Management Strategies in Farrowing House to Improve Piglet Pre-

weaning Survival and Growth

Introduction
With the use of highly prolific sows in commercial herds, high piglet pre-weaning mortality
(PWM) remains an unsolved problem in pig production. Recent reports have shown average piglet
PWM rates of 12.9%, 9.4%, and 12.2% in the Europian Union, the Philippines and Thailand,
respectively (Bureau of Agricultural Statistical of Philippines, 2012; Interpig, 2014, Nuntapaitoon
and Tummaruk, 2013). On the other hand, the mortality rate recorded during the rearing and
finishing phases reached 3.3 and 2.8%, respectively (Interpig, 2014). Moreover, piglet PWM is one of
the major reproductive components affecting herd productivity in the swine industry. It has been
demonstrated that a 1% reduction in piglet mortality increased the sow annual output by 7.1 in a
high reproductive country such as the Netherlands (Chris et.al, 2012). Therefore the mortality of
piglets in the suckling period is the major welfare and an economic problem in the swine industry
which still needs to be addressed.
Neonatal piglets are very vulnerable at birth. They are characterized by a high surface to body
mass ratio, limited reserves and poor immunity status. Among the different causes of early death,
low colostrum intake is probably the most influential (Muns, et al 2016). Colostrum intake is crucial
for piglet growth since it provides piglets with the energy and passive immunity necessary at a very
early stage (Quesnel, et al, 2012). Moreover, piglets have to compete with littermates for a teat to
suckle. Among other factors, alteration of piglets body weight (BW) at birth associated with an
increased litter size might lead to high PWM. The use of highly prolific sows resulted in increased
crowding in the uterine horns during gestation (Rutherford et.al. 2013). Intra-uterine crowding may
result in some piglets experiencing intra-uterine growth restriction or reduced BWat birth, therefore
increasing litter birth weight variation (Yuan et al, 2015). Within litter variation in birth weight
strongly affects PWM, especially during the first 72 hours of life (Alonso-Spilsbury et al, 2007). In
addition, a high ambient temperature around farrowing negatively affects the sows welfare and
performance, with a negative impact on piglet weaning weight (Muns, et al 2016). Many management
routines are performed in a farrowing house in a first two days post-partum to enhance piglet
survival. In countries with tropical climate such as Thailand such practices are of great importance
for herd performance. In practice, during the peri-partum period, management is focused on helping
piglets to minimize heat loss and maximize colostrum intake.
Colostrum: Colostrum is secreted by a mammary gland starting shortly before parturition and for a
time interval of approximately 12-24 hours in most sows (Quesnel et al 2012). Piglets obtain
colostrum freely for 0-24 hours after farrowing. After 24-48 hours postpartum, the physiologic
cyclical pattern of suckling and milk ejection is established (De Passille and Rushen, 1989). Colostrum
is a source of highly digestible nutrient and various forms of bioactive compounds such as
immunoglobulins, hydrolytic enzymes, hormones and growth factors (Rooke and Bland 2002; Wu et
al 2010). Additionally, colostrum is the first and only food available for piglets after birth. Colostrum
is crucial providing energy for thermoregulation and body growth (Devillers et al 2011, Herpin et al
2005; Le Devidich et al 2005). In addition, passive immunity supply in pigs mainly occurs in
immunoglobulin G (IgG) in colostrum, providing new born animals with passive humoral immune
protection. New born piglet absorption of IgG happens before gut closure (Quesnel et al 2012), which
takes place at approximately 24 hours of age (Rooke and Bland, 2002). Therefore, the first 12-24
hours after birth are crucial for the piglets colostrum intake.
However, colostrum yield is limited. Colostrum yield was shown to be independent of litter
size, but moderately influenced by piglet BW and BW variability at birth (Devillers et al, 2007).
Moreover, colostrum yield and IgG concentrations were shown to be highly variable among sows,
even within sows from the same unit (Devillers et al, 2011; Quesnel, 2011). In addition, it was
observed that the amount of colostrum ingestion during the first 24 hours after birth was highly
variable among littermates. In one study, the average colostrum intake varied from 250-300 grams,
but ranged from 0-700 grams (Quesnel et al, 2012). Newborn piglets directly compete with their
littermates for access to a mammary gland, preferably the anterior and middle glands. The posterior
mammary glands may produce fewer beneficial proteins than the anterior glands (Wu et al, 2010).
Additionally, piglets from the same litter indirectly compete for milk intake during lactation, and
piglets that are better at draining, massaging and stimulating the teat will favor local blood flow
together with hormonal and nutrient investment, thus increasing the teats milk production (Algers,
1993). Therefore, management of the litter is important to ensure that all piglets have proper
colostrum intake.
Farrowing Supervision: Most of the management studied in literature consist of practices
performed around farrowing, including farrowing supervision, and are oriented to cope with two
main challenges: piglet thermoregulation capacity and piglet colostrum intake. Drying piglets at birth
has proven useful in commercial herds. Christison et al (1997) observed that survival was improved
when piglets were dried or placed under a heating lamp immediately after birth. Vasdal et al (2011)
compared different protocols around farrowing in loosed house sows and found out that drying new
born piglets and placing the piglets at the udder and assisting them to find a teat reduced mortality,
but shutting the piglets inside the creep area while feeding the sow did not improve survival.
Improved survival during the first day of life, reduction in the number of stillbirths at farrowing and
increased weaning weights were obtained with more complex protocols that included drying the new
born piglets, oral administration of 12 ml of bovine colostrum and oxygen administration through an
oral mask (White et al, 1996). Good supervision when farrowing also improved pre-weaning survival
(Holyoake et al, 1995). On the other hand, split nursing (i.e. removing the larger piglets in a litter for
a set period of time, allowing the smaller piglets free access to the udder) is another practice
performed on commercial farms to enhance colostrum intake in low birth BW piglets. Yet, this
practice has little impact on litter performance. Donovan and Dritz (2000) found no effect on IgG
plasma concentration or mortality rate when performing 2-hour split nursing of the heaviest 50% of
the piglets in the litter. Donovan and Blitz (2000) only observed a decrease in a variation of piglet
average daily gain in litters with more than nine pigs. Thorup (2006) did not obtain a drop in low
birth BW piglet mortality through split nursing either. Dewey et al (2008) observed an increase in
preweaning growth and survival when combining oral administration of 12-20 ml of colostrum with
split nursing in a ‘maximal care treatment’. More recently, Muns et al (2014) found that
supplementing low birth BW piglets after birth with 15 ml of the sows colostrum improved piglet IgG
levels on day four compared to a control group. However, it only tended to improve growth and
survival of small piglets at weaning in non-homogenised litters at the same time of cross-fostering,
but not in homogenised litters. In another study, Muns et al (2015) only observed improvement in
BW at 24 hours of life in low birth BW piglets born from primiparous sows after being supplemented
with 15 ml of the sows colostrum. But such effect was not maintained at weaning. In the same study,
they found no effect on colostrum supplementation on low birth BW piglets born from primiparous
sows, suggesting that piglets born from multiparous sows, suggesting that piglets born from
multiparous sows might have higher need for colostrum intake than piglets born from multiparous
sows. More recently, Viehmann et al (2015), observed that daily supplementation of piglets with
bovine colostrum during the first three days after birth extended life in low birth BW piglets but did
not influence pre-weaning survival. Similarly, Declerck et al (2016) observed that providing direct
energy (commercial energy booster) through oral supplementation to small neonatal piglets (< 1 kg
of birth BW) reduced the mortality without improving colostrum intake.
Cross-fostering: Cross-fostering is an important and common management practice performed on
commercial farms. Cross-fostering has become indispensable to deal with highly prolific sows
delivering large litters at farrowing. There are many reasons to perform cross-fostering (Baxter et al,
2013) including to foster surplus piglets when a sow has more piglets than functional teats, to foster
small piglets to create litters with similar birth weights or to create litters with low weight variation,
death of a sow at farrowing, and when a sow attacks its own offspring. Concurrently, cross-fostering
can be performed at a minimum extent (transferring as few piglets as possible), in order to adjust
litters by the number of piglets according to the number of functional teats. On the contrary, cross-
fostering can be performed at a greater extent (transferring a high number of piglets involving most
of the litters in the batch), adjusting litters by BW of the piglets, transferring animals based on parity
of the dams (piglets from gilts transferred to middle-aged sows) etc.
Cross-fostering should be performed after piglets ingest colostrum from their biological
dams, but before teat order is established in the litter (Heim et al, 2012). As previously stated,
colostrum decreases after 12 hours post-partum. After the initial phase of continuous colostrum
ejection, cyclical milk let down instauration progressively occurs. Thereafter, within the first week
after birth, a stable teat order among the littermates is established (De Pasille and Rushen, 1989).
Consequently, technical recommendations and routine farm procedures aim to perform cross-
fostering between 12 and 24 hours after farrowing. Moreover, during the first day after farrowing,
sows accept alien offspring without disrupting their litter suckling patterns, without impairing piglet
or sow welfare and without becoming aggressive towards the adopted piglets (Robert and Martineau,
2001).
In literature, cross-fostering has been widely studied, with diverse results. Heim et al (2012)
observed that survival and growth, were not impaired in fostered piglets. They also observed that
litters composed exclusively of adopted piglets had no impairment of behaviour, survival or growth.
Bierhals et al (2011) found that piglets nursed by primiparous sows had lower BW at a day 21 of
lactation than piglets nursed by parity 5 sows. Akdag et al (2009) and Milligan et al (2002) associated
increased birth weight variation with low survival rate, whereas other studies did not (Bierhals et al,
2011, Milligan et al, 2001) Deen and Bilkei (2004) found that mortality of low birth BW piglets had a
higher chance of survival in small litters irrespective of the birth BW of their littermates. On the
contrary, Muns et al (2014) found that standardization of litters at cross-fostering (adjusting litters
by BW of the piglets) did not prevent them from having the same BW variability at weaning compared
to non-standardized litters. They also found that non-standardized litters did not impair in growth
or survival of small piglets compared to small piglets in standardized litters. On the other hand,
Robert and Martineau (2011) observed that repeated cross-fostering through lactation reduced the
weight gain of both adopted and resident piglets and increased the sow’s aggression towards alien
piglets.
 It is a common practice on different farms to synchronize and induce farrowing, especially in
multiparous sows, in order to concentrate and optimize tasks. With synchronized farrowing, cross-
fostering becomes easier to perform. Nonetheless, the advantages and disadvantages of farrowing
induction are outside the scope of this review and have recently been documented (Kirkden et al,
2013). Finally, cross fostering might lead to transfer of pathogens from one litter to another,
moreover, it can be critical for the success of immune transfer (humoral immunity and cell mediated
immunity) from a biological dam to new born piglets if performed too early: However, long term
impact of cross-fostering on piglet health and immunity has not been well examined (Bandrick et al,
2011).
Creep Feeding: Once producers have focused on enhancing the early survival of new born piglets by
ensuring optimal colostrum intake, and once cross-fostering has been performed, all efforts are
oriented to maximize piglet BW at the end of lactation and to prepare the animals for weaning
(transition from milk consumption during the suckling period to a solid feed diet after weaning). For
that purpose, after the first week or ten days of lactation, piglets are frequently given a highly
palatable and highly digestible diet (creep feeding). The creep feed intake of piglets is usually not
very high and it is inversely related to the sow’s milk production. Consequently, creep feed offered
during the lactation period does not have a high impact on sow performance or piglet growth at
weaning (Bruininx et al, 2004; Sulabo et al, 2010). It was observed that only a low proportion of
piglets consumed feed during lactation (Sulabo et al, 2010). It was also observed that creep feed
intake was variable between and within litters (bruinnix et al, 2002; Wattanakul et al, 2005).
Nevertheless, piglets that consume creep feed during lactation improved post-weaning performance
through a shortened onset of feed consumption (Bruininx et al, 2002) and an increased feed intake
and BW gain during the first days after weaning (Bruininx et al, 2004; Sulabo et al,2010; van den
Brand et al, 2014). Early introduction of creep feeding influences the proportion of piglets easting
creep feed. Sulabo et al (2010) observed a lower feed intake to litters offered creep feed for 13 days.
In addition, lactation length seems to influence creep feed intake. Callesen et al (2007) observe an
increase in creep feed consumption of between 137 and 266% in piglets weaned at 33 days of age
compared to piglets weaned at 27 days of age. Subsequently, they found that creep feed might benefit
post weaning growth of piglets after longer lactation. A number of researchers have studied
strategies to improve creep feed consumption and the proportion of piglets eating creep feed. Van
den Brand et al (2014) observed that piglets younger than 18 days of age preferred pellets with a
large diameter (10-12 mm vs. 2mm diameter pellet). Despite lowering the weaning BW, performance
of intermittent suckling increased creep feed intake and improved growth in the first week after
weaning in piglets that ate creep feed (Kuller et al, 2004, 2007). As suggested by Wattanakul et al
(2005), the method of creep feed presentation is very important in the initiation of feeding behaviour.
Accordingly, offering creep feed with different flavors or using a feeder that stimulates piglet
exploratory behaviour are strategies that might enhance creep feed intake during lactation (Adeleye
et al, 2014, Kuller et al, 2010). A recent study has suggested that providing liquid milk replacement
to piglets during lactation might have a positive influence on post-weaning survival (Park et al, 2014).
In addition to the management practices mentioned above (colostrum supplementation,
cross-fostering and creep feeding), weaning age is also an important factor in determining future
performance of the animals. In past experiments, lactation of 21 days increased wean-to-finish
average daily gain and survival compared to shorter lactation (Main et al, 2004) and lactation of 33
days improved piglet growth after weaning compared to lactation of 27 days (Calessen et al, 2007).
It is known that longer lactation increases weight and physiologic maturity of piglets at weaning
(Main et al, 2004). However with the current multisite pig production system and its specific pig flow,
little decision capacity is left concerning weaning age.
Human-animal interaction: Intensive husbandry and housing practices in animal production also
affect the nature and amount of human contact that the animals receive. Compared to other phases,
lactation demands more human handling of sows and piglets. Implementation of good practices by
trained employees and positive experiences with human interactions may have powerful influences.
Good practices and positive experiences might have an effect not only on the productivity and welfare
of the animal, but also on how the animal responds to aversive routine practices (Hemsworth and
Coleman, 2011; Muns et al, 2015). On one hand, the negative effects of negative emotional states such
as fear on the welfare of animals are well known (Gonyou et al, 1986; Hemsworth et al, 1981, 1987,
1989). Routine interactions between stock people and their animals can result in farm animals
becoming highly fearful of humans and, through stress, their productivity and welfare might be
impaired (Hemsworth, 2003). The attitude and behaviour of stock people when handling and
interacting with sows and piglets may have implications on both the productivity and stress
physiology of the animals (Gonyou et al., 1986; Hemsworth and Coleman, 2011; Hemsworth et al.,
1989). In addition, it was observed that handling pigs early in life might influence their subsequent
behavioural responses to humans (Hemsworth and Barnett, 1992). On the other hand, there are
limited data indicating the impact of positive emotional responses of farm animals in the presence of
humans on subsequent experiences. Precisely, Muns et al. (2015b) observed that positive human
contact after birth reduced piglet escape behaviour at subsequent stressful events. Early handling of
piglets (tactile stimulation performed daily from day 5 to day 35 of age) resulted in piglets that were
more active and less fearful in a novel environment, and less fearful of people in general (de Oliveira
et al., 2015). Zupan et al. (2016) also observed that handling (tactile stimulation performed daily
from day 5 to day 35 of age) increased piglet locomotors play and handling half of the litter increased
social exploratory behaviour of the entire litter. They suggested that handling all or half of the piglets
in the litter might be beneficial for the piglets’ emotional state after weaning, thus increasing their
welfare. However, the mechanisms underlying the influence of positive early contact are unclear.
Additionally, secondary management practices commonly performed in farrowing facilities (e.g.
castration, iron administration, vaccination, ear clipping, tail docking, etc.) might have an impact on
piglet and sow welfare and performance. Therefore, they should also be considered when planning
or suggesting a protocol for management routines in the farrowing house. Finally, environmental
factors (e.g. facility design, housing system, climatic conditions, etc.) also play an important role in
the success of the management performed in the farrowing house.

