndma and the ‘Arah-ndma (in verse); they are still only in manuscript. These works are interesting also from the point of view of dialect. ‘There exist numerous HurOfl treatises, short tracts and poems weitten by various followers of the founder of the sect, but of particular importance are the works of his Bhalifa and recognized interpreter, “AIL ALAM, i, the Istind-ndma, the Mabghar-néma (in prose) and ‘the four mathnaws poems Bashéeat- dma (written in 8o3/t401), Tawkid-nima, Kursi- ‘nama (oritten in Sro/iqo8), and Kiydmat-ndma (veritten in 8x4/x432) Doctrines: Stress has been laid on the cabalistc character of Hurdfism, which has in fact taken ite ‘name from this feature (Aarf, pl. hurdf = “letter”, ‘This i certalaly its most obvious characteristic but ‘it would be wrong to consider it the central point of its doctrine. ‘The most important problems of ‘Hucdfism are its doctrines on prophecy and on maa. ‘The first arose fairly clearly in the following way? Mubammad may truly be called the “Seal of the Prophets” because with him prophecy ends and there begins a new cycle, superior t0 that of pro- pheey, that of sainthood (aildya) which in its turn, With the appearance of Fadl Allah, was superseded by that ofthe revelation (ruhdr) ofthe Divine in man, The world is eternal, since creationfemanation is @ continual process, the divine attributes (including that of “creator”) being Klential with the essence of, God, which in itself is inaccessible (Rane maSiy hidden treasure). The Divine revelation moves in eycles(acearding to one text, each of 1360 years) and ‘each eyele are repeated events and pertons from ‘receding cycles, in a sort of “eternal return” (the walnuts of this year are different from and yet the same at those of the harvest last year"), a completely different conception from the Indian theory of metempsychosis to which Sunnt-Islam thas always boen hostile [See HULCL and TANASUKH). ‘The second problem, that of the relationship between man and God, is solved not, as some would have it, in a pantheistic sense, but by an exact and continual theophany of the inaccessible divine tweasure in man (and especially in the Man par excellence, Fadl Allah) on whose face is written in lear letters the actual name of God, Allah, the note being the alif, the two lobet of the note two Jams, and the eyes having the form of ha?. The traditional eschatological ideas are, however, rejected. by the Hurl and the ‘Kurinie anthropomorphism is explained in the sense that God can be represented fnly in Man, What other meaning could the following adit} have: “Soon you will see your Lord as you see the moon when it full; you will ot be deprived of the sight of Him"? Man, naturally, is understood to bee the particularly pure and holy’ man, in this case Fadl Allah, Nesimi aseerted that “God is none other than the son of Adam, The thirty-two letters are the words of the speech of God. Know that all the world is God himself—Adam is the soul and the sun is the face ‘Thisleads us to Huraficabalism. The fundamental idea is that God (as we have seen, impossible to frasp in His essence) reveals Himself ia the Word (Padi Alizh was well acquainted with the beginning ‘of St, John’s Gospel). Now the Word is made up of Sounds, and Sounds are always—in Islam tradition “faenlitied with “Tetters” (huraf). The whole total fof letters (and of their numerical value according to | the abdjad) i thus the total ofall the emanating and | creative possibilities of God, and is God Himself made manifest. Hence the enormous importance given to letters and to “interpretative” calculations made with them, the various methods of which are too ted for examples to be given here: it resulted KuPn; one phrase is changed into another (of the same numerical value) which indicated ite “tru meaning in the same way that the elements of the wworld are transformed ceaselessly in the infinite tyeles of is existence, Every atom moreover, said Fadl Allah, “Is a tongue which speaks”. In the same ‘way are explained the reasons (Hurdfism attaches great importance to the ‘ahi, “intellect” for the Humber of rak‘as in each canonical prayer, of the ‘number of the canonical prayers themselves, of the Timbs and of the human face, etc, in a kind of grand, and unitarian ontological nominalism ‘AS has been stated above, the Hurifis had at first an organization of their own a8 an autonomous religion, with their own rites and prayers, described in an itmportant chapter of the Jstied-ndma of “Alt aLA43. The adkan, for example, included formulae Such a5 the following: asthadw’ anna 1a lgha sla POH (*.. that there is n0 God but PH", the cabalistic formula for Fadl Allah); asthadu ‘anna Adam Khalifat Allah (that Adam [= Man} is the ‘lear of God"); adthadu anna Mubammad®® rast ‘Allah (that Mubammad is the messenger of God”). ‘The pilgrimage to the place where Fadl Allsh was killed took place in the month of Dhw 'I-Katda (the ‘month in which he was killed) and, according to the same Istiwd-ndma, "... after’ 28 fawd/ (circum- Aambulations) around the door of the mabal, they the Hur0fis) name 40 Knowers of God in the East and in the West of the world, go into the bed of the river, pick up three times twenty-one pebbles, fie, 63: 21 for the Barth, 21 for Water, 24 forthe Air, and throw them into the Fie, which is the origin of Satan, with their faces turned towards the fortress of the accursed and foul Marinhah (the king of the Serpents = Miranshah) which is opposite the gate of the fortress of Alandjak—may it be preserved from disasters and calamities-and is called “the fortress of Sangiar”; then they tale off the pilgrim’s dress ‘Whed it began however, it was not intended that Hurifism should be merely a secret. or esoteric religion but that it should become also (a premature ambition at that time) a visible religious organizatios ‘with autonomous rites; it was hoped that It woul gain some rulers as its adherents. Tt did not succeed In this, but its doctrines penetrated into. various quarters, not only into Bektashism but also into certain aspects of Persian Stfism, from some. of ‘whose doctrines (and from the ever-present under- Current of Isma‘tlfgnostic beliefs) they had been in large part derive. Bibliography: C. Huart, Testes persans relatifs a la sece des Hoaroifis ... suivis d'une (ude sur la religion des Houroufie par le Dr. Riza Texfiq... (GMS, ix), Leiden 1909 (a useful cllect- jon of texts, but the translation is often doubtful fand the introductory essay follows out of date historico-eligious lines); H. Ritter, Die Anfange der Hurafisekte, in Oriens, vii (3954), 1543 Sadik Kiya, Nublawiy yan 9 Pasibhiyydn, Tehran 1320) 3942. In the above selection there will be found the whole of the basic bibliography on Hurafism (A. Bausans) AUUSAM », DIRAR, Anu ‘LKHarTan, 2 Kalb aristocrat of Damascus, who arrived in Spain 88 governor in the year Yasi743 to replace. the