Conclusion
Most of the management protocols studied so far are too complex and laborious, or they need
to be performed too close to farrowing to be effective. Two of the simplest practices that have been
studied, drying piglets at birth and placing them at the udder or under a heating lamp, successfully
reduced mortality. While the importance of proper colostrum intake by piglets is completely
assumed, very few studies have been performed under farm conditions regarding oral
supplementation of piglets. Oral administration of colostrum (with manually milked sow colostrum
obtained from the same herd) to low birth BW piglets guarantees a proper level of IgG, while direct
energy supplementation reduces the mortality of low birth BW piglets. Therefore, a combination of
oral supplementation using sow colostrum and a commercial energy booster might enhance both
piglet energy and immunity status. Such management practices could reduce on-farm PWM and
should be further studied. On the other hand, cross-fostering has been proven to strongly influence
PWM. However, more conclusive studies are needed to clearly understand the effect of cross-
fostering on piglet performance, especially on the reduction in litter weight variation. In addition,
more studies of the effect of cross-fostering combined with other husbandry practices (e.g. oral
supplementation) are necessary. Concerning the use of creep feeding, there is a lack of knowledge
about whether the more vigorous or the smaller piglets are consuming creep feed during lactation.
Recent studies have suggested that creep feed consumption can be enhanced by stimulating piglet
exploratory behaviour and/or by modifying creep feed presentation. Further studies of the
motivation that leads piglets to consume creep feed are of great interest and could help enhance post-
weaning piglet adaptation. Furthermore, recent studies have suggested the benefits of positive
human handling on piglet welfare, behaviour, and fear response. Given the amount of management
and manipulation that piglets suffer during lactation, better understanding of the piglet emotional
response to human handling could become an important tool to improve pig welfare and handling
during lactation and after weaning. Indeed, improved knowledge of the piglet emotional response to
human handling could strongly influence the producers’ approach to the skills and attitudes of stock
people, as well as lactation management planning. Finally, it would be of great interest to study the
impact of the reviewed management strategies on farms differing in their sanitary status or on farms
under different climatic conditions, thereby comparing the impact of similar management strategies
in different countries or continents.
References
Adeleye OO, Guy JH and Edwards SA 2014. Exploratory behaviour and performance of piglets fed
novel flavoured creep in two housing systems. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 191, 91–97.
Akdag F, Arslan S and Demir H 2009. The effect of parity and litter size on birth weight and the effect
of birth weight variations on weaning weight and pre-weaning survival in piglet. J. Anim. Vet. Adv. 8,
2133–2138.
Algers B 1993. Nursing in pigs: communicating needs and distributing resources. J. Anim. Sci. 71,
2826– 2831.
Alonso-Spilsbury M, Ramírez-Necoechea R, GonzálezLozano M, Mota-Rojas D and Trujillo-Ortega ME
2007. Piglet survival in early lactation: a review. J. Anim. Vet. Adv. 6, 76–86.
Andersen IL, Tajet GM, Haukvik IA, Kongsrud S and Boe KE 2007. Relationship between postnatal
piglet mortality, environmental factors and management around farrowing in herds with loose-
housed, lactating sows. Acta Agric. Scand. Sect. A-Animal Sci. 57, 38–45.
Bandrick M, Pieters M, Pijoan C, Baidoo SK and Molitor TW 2011. Effect of cross-fostering on transfer
of maternal immunity to Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae to piglets. Vet. Rec. 168, 100–105.
Baxter EM, Rutherford KMD, D’Eath RB, Arnott G, Turner SP, Sandoe P, Moustsen VA, Thorup F,
Edwards SA and Lawrence AB 2013. The welfare implications of large litter size in the domestic pig
II: management factors. Anim. Welf. 22, 219–238.
Bierhals T, Mellagi APG, Heim G, Bernardi ML, Wentz I and Bortolozzo FP 2011. Desempenho de
leitegadas após a uniformizaçao cruzada de leitoes entre femeas de ordem de parto 1 e 5. Acta Sci.
Vet. 39, 942–947.
Bruininx EMAM, Binnendijk GP, van der PeetSchwering CMC, Schrama JW, den Hartog LA, Everts H
and Beynen AC 2002. Effect of creep feed consumption on individual feed intake characteristics and
performance of group-housed weanling pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 80, 1413–1418.
Bruininx EMAM, Schellingerhout AB, Binnendijk GP, van der Peet-Schwering CMC, Schrama JW, den
Hartog LA, Everts H and Beynen AC 2004. Individually assessed creep food consumption by suckled
piglets: Influence on post-weaning food intake characteristics and indicators of gut structure and
hind-gut fermentation. Anim. Sci. 78, 67–75.
Bureau of Agricultural Statistical 2012. “Swine industry report of Philippine.” [Online]. Available:
http://www.bas.gov.ph/?ids=downloads_view &id=644&p=12&dami=10&srt=dateadd. Accessed
November 15, 2011.
Callesen J, Halas D, Thorup F, Knudsen KEB, Kim JC, Mullan BP, Hampson DJ, Wilson RH and Pluske
JR 2007a. The effects of weaning age, diet composition, and categorisation of creep feed intake by
piglets on diarrhoea and performance after weaning. Livest. Sci. 108, 120–123.
Callesen J, Halas D, Thorup F, Knudsen KEB, Kim JC, Mullan BP, Wilson RH and Pluske JR 2007b. The
influence of nutritional and management factors on piglet weight gain to weaning in a commercial
herd in Denmark. 10th Int. Symp. Dig. Physiol. Pigs, Denmark 2006, Part 1, 108, 117–119.
Chris TO, Saskia B, Egbert FK and Eveline W 2012. The economic benefit of heavier piglets: relations
between birth weight and piglet survival and finisher performance. Proceeding of the 22nd
International Pig Veterinary Society Congress, p. 159.
Christison GI, Wenger II and Follensbee ME 1997. Teat seeking success of newborn piglets after
drying or warming. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 77, 317–319.
de Oliveira D, da Costa MJRP, Zupan M, Rehn T and Keeling LJ 2015. Early human handling in non-
weaned piglets: effects on behaviour and body weight. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 164, 56–63.
De Passillé AMB and Rushen J 1989. Using early suckling behavior and weight gain to identify piglets
at risk. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 69, 535–544.
Declerck I, Dewulf J, Decaluwé R and Maes D 2016. Effects of energy supplementation to neonatal
(very) low birth weight piglets on mortality, weaning weight, daily weight gain and colostrum intake.
Livest. Sci. 183, 48–53.
Deen MGH and Bilkei G 2004. Cross fostering of lowbirthweight piglets. Livest. Prod. Sci. 90, 279–
284.
Devillers N, Farmer C, Le Dividich J and Prunier A 2007. Variability of colostrum yield and colostrum
intake in swine. Animal. 1, 1033–1041.
Devillers N, Le Dividich J and Prunier A 2011. Influence of colostrum intake on piglet survival and
immunity. Animal. 5, 1605–1612.
Dewey CE, Gomes T and Richardson K 2008. Field trial to determine the impact of providing
additional care to litters on weaning weight of pigs. Can. J. Vet. Res. Can. Rech. Vet. 72, 390–395.
Donovan TS and Dritz SS 2000. Effect of split nursing on variation in pig growth from birth to
weaning. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 217, 79–81.
Gonyou HW, Hemsworth PH and Barnett JL 1986. Effects of frequent interactions with humans on
growing pigs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 16, 269– 278.
Heim G, Mellagi APG, Bierhals T, de Souza LP, de Fries HCC, Piuco P, Seidel E, Bernardi ML, Wentz I
and Bortolozzo FP 2012. Effects of cross-fostering within 24 h after birth on pre-weaning behaviour,
growth performance and survival rate of biological and adopted piglets. Livest. Sci. 150, 121–127.
Hemsworth PH 2003. Human–animal interactions in livestock production. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 81,
185–198. Hemsworth PH and Barnett JL 1992. The effects of early contact with humans on the
subsequent level of fear of humans in pigs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 35, 83–90.
Hemsworth PH, Barnett JL, Coleman, GJ and Hansen C 1989. A study of the relationships between the
attitudinal and behavioural profiles of stockpersons and the level of fear of humans and reproductive
performance of commercial pigs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 23, 301–314.
Hemsworth PH, Barnett JL and Hansen C 1981. The influence of handling by humans on the behavior,
growth, and corticosteroids in the juvenile female pig. Horm. Behav. 15, 396–403.
Hemsworth PH, Barnett JL and Hansen C 1987. The influence of inconsistent handling by humans on
the behaviour, growth and corticosteroids of young pigs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 17, 245–252.
Hemsworth PH and Coleman GJ 2011. HumanLivestock Interactions: The Stockperson and the
Productivity and Welfare of Intensively Farmed Animals. 2nd ed. Oxford, UK: CAB International.
Herpin P, Louveau I, Damon M and Le Dividich J 2005. Environmental and hormonal regulation of
energy metabolism in early development of the pig. In: Biology of Growing Animals, Biology of
Metabolism in Growing Animals. Elsevier, pp. 351–374.
Holyoake PK, Dial GD, Trigg T and King VL 1995. Reducing pig mortality through supervision during
the perinatal period. J. Anim. Sci. 73, 3543– 3551.
Interpig reports 2014. “2013 pig cost of production in selected countries.” [Online]. Available:
http://www.bpex.org.uk/pricesstats/published-reports/. Accessed January, 2015.
Kirkden RD, Broom DM and Andersen IL 2013 Piglet mortality: management solutions. J. Anim. Sci.
91, 3361–3389. Kuller WI, Soede NM, van Beers-Schreurs HMG, Langendijk P, Taverne MAM, Kemp
B and Verheijden JHM 2007. Effects of intermittent suckling and creep feed intake on pig performance
from birth to slaughter. J. Anim. Sci. 85, 1295–1301.
Kuller WI, Soede NM, van Beers-Schreurs HMG, Langendijk P, Taverne MAM, Verheijden JHM and
Kemp B 2004. Intermittent suckling: effects on piglet and sow performance before and after weaning.
J. Anim. Sci. 82, 405–413.
Kuller WI, Tobias TJ and van Nes A 2010. Creep feed intake in unweaned piglets is increased by
exploration stimulating feeder. Livest. Sci. 129, 228–231.
Le Dividich J, Rooke JA and Herpin P 2005. Nutritional and immunological importance of colostrum
for the new-born pig. J. Agri. Sci. 143, 469–485.
Main RG, Dritz, SS, Tokach MD, Goodband RD and Nelssen JL 2004. Increasing weaning age improves
pig performance in a multisite production system. J. Anim. Sci. 82, 1499–1507.
Milligan BN, Fraser D and Kramer DL 2001. Birth weight variation in the domestic pig: effects on
offspring survival, weight gain and suckling behaviour. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 73, 179–191.
Milligan BN, Fraser D and Kramer DL 2002. Withinlitter birth weight variation in the domestic pig
and its relation to pre-weaning survival, weight gain, and variation in weaning weights. Livest. Prod.
Sci. 76, 181–191.
Muns R, Malmkvist J, Larsen MLV, Sørensen D and Pedersen LJ 2016a. High environmental
temperature around farrowing induced heat stress in crated sows. J. Anim. Sci. 94, 377–384.
Muns R, Manteca X and Gasa J 2015a. Effect of different management techniques to enhance
colostrum intake on piglet’s growth and mortality. Anim. Welf. 92, 1193-1199.
Muns R, Nuntapaitoon M and Tummaruk P 2016b. Non-infectious causes of pre-weaning mortality in
piglets. Livest. Sci. 184, 46–57.
Muns R, Rault JL and Hemsworth P 2015b. Positive human contact on the first day of life alters the
piglet’s behavioural response to humans and husbandry practices. Physiol. Behav. 151, 162– 167.
Muns R, Silva C, Manteca X and Gasa J 2014. Effect of cross-fostering and oral supplementation with
colostrums on performance of newborn piglets. J. Anim. Sci. 92, 1193-1199.
Nuntapaitoon M and Tummaruk P 2013. Piglets preweaning mortality rate in a commercial swine
herd in Thailand in relation to season, number of littermates, sow’s parity number and piglet’s birth
weight. Proceeding of the 51st Kasetsart University Annual Conference, p. 58-64.
Park BC, Ha DM, Park MJ and Lee CY 2014. Effects of milk replacer and starter diet provided as creep
feed for suckling pigs on pre- and post-weaning growth. Anim. Sci. J. 85, 872–878.
Quesnel H 2011. Colostrum production by sows: variability of colostrum yield and immunoglobulin
G concentrations. Animal. 5, 1546-1553.
Quesnel H, Farmer C and Devillers N 2012. Colostrum intake: influence on piglet performance and
factors variation. Livest. Sci. 146, 105-114.
Robert S and Martineau GP 2001. Effects of repeated cross-fosterings on preweaning behavior and
growth performance of piglets and on maternal behavior of sows. J. Anim. Sci. 79, 88–93.
Rooke JA and Bland IM 2002. The acquisition of passive immunity in the new-born piglet. Livest.
Prod. Sci. 78, 13–23.
Rutherford KMD, Baxter EM, D’Eath RB, Turner SP, Arnott G, Roehe R, Ask B, Sandoe P, Moustsen VA,
Thorup F, Edwards SA, Berg P and Lawrence AB 2013. The welfare implications of large litter size in
the domestic pig I: biological factors. Anim. Welf. 22:199–218.
Sulabo RC, Jacela JY, Tokach MD, Dritz SS, Goodband RD, DeRouchey JM and Nelssen JL 2010a. Effects
of lactation feed intake and creep feeding on sow and piglet performance. J. Anim. Sci. 88, 3145– 3153.
Sulabo RC, Tokach MD, Dritz SS, Goodband RD, DeRouchey JM and Nelssen JL 2010b. Effects of
varying creep feeding duration on the proportion of pigs consuming creep feed and neonatal pig
performance. J. Anim. Sci. 88, 3154–3162.
Thorup F 2006. Ensuring colostrum to the smallest piglets. The National Committer for Pig
Production, Danish Bacon & Meat Council. February, 14. Report 736.
Van den Brand H, Wamsteeker D, Oostindjer M, van Enckevort LCM, van der Poel AFB, Kemp B and
Bolhuis JE 2014. Effects of pellet diameter during and after lactation on feed intake of piglets pre- and
postweaning. J. Anim. Sci. 92, 4145–4153.
Vasdal G, Østensen I, Melišová M, Bozděchová B, Illmann G and Andersen IL 2011. Management
routines at the time of farrowing—effects on teat success and postnatal piglet mortality from loose
housed sows. Livest. Sci. 136, 225–231.
Viehmann M, Unterweger C, Ganter M, Metzler-Zebeli BU, Ritzmann M and Hennig-Pauka I 2015.
Effects of bovine colostrum on performance, survival, and immunoglobulin status of suckling piglets
during the first days of life. Czech J. Anim. Sci. 60, 351–358.
Wattanakul W, Bulman CA, Edge HL, Edwards and SA 2005. The effect of creep feed presentation
method on feeding behaviour, intake and performance of suckling piglets. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 92,
27–36.
White KR, Anderson DM and Bate LA 1996. Increasing piglet survival through an improved farrowing
management protocol. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 76, 491– 495.
Wu Z, Wang Q, Wu Y, Kim W, Chen F and Wang J 2010. Differential composition of proteomes in sow
colostrum and milk from anterior and posterior mammary glands. J. Anim. Sci. 88, 2657–2664.
Yuan T, Zhu Y, Shi M, Li T, Li N, Wu G, Bazer FW, Zang J, Wang F and Wang J 2015. Within-litter
variation in birth weight: impact of nutritional status in the sow. J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. B 16, 417– 35.
Zupan M, Rehn T, de Oliveira D and Keeling LJ 2016. Promoting positive states: the effect of early
human handling on play and exploratory behaviour in pigs. Animal. 10, 135–141.
 Lessons from Europe on Restriction of Antibiotic Growth Promoters
INTRODUCTION
In the late 1940’s, researchers discovered that growth rate and feed conversion efficiency of domestic
livestock species were improved when low levels of antibiotics were included in the diet. This
prompted world-wide adoption of sub-therapeutic antibiotic administration in swine production (in
other words, providing antibiotics through feed or water to pigs not displaying disease symptoms).
In contrast, therapeutic antibiotic administration refers to the use of antibiotics to treat pigs
displaying symptoms of clinical disease. Today, pigs on many farms in the U.S. are fed antibiotics at
sub-therapeutic levels to promote growth and prevent disease. Antibiotics fed at sub-therapeutic
levels are also called antibiotic growth promoters (AGP).
Concern exists, however, that antibiotic usage on swine and other livestock and poultry farms, as well
as in human medicine, contributes to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. According to
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [1], each year more than 2 million people in the U.S.
become infected with bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics, resulting in at least 23,000 deaths
annually. In an effort to slow the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) proposed legislation that will greatly reduce sub-therapeutic antibiotic usage
on livestock farms. Effective January 1, 2017, it will be illegal to provide medically-important
antibiotics to pigs to promote growth rates and enhance feed conversion efficiency. In-feed
provisions of antibiotics for the prevention, control, and treatment of disease will require veterinary
oversight in the form of a Veterinary Feed Directive (VFD). Greater details regarding these upcoming
policy changes were previously described [2].
The legislation proposed by the FDA will not result in the U.S. being the first country in the world to
restrict feed-grade antibiotic use in swine. Indeed, resistance concerns were first raised in Europe in
the 1960’s, and in 1986 Sweden became the first country to outlaw routine supplementation of feed
with AGP. Other Scandinavian countries passed similar rules in the following years, and in 2006, the
European Union outlawed feeding sub-therapeutic antibiotics to livestock in all its member states.
The antibiotic laws currently enforced in the EU are similar to those being considered in the U.S.
Furthermore, the management and production practices of many European nations are comparable
to those of small-scale and niche market pig farms in the U.S. By analyzing the short- and long-term
effects of sub-therapeutic antibiotic restrictions in Europe, U.S. producers currently using AGP may
better anticipate possible production consequences of the FDA legislation to be enacted on January
1, 2017.

IMPACT OF ANTIBIOTIC RESTRICTION ON EUROPEAN SWINE PRODUCTION

Sweden
Before legislation restricting the use of sub-therapeutic antibiotics was passed in 1986, the majority
of the approximately 4 million pigs produced annually in Sweden were fed AGP from weaning
(approximately five weeks of age) through slaughter (approximately seven months of age). In
general, the performance of sows and finishing hogs was not affected by the AGP restriction. The
performance of weanling pigs, however, was significantly impacted. One study noted that pigs raised
in 1986 required an additional 5 to 6 days on feed to reach 55 lb body weight, compared to pigs
reared in 1985. Pig mortality after weaning also increased 1.5% from 1985 to 1986 [3].
Although total antibiotic usage by the Swedish swine industry decreased, therapeutic antibiotic use
(in other words, antibiotics used to treat clinical disease) increased by 6% between 1986 and 1989,
suggesting that poorer herd health was responsible for the poorer pig performance [3]. In addition,
the therapeutic drugs used to treat sick pigs were of greater strength and contained more active
ingredient of antibiotics than did the sub-therapeutic drugs previously used for disease prevention
and growth promotion. Therefore, on an active ingredient basis, the intensity of Swedish antibiotic
usage has been estimated to have actually increased 50% in the years immediately following
antibiotic restriction [4]. The poorer health of the Swedish swine industry continued to persist for
many years; piglet mortality and therapeutic antibiotic administration remained elevated above pre-
ban levels until 1997.
Denmark
In 1995, Denmark banned the in-feed provision of the antibiotic avoparcin, which in 1994 accounted
for over 20% of the total antibiotics consumed by livestock in that country. In 1998, the Danish swine
industry agreed to a voluntary ban on all sub-therapeutic antibiotics in finishing pigs weighing
greater than 77 lb and in 1999, the ban was extended to include nursery pigs weighing less than 77
lb as well. Total antibiotic usage in the Danish swine industry has declined greatly as result of the
ban on sub-therapeutic administration. However, similar to what occurred in Sweden, therapeutic
usage of antibiotics more than doubled between 1995 and the early-2000’s (Figure 2) [5, 6]. In 2002,
the emergence of post-weaning multi systemic wasting syndrome in the Danish swine industry
further increased therapeutic antibiotic usage.
Elimination of AGP yielded very few consequences in Danish finishing hogs. Weanling pigs, however,
showed a 0.05 lb decrease in average daily gain between 1999 and 2000 (0.94 vs. 0.89 lb/day,
respectively). Post-weaning piglet mortality also increased 0.7% during this period [8]. Data
presented by the National Pork Board indicate that for the period from 1995 to 2005, total pig
mortality due to illness increased 25%.
Successes in other Countries
The effects of antibiotic restriction on pig health and growth were negligible in Norway, Finland, and
Switzerland. For example, only 14% of surveyed farms in Finland reported increased total antibiotic
usage following antibiotic restriction. Maintaining good pig health and performance in these
countries was achieved largely due to: 1) fewer pigs being raised in those countries; 2) less disease
prevalence; 3) enforcement of national programs to eradicate Mycoplasma hyopneumonia and other
respiratory diseases; 4) producer efforts to decrease reliance on AGP prior to implementation of the
ban; and 5) veterinarian and producer-directed campaigns focused on the importance of on-farm
preventative disease measures and the prudent use of antimicrobial drugs.
Other countries with larger swine industries, such as France, the U.K., and Germany, had not yet
established national animal health and antibiotic use monitoring agencies at the time of antibiotic
restriction. Therefore, pig performance in these countries before and after antibiotic restriction
cannot be evaluated.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE U.S. PRODUCER

The data presented above represent average farm performance before and after restriction of sub-
therapeutic antibiotics. On the whole, weanling pigs with immature immune systems were the most
affected. However, not all farms experienced the same loss in weanling pig performance. Antibiotic
supplementation is known to mask many farm management problems such as improperly balanced
diets, high parasite loads, and poor hygiene and biosecurity, and these may have been exposed by
sudden removal of antibiotics from the diet of weanling pigs. Small-scale pig farmers in the U.S.
currently utilizing AGP are therefore encouraged to transition away from antibiotic supplementation
before the January 1, 2017 deadline. This will allow time to identify and correct any potential
problem areas on their farms.
In Europe, farms that adopted management strategies emphasizing hygiene and biosecurity saw the
lowest incidences of post-weaning pig mortality, used less therapeutic antibiotics, and achieved
production levels that met or exceeded production performance prior to the ban. Some strategies
that were used to improve herd health and to reduce reliance on antibiotics include:

 All-In/ All-Out Management: Under all-in/ all-out management, pigs of similar size and age
are housed and managed as a closed group. No other pigs are permitted into the barn,
pasture, or pen once the group has been established. This is opposed to continuous flow
management, wherein pigs are regularly added to and removed from a larger pool of
continuously maintained pigs. All-in/ all-out management creates a break in pathogen
persistence, and prevents diseases from recycling among pigs. Pigs produced under all-in/
all-out management show less incidence of infection, and achieve greater average daily gain
and average daily feed intake and reach target market weights sooner than pigs grown in a
continuous flow system.

 Multi-Site Production: On a large, commercial scale, multi-site production systems entails

transporting weanling pigs to a site located away from the breeding herd. The basis for this
is to prevent the younger pigs with naïve immune systems from contracting endemic
pathogens present at low levels in the older pigs. On a small-scale farm, a multi-site
production system may be simulated by weaning pigs into areas located far from where the
breeding herd and finishing hogs are housed. Even weaning piglets into adjacent lots with at
least a three-foot gap between fence lines may provide some break to pathogen transport.
Research has shown that the health of nursery pigs is improved and the benefits gained from
supplementing diets with AGP is reduced when piglets are weaned to sites segregated away
from the breeding herd.

 Farm-Specific Vaccination Protocols: Knowledgeable veterinarians can design vaccination

protocols specific for the production style and disease risks in a particular area. While
additional vaccination administration does mean greater initial costs, farm profitability is
ultimately increased by improving pig performance and avoiding costly therapeutic
medications.

 Eradicate Parasites: Parasite infestation will decrease growth rates and feed efficiency, and
can compromise the pig immune system and increase disease susceptibility. Because
 parasite eggs can survive in manure and soil for years, pasture rotation is generally not
sufficient to reduce the farm’s parasite load. Pig manure and soil should be tested for parasite
content, and if parasite counts are high, producers should pursue aggressive eradication
procedures outlined by a veterinarian such as de-worming sows with an injectable or infeed
anthelmintic prior to farrowing, and treating pigs after weaning, and again during the
growing/finishing phase.

 Reduce Nursery Diet Protein Content to Under 18%: Feeding diets high in protein to young
pigs may decrease the acidity of the gastrointestinal tract, and this may in turn degrade
intestinal health and accelerate the production of toxic compounds. Research has shown that
the incidence and severity of post-weaning diarrhea may be reduced 25% by lowering the
protein content of the nursery diet from 21% to 18%. The diminished growth rate of pigs on
lower protein diets can be restored by supplementing the feed with crystalline amino acids
such as lysine, methionine, and threonine. Additionally, utilizing animal protein or spray-
dried plasma protein as opposed to soy protein has been shown to offer the young pig greater
protection against enteric diseases and diarrhea.

 Increase Weaning Age: Increasing the age at weaning gives the piglet gastrointestinal and
immune systems more time to develop before starting on solid feed in a new location.
Therefore, pigs weaned at 28 to 42 days of age would be more mature and able to tolerate
weaning stress than pigs weaned at the industry standard 21 days of age. However, studies
reviewed by Kil and Stein indicate no differences in post-weaning growth, health, or
mortality of pigs weaned at 26, 28, or 33 days of age. Indeed, increasing weaning age in these
reports decreased farm profitability by reducing the number of litters per sow per year. The
minimum age at weaning to promote piglet health indicated by these studies would then be
26 to 28 days of age. Greater research into the best age to wean pigs is required.

 Creep Feed: Few studies to date have found that providing creep feed for the piglets during
lactation improved pre-weaning body weight gain, weaning weights, or post-weaning
performance. However, offering creep feed immediately prior to weaning has been shown to
increase post-weaning feed intake and decrease the time taken before pigs consume feed
after weaning.Providing creep feed, or even access to the sow’s lactation feed, two or three
days prior to weaning may then lessen weaning stress and improve gut health in the nursery,
and may be considered on farms that observe many incidences of post-weaning scours.

 Post-Weaning Environment: Minimizing weaning stress reduces the strain on the pig
immune system and prepares the pig for a good transition onto solid feed. Producers can
ensure a comfortable post-weaning environment by grouping littermates together to
minimize fighting, providing adequate floor space and stocking density (3 ft2 minimum for a
50 lb pig), utilizing good ventilation if housing pigs indoors to keep the air free of
contaminants, maintaining the ambient temperature at suitable levels (approximately 80 to
82oF at weaning), and providing uninterrupted access to clean drinking water. Providing
straw or some other bedding material can also increase pig comfort, but it must be removed
prior to introducing the next group of pigs to break the spread of pathogens between groups.
CONCLUSION
As of January 1, 2017, most sub-therapeutic antibiotics will no longer be available to pork
producers for growth promoting purposes, and all other in-feed provisions of antibiotics for the
prevention or treatment of disease will require a veterinarian prescription in the form of a VFD.
Similar antibiotic-restricting legislation has already been enacted in the European Union. There were
few effects of the ban observed in the breeding herd or in finishing hogs. However, the health and
performance of weanling pigs was markedly reduced in countries with large swine herds. This
indicates that farms making a sudden transition away from antibiotic-supported production must
also make concomitant improvements in farm hygiene, biosecurity, and management to maintain
good herd health and production. These adjustments come with greater costs and labor expenses,
but will also allow for sustainable pig production and decreased reliance on antibiotics.

REFERENCES:
1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/
(accessed October 15, 2015).
2. Estienne, M.J. 2015. New policies governing the veterinary feed directive (VFD) may alter use of
antibiotics on small-scale and niche market pig farms. Small-Scale and Niche Market Pork Production
Bulletin No. 9. Virginia Cooperative Extension, Blacksburg, VA.
3. Wierup, M. 2001. The Swedish experience of the 1986 year ban of antimicrobial growth promoters,
with special reference to animal health, disease prevention, productivity, and usage of antimicrobials.
Microbial Drug Resistance 7: 183-190.
4. Arnold, S. B. Gassner, T. Giger, and R. Zwahlen. 2004. Banning antimicrobial growth promoters in
feedstuffs does not results in increased therapeutic use of antibiotics in medicated feed in pig
farming. Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety 13: 323-331.
5. Aarestrup, F.M., A.M. Seyfarth, H.D. Emborg, K. Pedersen, R.S. Hendriksen, and F. Bager. 2001. Effect
of abolishment of the use of antimicrobial agents for growth promotion on occurrence of
antimicrobial resistance in fecal enterococci from food animals in Denmark. Antimicrobial Agents
and Chemotherapy 45: 2054-2059.
6. DANMAP. 2014. Use of antimicrobial agents and occurrence of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria
from food animals, food and humans in Denmark. Danish Integrated Antimicrobial Resistance
Monitoring and Research Programme. Copenhagen, Denmark.
7. Grave, K., V.F. Jensen, K. Odensvik, M. Wierup, and M. Bangen. 2006. Usage of veterinary therapeutic
antimicrobials in Denmark, Norway and Sweden following termination of antimicrobial growth
promoter use. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 75: 123-132.
8. Kjeldsen, N. 2002. Producing pork without antibiotic growth promoters: the Danish experience.
Advances in Pork Production 13: 107-115.
9. NPB. 2006. The Danish Experience: What happened when Denmark banned the subtherapeutic
use of antibiotic growth promoters? National Pork Board. Des Moines, IA.
10. Laine, T., M. Yliaho, V. Myllys, T. Pohjanvirta, M. Fossi, and M. Anttila. 2004. The effect of
antimicrobial growth promoter withdrawal on the health of weaned pigs in Finland. Preventive
Veterinary Medicine 66: 163-174.
11. Scheidt, A.B., T.R. Cline, K. Clark, V.B. Mayrose, W.G. Van Alstine, M.A. Diekman, and W.L. Singleton.
1995. The effect of all-in-all-out growing-finishing on the health of pigs. Swine Health and Production
3: 202-205.
12. Dritz, S.S., M.D. Tokach, R.D. Goodband, and J.L. Nelssen. 2002. Effects of administration of
antimicrobials in feed on growth rate and feed efficiency of pigs in multisite production systems.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 220: 1690-1695.
13. Kil, D.Y. and H.H. Stein. 2010. Management and feeding strategies to ameliorate the impact of
removing antibiotic growth promoters from diets fed to weanling pigs. Canadian Journal of Animal
Science 90: 447-460.
14. Sulabo, R.C., J.Y. Jacela, M.D. Tokach, S.S. Dritz, R.D. Goodband, J.M. DeRouchey, and J.L. Nelssen.
2010. Effects of lactation feed intake and creep feeding on sow and piglet performance. Journal of
Animal Science 88: 3145-3153.
 Research Trends in Outdoor Pig Production

Introduction

Pork production in the United States is predominated by the intensive, indoor confinement system.
In 2012, 91% of market pigs were produced by large operation with 5,000 or more pigs on-site.
However, the large operation sites only consisted of 13% of the total pig farms in the US. This is the
result of the rapid industrialization of livestock production that occurred in the late 1900s. With as
strong emphasis on efficiency, the pig farms in the US became larger in size, but fewer in number.
Similar trend is observed in Europe. Though consumer awareness of food safety issues and
environmental concerns are growing, and organic farming grew approximately 25% to 30% in recent
years as a result, it only represents about 3% of the total EU utilized agricultural area.

Since its development, the intensive, indoor production system received criticism for its potential
harm on environment that poses problems to sustainability in both the US and in Europe. Outdoor
production systems, on the other hand, has the potential to solve these environmental issues, as well
as food safety concerns, while providing animal welfare and new opportunities for small, limited-
source farmers. The relatively small investment cost, compared to the indoor confinement system,
and the potential for added value make outdoor production a good alternative for the small farmers.
The purpose of the present paper is to review the recent research efforts to improve the sow and
piglet performances, and meat quality for outdoor production systems.

REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE

Outdoor production is believed to have higher mortality rate than indoor production, with crushing
by sow being the number one reason. However, study shows that there really isn’t much difference
between the two production systems, and there is a tendency to overestimate crushing. Johnson et al
compared to the reproductive performance of lactating sows in indoor and outdoor environments,
in the study, the sows were either housed in indoor conventional farrowing crates, measuring
2.1x0.6m2 with a 2.1x0.46 m2 creep area, or in English-style arc farrowing huts, measuring 1.12 m
height, 2.79 m width, a 1.65 m length, in the outdoors. The researchers collected behavioural data,
including active (standing and walking), lying, sitting, drinking, feeding, and nursing interval, and
reproductive performance data, including numbers of pigs born, born alive, still-births, mummies,
and weaned. Results showed that there was not a significant difference in the reproductive
performance of lactating sows in different environments. The outdoor sows did behave more active.
While the indoor sows were only active for approximately 9% of the time, the outdoor sows were
active for approximately 28% of the time (p<0.01). the researchers observed that the outdoor sows
were found at varying distances from their litter at any given time, suggesting that the sows choose
to spend time away from their litter did not differ between the indoor and the outdoor sows.
Even though, significant difference was not found between the reproductive performances of the
indoor and the outdoor sows, it was found that the outdoor sows had a slightly larger mortality rate,
and thus a smaller number of piglets weaned. Number of piglets weaned is directly related to
profitability. Different hut designs were considered in order to increase the number of piglets weaned
in an outdoor environment. Johnson and McGlone studied the difference in sow performance with
different hut designs and the presence of insulation. They used English-style arc farrowing huts with
different fender designs, short wooden vs tall metal, and insulated half of the huts with instant foam
polyurethane rigid roofing spray foam applied at a thickness of 18 cm on the sides of the hut and 3.8
cm on the roof, to compare the reproductive performance of the sows in the different farrowing huts.
No performance difference was found between the two hut designs and the presence of insulation
(p>0.05). though not statistically significant, the hut with the short wooden fender had a slightly
higher number of piglets weaned, 8.3±0.47 piglets/L/ this number is very close to the number of
piglets weaned in an indoor environment, 8.4±0.41 piglets/L, as reported by Johnson et al. A different
study looked at the suitability of different outdoor farrowing hut designs by comparing the
temperature and the humidity inside the farrowing huts. The three huts designs used were plastic
Nesting Box hut (G), metal English type hut (S), and wood-based Smidley hut (O). Of the three designs,
O type performed better with lower temperature than the G type and lower humidity than both the
G and the S types (p<0.05). the authors concluded that the G tyoe hut is recommended for use inside
a larger shelter for better protection against the cold in the winter; however, overall performance
was the best for the wood-based O type hut.

In contrast to the results of the studies conducted in the US, comparing the reproductive
performances of the sows kept in different environments in Switzerland showed that there were
significant differences. When the lifetime cumulative measurements were considered, outdoor sows
had significantly lower numbers of total born (p<0.01), born alive (p<0.01), and weaned (p<0.01).
However, these measures were accumulated over lifetime, and therefore cannot be directly
compared with the results of the US studies. A different study conducted in Sweden also studied the
effect of rearing environment on the reproductive performance of the sows. Lindgren et al reported
that the outdoor reared sows had significantly higher numbers of total born (p<0.01) and stillborn
(p<0.01) per litter. Furthermore, even though the differences were not significant, the number of pigs
born alive per litter was greater for the outdoor reared sows, but the average number of piglets
weaned per litter was greater for the indoor reared sows. Swedish researchers also related the lower
number of weaned piglets per litter to the opportunity for movement of the sows that result in
inadequate nursing and weakening of the piglets, as well as crushing by the sow.

GROWTH PERFORMANCE

Pigs reared outdoors are generally given more space per pig than those in confinement. Study
showed that outdoor reared pigs spent more time walking and playing compared to indoor reared
pigs (p<0.05), and though statistically insignificant, outdoor reared pigs spent more time standing
than laying. With longer active period, outdoor reared pigs require more feed to gain the same
amount of weight as indoor reared pigs. When given ad libitum, outdoor reared barrows had a higher
average daily feed intake (ADFI), which resulted in a lower gain:feed (G:F) (p<0.01). The same study
also looked at the effect of birth environment on the growth performance of the barrows. Outdoor
born pigs were significantly heavier on 28, 56, and 112 days post-weaning (p<0.05); however, weight
on 140 days post-weaning and the average daily gain (ADG) were not significantly different from
those of indoor born pigs (p>0.05). The difference between ADG for outdoor and indoor reared pigs
were also insignificant. However, outdoor reared pigs weighed heavier on 140 days post-weaning.
Different results were reported for gilts reared outdoor. Give feed al libitum, gilts had higher ADG
and a higher feed efficiency (FE). The difference in sex and experimental periods. Patton et al
assigned the gilts to treatments of either hoop or confinement at 4 months of age, at which their
weights ranged from 59 to 71kg, whereas the pigs in the study by Gentry et al were kept in the study
from weaning to 112 days post-weaning. Furthermore, the latter study was conducted in Lubbock,
Texas, whereas the study by Patton et al was conducted in Ames, Iowa. The climatic conditions in the
two states vastly differ, causing the difference in the results.

Growth performance of pigs in an outdoor production system can be largely affected by

climatic conditions. Honeyman and Harmon looked at the performance of finishing pigs in
hoop structures and confinement during the summer (June to October) and winter
(December to April) months in Iowa. The average temperature in the summer is 20°C higher
than the average temperature in the winter, which falls below freezing point. When pigs
were placed in either an outdoor hoop structure or in indoor confinement, no season x
housing type interaction was observed for the start and the end weights (p>0.05); however,
outdoor reared pigs were heavier at marketing and gained more weight than indoor reared
pigs (p<0.05). Also the ADFI was significantly higher for the winter x outdoor hoop group
than the rest of the combinations. The same group had the lowest G:F, indicating poor FE.
The highest ADG was found among the summer x outdoor hoop group (p<0.05). During the
winter, the outdoor pigs require higher energy to keep warm than during the summer,
resulting in the slower growth rate. Similar results were found in France. An interaction
between rearing conditions (confinement vs outdoor) and season (summer vs winter) was
found for the feed conversion ratio (FCR). For pigs reared outdoors during the winter, FCR
tended to be higher, whereas the opposite was found during the other seasons. Higher FCR
indicates higher feed intake necessary to gain the same amount of weight. This may be
related to higher energy requirements in outdoor reared pigs for physical exercise and
thermoregulation. The interaction between rearing conditions and season was not observed
for ADG, and therefore, the results cannot be directly compared to those found in by
Honeyman and Harmon.
When the two rearing systems were compared in Belgium, France and Sweden, outdoor
reared pigs had a higher ADFI and ADG. In all three studies, the outdoor reared pigs exhibited
heavier hot carcass weight in relation to their heavier live weight at slaughter; however, their
lean meat percentage was significantly lower than that of confinement pigs. These results
are contradictory to those found in the US. Patton et al reported that outdoor pigs had a
significantly lower ADG (p<0.01) and carcass weight (p<0.05), but the lean meat percentage
of outdoor pigs, calculated as the fat-free lean (FFL) percentage using the National Pork
Board % FFL equation, was significantly higher. Furthermore, American pigs reared
outdoors had lower back fat thickness measurements at the 10th and the last ribs, compared
to the higher fat thickness found in European pigs reared outdoors. The difference in rearing
environments should be noted when comparing the results of outdoor reared pigs. In both
European studies, the outdoor pigs were reared in an alternative indoor-outdoor system
with access to both an indoor sawdust bedding area and an outdoor area made of a concrete
floor. In the American study, the outdoor pigs were reared in a deep-bedded hoop barn. The
different rearing environment may be the cause of the different results.
Efforts to improve the growth performance of the outdoor finishing pigs are continuously
being made. One way of improving the growth performance is through crossbreeding.
Finding the best breed for outdoor rearing can help the producers by shortening the days-
to-market. Whitley et al compared the growth performance of Yorkshire crossbreds sired by
Berkshire (BY), Large Black (LBY), and Tamworth (TY) breeds raised in outdoor hoop
structures located in North Carolina. At birth, BY pigs were the lightest (p<0.05; 1.34±0.03
kg), and TY and Yorkshire purebreds (YY) were the heaviest, 1.49±0.05 kg and 1.42±0.03 kg,
respectively, but similar to each other. Yorkshire crossbreds sired by Large Black breeds
were intermediate at birth, 1.40±0.04 kg; however, by 90 days of age (DOA), they were
significantly heavier than all three breeds and continued to be heavier until the end of the
experiment at 240 DOA (p<0.05). The authors concluded that no sire breed provided a real
benefit over another for growth performance, and emphasized the high-demand for niche
market humanely raised pork with extraordinary quality could potentially provide small-
scale pig producers with profit using the outdoor production system.

MEAT QUALITY AND CONSUMER PERCEPTION

In order to compete with the large production size of the indoor confinement system,
relatively smaller outdoor production must find its profit elsewhere through efficiency.
Enhanced meat quality is one of the ways in which outdoor reared pig products can earn
added value. Efforts to compare the meat quality of indoor and outdoor reared pig products
have been made. However, when barrows reared in hoop structure were compared to
barrows reared in confinement, the difference in pork quality was limited to their marbling
and color scores. When gilts reared in hoop structure were compared to gilts reared in
confinement, however, their result differed from that of the barrows; the only difference in
meat quality was found in their marbling scores. Outdoor reared gilts had lower marbling
score, just like the barrows, but there was no difference in color score.
For the barrows, outdoor pigs, both outdoor farrowed and born, had higher color score for
the Minolta a*, which means their appearance was more red than that of indoor farrowed or
indoor reared pigs. This gives them a more appealing display, making them more preferable
to the consumers. These results were in correspondence with a similar study published by
the same authors in 2002. When the birth and rearing environments were compared for the
color score, pigs farrowed and reared outdoors had the highest a* value, followed by pigs
farrowed outdoors and reared indoors. Pigs farrowed and reared indoors had the lowest a*
value, giving them the least reddish color (p<0.05). In the same study, sensory and shear
force analyses were performed to test loin palatability. Results showed that birth
environment had a significant effect on the pork flavor intensity (p<0.01). Loins from pigs
farrowed outdoors had a higher value than pigs farrowed indoors. When the flavor intensity
of pork loin chops was categorized by pig birth and rearing environments, chops from pigs
farrowed and reared outdoors had higher scores than chops from the pigs farrowed indoors
(p<0.05). Statistically, there was no difference between the outdoor farrowed and reared
group and the outdoor farrowed and indoor reared group; however, the outdoor farrowed
and reared group had a higher numeric value. Results also showed that pigs reared outdoors
had more tender pork (p<0.05). However, there was no difference in sensory panel
tenderness scores.
Some breeds of pigs are known to have better meat quality than others. For example,
Berkshire breed is known to have great flavor and is a preferred product among consumers
in East Asia. In Japan, high pricing has been established for pork produced from purebred
Berkshires because of its superior meat quality. If superior meat quality is maintained in
the outdoor environment, these products can receive premium for the added value in niche
pork markets which claim product differentiation through superior or unique product
quality, and social or credence attributes. Whitley et al compared the pork quality and
sensory characteristics of different crossbreds of pigs reared in hoop structures. Yorkshire
purebreds (YY) were compared to Yorkshire crossbreds sired by Berkshire (BY), Large
Black (LBY), and Tamworth (TY) boars. Meat quality characteristics, such as pH, subjective
and objective color scores, marbling score and backfat thickness measures were compared.
Sensory panel test was performed which compared the overall, flavor, juiciness and
tenderness likings of the meat from different breeds. Breed effect was found on the
following fixed effects: subjective color score and a* color score (p<0.05). The subjective
color score as well as the a* value were found to be lower for TY and YY. Breed effect was
also found in the differences in loin muscle area and backfat thickness (p<0.01). Backfat
measures taken at the 1st, 10th, and last rib were higher for LBY than all other breed types.
Sensory panel test showed that there was no difference in the overall liking of the different
types of breed when all four breeds were tested. However, when only BY, LBY, and YY were
compared, YY had the highest overall liking, as well as juiciness liking. Even though the
Berkshire breed is a preferred breed in East Asia, BY scored the lowest in the preference
ranking (p<0.05). This may be the result of cultural differences in the preferences for pork
quality and flavor. In East Asia, fatty pork belly is a preferred product for fresh meat,
whereas in the US, the same part is processed to make bacon. The Berkshire breed had the
most marbling in its fresh loin chops when compared to other breeds. Less marbling in the
pork loin is preferred by consumers in the United States.
Concerns regarding intensive meat production systems ex pressed by European consumers
are similar to those expressed by American consumers. In both the US and Europe,
consumers are concerned about food safety, animal welfare and environmental
sustainability; however, the long-term financial benefits of outdoor production systems is
questionable, and especially in Europe, researchers are asking whether products from such
farming systems will ever occupy more than the niche markets. In order to improve the
competitiveness of the outdoor products against the indoor products optimized for high
production and uniform product quality, while meeting the needs of the consumers looking
for animal welfare and environmental sustainability, the quality of the outdoor products
should be evaluated in comparison to the indoor products.
In Belgium, when Seghers hybrids were used, the only effect of the rearing environments on
the meat quality was the color score. When the CIELAB color coordinates were evaluated,
loin area of the outdoor pigs had higher a* (redness) value. Different results were found in
Italy, when Polish-Landrace crossbreds were used, the only difference in carcass quality
between the two rearing environments was in backfat thickness. Outdoor reared pigs had a
significantly lower backfat thickness; however, the mean values for pH, WHC, drip loss, and
shear force of Longissimus lumborum muscle did not differ between the two treatments.
When (Swedish Landrace×Swedish Yorkshire)× Hampshire pigs were used in Sweden to
evaluate the effect of rearing systems on meat quality, the results were different from both
the Italian and the Belgian studies. Olsson et al reported that outdoor reared pigs had a lower
pH value, but their color score was not significantly different from that of the confinement
pigs. For the water-holding capacity, measured as filter paper wetness, and drip loss, outdoor
pigs had lower values; however, the value for cooking loss was higher.
Comparing pork quality across countries in Europe is difficult due to the differing
environments. The three studies observed in the present paper were conducted in three
different regions of Europe: Benelux, Mediterranean and Nordic. The three regions have
different climatic conditions that can cause differences in management practices. The breed
of pigs used is one of the management practices that can differ, as certain breeds of pigs are
more adapted to certain environments. The effect of breed on meat quality is significant. The
results of the 2005 study of the Seghers hybrids in Belgium by Millet et al were different from
the results of the 2004 study of the Pietrain×(Belgian Landrace× Duroc) crossbreds in
Belgium, also by Millet et al. In the 2004 study, when Pietrain×(Belgian Landrace×Duroc)
crossbreds were used, rearing environments had a significant impact not only on the color
score, but also on the pH values of the loin and the intramuscular fat content. Outdoor reared
pigs had lower pH values at 40-minute (p<0.01) and 24-hour (p<0.05) postmortem, as well
as a lower intramuscular fat content (p<0.05). Also, when the CIELAB color coordinates were
evaluated, loin area of the outdoor pigs had higher a* (redness) and b* (yellowness) values.
Similar to the meat quality results, consumer perception and preference of meat was
different across Europe. Several studies investigated consumer liking and perception of pork
in different countries. Bryhni et al looked specifically at consumers in Denmark, Norway and
Sweden, with a focus on determining the sensory characteristics associated with consumer
definition of pork quality and what were the most important characteristics and the main
reasons for buying pork to explain the possible differences between consumers in these
countries. Of the consumers in the three countries, Norwegian consumers were the most
negative towards pork quality, followed by Danish and Swedish consumers, respectively.
While the Norwegian consumers had the most negative comments to make related to pork,
such as being dry, more off-flavor, flavor likely to change during freezing, and easily gets
rancid, the Danish consumers perceived pork as tasteless, with more warmed-over flavor,
fatty and often smelling badly when fried. According to the researchers, these results are
associated with the eating behavior of the consumers in the different countries. In Sweden,
pork is consumed mostly as freshly fried pork, which can be compared to the more ready-to-
eat products in Denmark. Furthermore, Sweden had the highest frequency of pork
consumption among the groups, which may have also contributed to the differences in
perceptions.
A similar study was reported in 2003 that looked at the de cision-making factors in fresh
pork purchasing and consumer attitudes towards today’s pig production systems in France,
England, Sweden and Denmark. When asked to name some of the factors that make a good
pork quality, consumers from all four countries named fat cover, price, and country of origin
and place of purchase as important indicators of good pork quality. Interestingly, even
though country of origin was one of four most important factors determining pork quality, it
was also one of the most distrusted. Consumers expressed some confusion when country of
origin was provided as a label, asking what it actually meant. They were unsure whether it
meant the place the animals were raised, slaughtered, or processed. Similar confusion was
expressed over organic products. When asked about the pig production systems today,
consumers from all four countries agreed that the majority of the systems are intensive and
had a negative view on the intensive systems, describing them as inhumane. However, all
four groups also admitted that their image of the pig production system was largely
influenced by the media, and raised doubts regarding their reality. When asked about the
effect of production method on meat quality, all four groups stated that there is a direct
effect. However, how the production method affected the meat quality differed amongst
groups. For example, while the English and French groups believed that outdoor production
results in better quality meat, Swedish women and Danish groups stated that the flavor of
the outdoor pork products did not differ from that of the indoor pork products. Also, even
within the same country, differing opinions were observed. While some participants from
England related off or bad flavors with intensive indoor system, others related the same
characteristics with free range rearing. These results were somewhat different from a study
conducted by Dransfield et al. When information regarding the production system and
country of origin were given, consumers from the same four countries offered about 5%
more for outdoor reared products and home-raised products.

HEALTH
Outdoor production system promotes animal welfare by allowing the animals outside access,
and naturally, the animals come in contact with the soil and become vulnerable to the large
number of harmful bacteria, viruses and parasites that can cause economic losses.
Contrastingly, outdoor reared pigs are less susceptible to airborne contaminants compared
to the indoor reared pigs. In an indoor production system, the animals are confined inside a
building at a higher density, which can increase the chance of the aerosol transmission of the
infectious diseases. The amount of research on the aerosol transmission of diseases in
outdoor production systems is limited. However, the indoor production systems have been
extensively studied by many researchers. According to Stark, excretion by infected animals,
critical concentration, and contact between susceptible animals and causative agent are
required for the transmission of respiratory disease agents, and the impact of the disease
transmission depends on a number of environmental factors, such as herd size, stocking
density and shared airspace. In an indoor rearing environment, where the herd size and the
stocking density are larger and the shared airspace is smaller than outdoor rearing
environments, the animals have easier access to excretion by infected animals and contact
between susceptible animals and causative agents is easily made due to the enclosed nature
of the confinement buildings.
A survey of different housing systems in Danish pig farms showed that outdoor rearing
environment provided particularly favorable conditions for helminth transmission. All of
the 15 helminths of major economic importance listed by Nansen and Roepstorff were
found in the outdoor reared pigs, while only 3 of the listed helminths were found in pigs
intensively reared indoors. The extent to which the animals are exposed to the helminths
may vary according to the production system. Ascaris suum is one of the helminths listed by
them that is associated with a major economic loss if a herd is affected. When Jolie et al
studied the effects of production systems on the presence and severity of liver white spots
in feeder pigs, which is indicative of ascarid larval migration, they found that the outdoor
reared pigs had a significantly higher liver score (p<0.001), which meant that the ascarid
larval fibroma, or the liver white spots, were significantly more present and more severe in
the outdoor reared pigs. The authors concluded that the low helminth presence in the
indoor herd was due to the improved hygiene and physical conditions through the use of
slatted floors that allowed the feces to deposit through, away from the pigs.
One of the main goals of outdoor production systems is to provide welfare for the animals.
The presence of straw-beddings or pastures allows the animals to roam free, graze and
root as they desire. Though not significantly different, when Yonezawa et al compared the
behaviors of indoor and outdoor reared pigs, the outdoor reared pigs showed a larger
number of rooting episodes (p = 0.05) and a longer total time of rooting behaviors (p =
0.06). Outdoor pigs were also found to have fewer injuries to the body. When pigs in
outdoor paddocks, straw yards or fully slatted pens were compared, pigs reared in outdoor
paddocks or straw yards had significantly fewer numbers of injuries (p< 0.05) and a
smaller adventitious bursitis score (p<0.01). In a similar study, Tozawa et alcompared the
behaviors and the wounds on the body of pigs reared in five different environments: an
indoor housing system, an outdoor pasturing system, a concrete floor paddock system, a
concrete floor paddock system with fresh grass, or a soil floor paddock system. They
concluded that the presence of a soil floor is the most important aspect of a pig production
system that best improves animal welfare.
Despite the improved welfare of animals reared in outdoor production systems, one
problem seems to persist. According to the Swedish Animal Health Service, joint health has
become a major issue, as indicated by the increased number of joints rejected at slaughter.
Joint lesion is a leading cause of lameness, and lameness reduces the level of welfare for the
animals. Osteochondrosis is a general term used to describe leg problems in pigs and is the
main cause of leg weakness. When van Grevenhof et a lcompared the joint health of pigs
reared in different housing systems, a partially slatted concrete floor or a deep litter floor
with extra space allowance, they found that the conventionally reared pigs were more
affected by Osteochondrosis than the pigs reared in the deep litter floor. Similar results
were found by Etterlin et al. The authors concluded that the extra space allowed for the
deep litter herd strengthened the joint supportive tissue and provided some pain relief
through exercise.
PORK NICHE MARKET
The rapid industrialization of pork production caused a negative reaction from some of the
public. Such opposition comes from many different aspects, such as sociological, ethical,
environmental and sanitary concerns. The indoor system created an anti-corporate
sentiment in some of the consumers who worry that the large production size of the indoor
system will overtake the market and negatively impact the rural communities. Furthermore,
some of the public have concerns about the welfare of the animals as well as the
sustainability of the environment. The US pork niche market specifically targets these
consumers. They claim product differentiation through social or credence attributes and add
value to their product through superior or unique quality to better compete with the large
production size of the indoor confinement systems. Though difficult to measure in the pork,
the pork niche market uses social or credence attributes of the outdoor production system
to promote sales in their product. According to Honeyman et al, some of the claims they make
include freedom from antibiotic and growth promoters; local family farm production;
natural, organic, outdoor, or bedded rearing conditions; humane rearing; known origin;
environment-friendliness; and no animal by-products in the feed.

CONCLUSION
The world is becoming greener. People show more concern about where their food comes
from and how it is produced, and the food industry is moving towards the same direction to
meet the needs of their newly enlightened consumers. Large restaurant chains, such as
McDonald’s, are making changes in their policy to support environmental sustainability and
animal welfare. In 2012, McDonald’s announced its 10-year plan to end the use of gestation
stalls for pregnant sows [43]. These changes that are occurring in the food industry can help
strengthen the pork niche markets and broaden the target audience for small farmers
practicing outdoor swine production. In order to maximize the effect, however, farmers and
researchers must find a way to improve the product quality and scientifically support the
product differentiation.
REFERENCES
1. 2012 Census of Agriculture: United States summary and state data [Internet] USDA; 2014.
[cited 2017 Feb 10]. Available
from: https://www.agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/2012/Full_Report/Volume_1,_Chapter_1_US
/usv1.pdf. [Google Scholar]
2. Pork checkoff. National Pork Board; Des Moines, IA, USA: 2014. Pork stats. [Google
Scholar]
3. Kapel CMO. Changes in the EU legislation on Trichinella inspection - New challenges in the
epidemiology. Vet Parasitol. 2005;132:189–94. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
4. von Borell E, Sorensen JT. Organic livestock production in Europe: aims, rules and trends
with special emphasis on animal health and welfare. Livest Prod Sci. 2004;90:3–9. [Google
Scholar]
5. Früh B, Bochicchio D, Edwards S, et al. Description of organic pig production in Europe. Org
Agric. 2014;4:83–92. [Google Scholar]
6. Hinrichs CC, Welsh R. The effects of the industrialization of US livestock agriculture on
promoting sustainable production practices. Agric Hum Values. 2002;20:125–41. [Google
Scholar]
7. Dawkins MS. Animal welfare and efficient farming: is conflict inevitable? Anim Prod
Sci. 2017;57:201–8. [Google Scholar]
8. Miao ZH, Glatz PC, Ru YJ. Review of production, husbandry and sustainability of free-range
pig production systems. Asian-Australas J Anim Sci. 2004;17:1615–34. [Google Scholar]
9. Honeyman MS. Extensive bedded indoor and outdoor pig production systems in USA: current
trends and effects on animal care and product quality. Livest Prod Sci. 2005;94:15–24. [Google
Scholar]
10. Johnson AK, Morrow-Tesch JL, McGlone JJ. Behavior and performance of lactating sows
and piglets reared indoors or outdoors. J Anim Sci. 2001;79:2571–9. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
11. Vaillancourt JP, Stein TE, Marsh WE, Leman AD, Dial GD. Validation of producer-recorded
causes of preweaning mortality in swine. Prev Vet Med. 1990;10:119–30. [Google Scholar]
12. Johnson AK, McGlone JJ. Fender design and insulation of farrowing huts: effects on
performance of outdoor sows and piglets. J Anim Sci. 2003;81:955–64. [PubMed] [Google
Scholar]
13. Choi W, Nassif N, Whitley N, Oh SH. Comparison of temperature and humidity in three
types of outdoor farrowing huts. Appl Eng Agric. 2014;30:241–7. [Google Scholar]
14. Akos K, Bilkei G. Comparison of the reproductive performance of sows kept outdoors in
Croatia with that of sows kept indoors. Livest Prod Sci. 2004;85:293–8. [Google Scholar]
15. Lindgren Y, Lundeheim N, Boqvist S, Magnusson U. Reproductive performance in pigs
reared under organic conditions compared with conventionally reared pigs. Acta Vet
Scand. 2013;55:33. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
16. Gentry JG, McGlone JJ, Miller MF, Blanton JR. Environmental effects on pig performance,
meat quality, and muscle characteristics. J Anim Sci. 2004;82:209–17. [PubMed] [Google
Scholar]
17. Patton BS, Huff-Lonergan E, Honeyman MS, et al. Effects of deep-bedded finishing system
on market pig performance, composition and pork quality. Animal. 2008;2:459–
70. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
18. Honeyman MS, Harmon JD. Performance of finishing pigs in hoop structures and
confinement during winter and summer. J Anim Sci. 2003;81:1663–70. [PubMed] [Google
Scholar]
19. Dourmad JY, Hassouna M, Robin P, et al. Influence of pig rearing system on animal
performance and manure composition. Animal. 2009;3:606–16. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
20. Millet S, Raes K, Van den Broeck W, De Smet S, Janssens GPJ. Performance and meat
quality of organically versus conventionally fed and housed pigs from weaning till
slaughtering. Meat Sci. 2005;69:335–41. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
21. Olsson V, Andersson K, Hansson I, Lundstrom K. Differences in meat quality between
organically and conventionally produced pigs. Meat Sci. 2003;64:287–97. [PubMed] [Google
Scholar]
22. Whitley N, Morrow W, See MT, Oh S-H. Comparison of growth performance of antibiotic-
free yorkshire crossbreds sired by berkshire, large black, and tamworth breeds raised in hoop
structures. Asian-Australas J Anim Sci. 2012;25:1351–6. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google
Scholar]
23. Gentry JG, McGlone JJ, Miller MF, Blanton JR. Diverse birth and rearing environment
effects on pig growth and meat quality. J Anim Sci. 2002;80:1707–15. [PubMed] [Google
Scholar]
24. Suzuki K, Shibata T, Kadowaki H, Abe H, Toyoshima T. Meat quality comparison of
Berkshire, Duroc, and crossbred pigs sired by Berkshire and Duroc. Meat Sci. 2003;64:35–
42. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
25. Honeyman MS, Pirog RS, Huber GH, Lammers PJ, Hermann JR. The United States pork
niche market phenomenon. J Anim Sci. 2006;84:2269–75. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
26. Whitley N, Hanson D, Morrow W, See MT, Oh SH. Comparison of pork quality and sensory
characteristics for antibiotic free Yorkshire crossbreds raised in hoop houses. Asian-Australas J
Anim Sci. 2012;25:1634–40. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
27. Brewer MS, Jensen J, Sosnicki AA, et al. The effect of pig genetics on palatability, color and
physical characteristics of fresh pork loin chops. Meat Sci. 2002;61:249–56. [PubMed] [Google
Scholar]
28. Dransfield E, Ngapo TM, Nielsen NA, et al. Consumer choice and suggested price for pork
as influenced by its appearance, taste and information concerning country of origin and organic
pig production. Meat Sci. 2005;69:61–70. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
29. Maiorano G, Kapelanski W, Bocian M, Pizzuto R, Kapelanska J. Influence of rearing system,
diet and gender on performance, carcass traits and meat quality of Polish Landrace
pigs. Animal. 2013;7:341–7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
30. Millet S, Hesta M, Seynaeve M, et al. Performance, meat and carcass traits of fattening pigs
with organic versus conventional housing and nutrition. Livest Prod Sci. 2004;87:109–
19. [Google Scholar]
31. Bryhni EA, Byrne DV, Rødbotten M, et al. Consumer perceptions of pork in Denmark,
Norway, and Sweden. Food Qual Pref. 2002;13:257–66. [Google Scholar]
32. Ngapo TM, Dransfield E, Martin J-F, et al. Consumer perceptions: pork and pig production.
Insights from France, England, Sweden and Denmark. Meat Sci. 2003;66:125–
34. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
33. Stark KDC. Epidemiological investigation of the influence of environmental risk factors on
respiratory diseases in swine - a literature review. Vet J. 2000;159:37–56. [PubMed] [Google
Scholar]
34. Nansen P, Roepstorff A. Parasitic helminths of the pig: factors influencing transmission and
infection levels. Int J Parasitol. 1999;29:877–91. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
35. Jolie R, Bäckström L, Pinckney R, Olson L. Ascarid infection and respiratory health in
feeder pigs raised on pasture or in confinement. Swine Health Prod. 1998;6:115–20. [Google
Scholar]
36. Yonezawa T, Takahashi A, Imai S, et al. Effects of outdoor housing of piglets on behavior,
stress reaction and meat characteristics. Asian-Australas J Anim Sci. 2012;25:886–94. [PMC free
article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
37. Guy JH, Rowlinson P, Chadwick JP, Ellis M. Health conditions of two genotypes of
growing-finishing pig in three different housing systems: implications for welfare. Livest Prod
Sci. 2002;75:233–43. [Google Scholar]
38. Tozawa A, Tanaka S, Sato S. The effects of components of grazing system on welfare of
fattening pigs. Asian-Australas J Anim Sci. 2016;29:428–35. [PMC free
article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
39. Jensen TB, Toft N. Causes of and predisposing risk factors for leg disorders in growing-
finishing pigs. CAB Rev Perspect Agric Vet Sci Nutr Nat Res. 2009;4 No. 010. [Google Scholar]
40. van Grevenhof EM, Ott S, Hazeleger W, et al. The effects of housing system and feeding
level on the joint-specific prevalence of osteochondrosis in fattening pigs. Livest
Sci. 2011;135:53–61. [Google Scholar]
41. Etterlin PE, Morrison DA, Österberg J, et al. Osteochondrosis, but not lameness, is more
frequent among free-range pigs than confined herd-mates. Acta Vet Scand. 2015;57:63. [PMC
free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
42. Davies PR. Intensive swine production and pork safety. Foodborne Pathog Dis. 2001;8:189–
201. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
43. McComb L, Rump J. McDonald’s USA Outlines 10-Year Plan for Ending Gestation Stall
Use [Internet] McDonald’s Newsroom; 2012. [cited 2017 Feb 15]. Available
from: http://news.mcdonalds.com/press-releases/mcdonald-s-usa-outlines-10-year-plan-for-
ending-ge-nyse-mcd-0893947. [Google Scholar]
 Quarantine Procedures for the Small-Scale Pig Farm
Jeffrey Wiegert1 and Mark Estienne2
1Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, and 2Virginia
Tech- Tidewater Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Suffolk

INTRODUCTION
Pig-to-pig contact is the most common way diseases are transmitted on the farm. Disease outbreaks
cost money in the form of increased pig death rates, greater veterinary care expenses, and lost
production (in other words, poorer growth rates and longer times necessary to achieve desired
market weights, decreased feed conversion efficiency [pounds of feed needed to produce a pound of
live weight gain], etc.). Pigs brought onto the farm from outside sources, or pigs that have left the
farm and are allowed to return, may be carrying diseases that the rest of the herd has no immunity
against. These diseases can quickly spread throughout the entire farm. Accordingly, any pigs brought
onto the farm represent a significant disease threat, and this may be particularly true if the health of
the farm of origin is poor or unknown. On the other hand, the incoming pigs may have no immunity
against diseases specific to the new farm, and they may themselves become ill following introduction.
If possible, it is best to maintain a closed herd to prevent the introduction of new diseases. A closed
herd is one in which replacement breeding gilts are selected internally, artificial insemination (AI) is
used to bring new genetics onto the farm, and feeder pigs are not purchased from outside sources
and comingled with the resident herd. However, this may not feasible or practical for the small-scale
or show pig producer. Moreover, AI decreases, but does not totally eliminate, the possibility of
bringing new diseases into a herd. For example, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome
(PRRS) may be transmitted by semen used for AI (Maes et al., 2008).
Instituting an effective isolation or quarantine period is a proven means of preventing the
introduction and spread of new diseases when pigs are brought onto the farm. A quarantine period
is a brief period of isolation in which the incoming pigs are vaccinated and monitored for signs of
disease symptoms prior to introduction into the general herd. It also allows the producer time to
have pigs blood tested and to identify any diseases that a pig may be carrying, and gives the incoming
stock a grace period to gain immunity to the farm’s normal disease load. Establishing an on-farm
quarantine period requires increased space and facilities, labor, and attention to detail, but may also
prevent costly disease outbreaks and maintain the health of the herd.

Benefits of a Quarantine Period

Transport of pigs and introduction into a new herd is generally a stressful event (Wittish et al.,
2014). Stress is caused by the duration of transport, changes in housing, diet, and feeding
management, and fighting with unfamiliar pigs in order to establish a new social order. Prolonged or
severe stresses are known to impair function of the immune system, and this has been shown to be
particularly true for pigs that are more submissive when fighting (McGlone et al., 1993; Tuchscherer
et al., 1998). Stressed pigs also shed more pathogens in their feces (Callaway et al., 2006; Dowd et al.,
2007), meaning that a pig carrying a new disease may be even more contagious to the new herd. A
quarantine period minimizes the stress of introduction and allows the pig a more ordered transition
to the management and husbandry practices of the new farm.
A quarantine period also provides the producer time to monitor the pig for symptoms of a disease,
and this will be especially beneficial when the health status of the farm of origin is poor, questionable,
or unknown. Even pigs that appear healthy to the naked eye may in fact be carrying diseases and be
contagious to other swine. This was well demonstrated by a case study conducted by U.S. Centers for
Disease Control at the 2009 Minnesota State Fair swine show. With consent of the owners, 57 pigs
checked into the fair were nasal swabbed and tested for serological prevalence of influenza A H1N1
(the so called “swine flu”). Eleven of the asymptomatic pigs (19%) tested positive for influenza A
H1N1, even though all had been approved as “visually healthy” by an on-site veterinarian (Gray et al.,
2012). Pigs carrying this strain of the virus may be contagious to other pigs up to 3 days prior and at
least 7 days after expression of clinical symptoms, meaning that a disease originating in a pig
displaying no disease symptoms has the capacity to infect other pigs with which it comes into contact.
In another example, two-thirds of the 235 pigs brought to an Ohio county fair in 2007 broke with
influenza A H1N1, even though all the pigs were deemed healthy by visual inspection prior to
introduction (Vincent et al., 2009).

Essentials of a Swine Quarantine Period

The basics of a swine quarantine period are contained in the Biosecurity Guide for Pork Producers
published by the National Pork Board. The document is available online for no charge at:
http://www.pork.org/production-topics/swine-health/pig-health-management/biosecurity-farm/
The Biosecurity Guide consists of a series of questions relating to a certain topic, and based on
producer’s responses, rates the farm as either “Unacceptable”, “Questionable”, “Adequate”, or
“Excellent” for the given topic. For example, duration of isolation is considered unacceptable if less
than 30 days. In contrast, periods of 30 to 60 days are considered adequate, and a period greater
than 60 days, excellent. The guide was designed with large, commercial production in mind, but the
principles may be implemented on the small-scale farm or 4-H show pig herd as well.
A summary of fundamental quarantine procedures outlined in the Biosecurity Guide for Pork
Producers that may be easily adopted on the small-scale swine farm is included in Table 1. A brief
explanation of individual methods for these procedures is also included below.
Location and Disease “Barriers”
An effective quarantine location may be as simple as a pen or pasture located 300 yards or greater
more from the resident herd. Increasing the distance between the quarantine and the permanent
herd provides a greater geographic barrier to disease transfer, and decreases the risk of aerosolized
disease transmission. A list of infectious diseases known to be transmitted long distances through
airborne spread is listed in Table 2. This table includes only diseases that have been shown to infect
pigs after long-distance aerosolized spread. The list does not include diseases that are known to be
transmitted through the air at short distances (only a few feet or yards), such as atrophic rhinitis,
pleuropneumonia, or salmonella.
If possible, indoor quarantine locations are preferred over those outdoors. Completely enclosed
indoor locations may be better cleaned and disinfected multiple times if needed. Indoor quarantines
also help to reduce the potential for disease transfer through animal and insect vectors such as birds,
rodents, cats, feral pigs, and flies. Strategic placement of vegetative buffers have been suggested to
improve the efficacy of outdoor quarantine areas (Funk et al., 2003), although evidence to support
this strategy is anecdotal and has yet to be confirmed experimentally. Swine caretakers can also
enforce a barrier to disease transfer by working the permanent herd (the “clean” pigs) before the
quarantined pigs (the “dirty” pigs), and by limiting the passage of carrier objects between sites.
Equipment such as sorting boards and feed scoops may carry organic matter that can facilitate the
spread of disease. Diseases can also be transported on boots and clothing, and disposable boot covers
and coveralls are an inexpensive means to create a barrier to disease spread. Similarly, medical
equipment such as syringes and needles used to give injections to pigs in the permanent herd should
not be used in the quarantine location, and vice versa.

Veterinarian Communication and Testing Procedures

Communication of the vaccination and disease exposure history between the seller’s and buyer’s
veterinarians is an important component of animal sales, and even more so if the pigs are travelling
across state lines or between regions with different disease threats. Pigs that are sold without
veterinary health papers should be considered greater risks for introducing diseases, and extending
the quarantine duration for these pigs is warranted. Finally, a veterinarian can help schedule the
appropriate timing of blood tests and vaccinations. Because recently vaccinated pigs may display
blood markers similar to those of diseased pigs, it is important to coordinate the vaccination and
blood collection and testing schedules correctly to avoid potentially confounding results.

CONCLUSION
Pigs are commonly transported between small-scale farms for breeding purposes or as feeder pigs
to be grown to market, but it is important to remember that pigs brought onto the farm for any reason
may pose health risks to the established herd. Pigs can act as carriers of diseases that may be
accidentally introduced into the permanent herd. For these reasons, establishing a brief quarantine
period to acclimate the arriving pigs to the new environment will help prevent disease spread. A good
quarantine will require greater farm labor and attention to detail, but will also promote the health of
the herd and limit the costs associated with disease.

REFERENCES
Alonso, C., D.P. Goede, R.B. Morrison, P.R. Davies, A. Rovira, D.G. Marthaler, and M. Torremorell. 2014.
Evidence of infectivity of airborne procine epidemic diarrhea virus and detection of airborne viral
RNA at long distances from infected herds. Veterinary Research 45: 73.
Callaway, T.R., J.L. Morrow, T.S. Edrington, K.J. Genovese, S. Dowd, J. Carroll, J.W. Dailey, R.B. Harvey,
T.L. Poole, R.C. Anderson, and D.J. Nisbet. 2006. Social stress increases fecal shedding of Salmonella
Typhimurium by early weaned piglets. Current Issues in Intestinal Microbiology 7: 65-72.
Dowd, S.E., T.R. Callaway, and J. Morrow-Tesch. 2007. Handling may cause increased shedding of
Escherichia coli and total coliforms in pigs. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease 4: 99-102.
Funk, T.L., L.D. Firkins, M.J. Robert, and Y. Zhang. 2003. Engineering design for biosecurity in swine
production systems. In: L. Jacobsen (ed.) Proceedings of the Swine Housing Conference II. Pp 102-
109. Raleigh, NC, USA. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers Publication #
701P1303.
Gray, G.C., J.B. Bender, C.B. Bridges, R.F. Daly, W.S. Krueger, M.J. Male, G.L. Heil, J.A. Friary, R.B. Derby,
and N.J. Cox. 2012. Influenza A(H1N1) pdm09 virus among healthy show pigs, United States.
Emerging Infectious Diseases 18: 1519-1521.
Maes, D., H. Nauwyrick, T. Rijsselaere, B. Mateusen, P. Vyt, A. de Kruif, and A. Van Soom. 2008.
Diseases in swine transmitted by artificial insemination: an overview. Theriogenology 70:1337-
1345.
McGlone, J.J., J.L. Salak, E.A. Lumpkin, R.I. Nicholson, M. Gibson, and R.L. Norman. 1993. Shipping
stress and social status effects on pig performance, plasma cortisol, natural killer cell activity, and
leukocyte numbers. Journal of Animal Science 71: 888-896.
Otake, S., S. Dee, C. Corzo, S. Oliveira, and J. Deen. 2010. Long-distance airborne transport of infectious
PRRSY and Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae from a swine population infected with multiple viral
variants. Veterinary Microbiology 145: 198-208.
Stärk, K.D.C. 1999. The role of infectious aerosols in disease transmission in pigs. The Veterinary
Journal 158: 164-181.
Tuchscherer, M., B. Puppe, A. Tuchscherer, and E. Kanitz. 1998. Effects of social stress after mixing on
immune, metabolic, and endocrine responses in pigs. Physiology & Behavior 64: 353360.
Vincent, A.L., S.L. Swenson, K.M. Lager, P.C. Gauger, C. Loiacono, and Y. Zhang. 2009. Characterization
of an influenza A virus isolation from pigs during an outbreak of respiratory disease in swine and
people during a county fair in the United Stated. Veterinary Microbiology 137: 51-59.
Wittish, L.M., A.P. McElroy, A.F. Harper, and M.J. Estienne. 2014. Performance and physiology of pigs
administered spray-dried plasma protein during the late suckling period and transported after
weaning. Journal of Animal Science 92: 4390–4399.
 The Replacement Gilt: Current Strategies for Improvement of the
Breeding Herd

INTRODUCTION:
Reproduction is one of the most important factors influencing the efficiency of livestock
production. In swine production systems, management and selection of replacement gilts is of great
importance as these gilts represent the future production potential of the herd. Unfortunately,
heritability of most reproductive trait is low, and thus it may be difficult to improve reproductive
traits through selection. Those low heritable traits, such as fertility and piglet survival rate, are
dependent on complex interactions between sow, boar, and embryo or piglet genotypes. Although,
traits dependent on the female genotype (ie, ovulation rate and age at puberty) are possible to
improve. Proper selection of replacement gilts is based on many factors ranging from predicted
reproductive ability to phenotypic production traits. The culmination of genetic factors, such as
adequate growth and development, as well as environmental and selection, must be efficiently
managed to maximize profit. This review article represents the current state of knowledge regarding
selection of replacement gilts and the reproductive issues associated with gilts.

HERD MANAGEMENT
The future production potential of a herd is closely related to replacement selection. Proper gilt
selection is not a guarantee of profit, stability, or high business efficiency. The number of sows culled
annually by a farm depends on many factors such as health, climate, management, and breeding
system. Annual culling rates have been reported to be 35% to 59%. According to Fruh, in organic
farms, more sows are culled in indoor (47.7%) than outdoor housing systems (45.8%). High
replacement rates during the year may adversely affect the herd performance and production costs.
The main reasons for culling sows are reproductive issues, such as return to service, failure to
conceive, and anestrus, but production issues such as small litter size lameness also contribute.
Reproductive issues comprise 27% to 34% of all culled sows, while lameness disorders account for
22.5%. The occurrence of reproductive failure increasing non-productive days in the herd can cause
frequent replacement of females. Early culling practices reduce profit from the investment while late
culling practices for low performing individuals can affect herd profitability.
Years of unilateral pig selection to achieve a high growth rate and faster rates of lean muscle gain has
negatively impacted sow reproductive performance. Szostak showed that a high rate of growth
negatively influences fertilization effectiveness and number of piglets born and reared in the first
litter. According to Hermesch et al, litter size was negatively correlated with growth rate, especially
in the first parity (rg=-0.30 for 3 to 18 weeks; rg= -0.42 for 18 to 22 weeks). The results of other
studies showed fast growing gilts were less likely to farrow (r=-0.52). Additionally, rapid growth can
lead to infantile development of the reproductive system and has negative genetic associations with
sow reproductive lifetime (r=-0.02 to -0.08). Despite this, development of new methods for
improving breeding herd and genomic knowledge provides an opportunity to improve rearing
ability. Su et al reported that selection for total number born between 1992 and 2004 led to an
increase of 3.8 piglets per litter for Danish landrace and 3.0 piglets for Danish Yorkshire, reaching
15.6 and 16.7 piglets per litter respectively in 2015. Reproductive traits have a low to moderate
heritability and are affected largely by external and internal environment. Heritability estimates
range from 0 to 0.73 for age at puberty, 0 to 0.76 for number piglets born, 0 to 0.66 for number of
piglets born, 0 to 0.66 for number of piglets born alive, and 0 to 0.23 for prenatal survival rate.
Therefore, many factors can cause problems with reproduction including management, lack of or
unsystematic production results, semen quality, poor estrus detection, length of lactation, health,
feed quality, feeding management (especially during lactation), ineffective insemination, and other
reproductive disorders. Those factors lead to return to service, thereby decreasing reproductive
efficiency and increasing non-productive days. It also negatively impacts farm economics because
producers are not able to maintain production levels. Research conducted by Iida and Kaketsu on
Japanese herds showed 11.6% of gilts and 9% of sows returned to service. In the United States, the
percentage of animals returning to service were 14% for gilts and 7% to 9% for sows. Gilts were
more likely to return to service than sows but occurrence of anestrus is higher groups of multiparous
sows when lactation duration is 15 to 19 days. Moreover, incorrect detection of estrus reduces
farrowing rate and causes a decreased number of litters per sow per year.

Age At Puberty
Onset of puberty in gilts is associated with the occurrence of first estrus. Age of first estrus and mating
or insemination of gilts has an impact on subsequent reproductive performance and longevity. Age
at puberty is moderately heritable (r=0.38), so potential opportunities for selection exist. To decide
when to start breeding gilts and how long they can be retained in the breeding herd, producers should
consider the housing system to be used, herd management practices, longevity, and reproductive
performance. The onset of puberty is influenced by many factors including genotype, technique and
effectiveness of estrus detection season, environment, boar exposure, nutrition and health.
Both longevity and future reproductive efficiency are dependent on age at first mating. Ovulation rate
at first estrus is lower than in subsequent cycles, indicating that artificial insemination (AI) or natural
breeding should be carried out in the second or third estrus. Le Cozler et al and Young et al
demonstrated that the age of first farrowing affects herd management and showed that younger gilts
(<185 days of age) had more piglets over parities 1 to 3 than older gilts. Whereas, Tummaruk et al
showed that females whose dams were gilts grew slower, had less backfat at 100 days of age, and
were mated later than their counterparts reared from multiparous sows. Moreover, it was observed
that females from smaller litters reached sexual maturity earlier than gilts from larger litters.
Lammers et al reported that gilts reach sexual maturity between 160 and 190 days of age. Similarly,
Tummaruk et al reported that sexual maturity occurred at 180 to 210 days of age (6 to 7 months),
while the results of previous studies indicate 200 to 220 days. In tropical climates, the first estrus of
gilts was observed from 188 to 251 days of age. In Scandinavian countries, the reported average age
for onset of sexual maturity was: 229 days in March and 345 in November (Sweden), 210 to 270 days
with 120 kg body weight (Sweden), and 235 days (Finland).delayed age of first mating in gilts
increases the number of non-productive days and can negatively influence subsequent reproductive
performance. According to Kapelanska et al, it is possible to decrease the age of first mating to less
than 6.5 months of age without negative consequences to their future productivity. Moreover, it
would be beneficial for a farm’s economic efficiency in pig production. On the other hand, the rapid
development of a gilt’s reproductive system starts from 6 months of age and is usually concurrent
with the first estrus cycle. Therefore, mating gilts at this time may have negative effects on growth of
the gilt and number of piglets born.
Weight and Back fat Thickness
Body weight and back fat thickness have an impact on gilt reproduction. The proper body weight at
breeding is necessary to protect females against excessive weight loss during the first lactation. In a
study conducted by Williams et al, gilts with lower body weight (<135 kg) had smaller litters their
first three parities (31.1 total piglets born) than heavier females (32.3 to 33.1 born). Small litter size
occurred among gilts whose back fat thickness was more than 20 mm. the studies conducted by
Tummaruk et al showed on average that Landrace x Yorkshire females had their first estrus at 195
days of age with 106 kg body weight and 13 mm back fat thickness. Recent research from the same
laboratory showed that replacement gilts should be bred at 240 days of age, with 130 kg body weight
and 17 mm back fat thickness. It was confirmed by Amaral Filha et al that the largest litters were
from sows with back fat thickness results in a positive effect on litter weight and consequently limits
piglet losses in the rearing period. Kummer et al suggested that AI in gilts between 185 and 209 days
of age is possible without adverse effects if the growth rate of individuals exceeds 700 g/day.
Season and Climate
Reproductive efficiency is significantly correlated with season due to seasonal infertility. Seasonal
infertility is defined as the difference between the number of successful inseminations in the summer
(weeks 25 to 42) and winter seasons (weeks 1 to 18) in the same year. It has been shown that the
farrowing rate is lower in spring and summer than in winter. Additionally, gilts born in the spring
reach puberty later than those born in autumn. Jarczyk and Nogaj found that birth in the spring and
summer seasons, positively affected reproductive efficiency and lifetime performance. Moreover,
sows born from September to February had smaller litters with a higher number of males than those
sows born from March to August. Kawecka et al found no effect of season on the effectiveness of AI.
Additionally, they noted the beneficial effect of Ai, especially in summer, on the fertilization rate and
the number of piglets born alive per litter. These findings were confirmed by Rekiel et al which
showed that stabilization of the environment inside modern pig facilities eliminated the seasonal
influence on reproduction efficiency.
Studies conducted in Thailand showed that reproductive efficiency is lower in tropical than in
temperate zones. The factors negatively effecting reproduction, especially the delay of first estrus
and decreased litter size, include high temperature and humidity. Pigs are very sensitive to ambient
temperatures, especially in the absence of proper ventilation and can quickly become overheated.
Heat stress results in decreased ovulation rate, conception rate, decreased embryo survival, and
abnormal development and mortality of embryos. Gilts are the most vulnerable to adverse
environmental conditions.
Selection Criteria
Gilts selection criteria often vary based on production goals. Routine selection of gilts provides the
opportunity to choose the best female for breeding. First, pre-selection should be made on the day of
weaning. Choosing two or three more piglets than needed as replacements, and focused on the health
of individuals and pre-weaning average daily gain. Pre-weaning growth rate positively affected post
weaning growth performance of sows in later life. Moreover, Vallet et al reported that selection of
gilts with high birth weight characterized by slow growth rate (0.05 kg/day) during the pre-weaning
period reached puberty later than gilts with lower birth weight but higher pre-weaning growth rate.
Previous results showed a relationship between weaning age and a gilt’s subsequent reproduction
where an increases weaning age by one day resulted in an increase of 0.185 piglets per sow per year.
The author suggested increasing weaning age to 25 days. Additionally, gilts selected for breeding
should weigh at least 7.5 kg at weaning. Final selection should be carried out around 140 days of age
and should include a visual evaluation of structure with respect to feet and legs, underline and
external genitalia.
Another form of selection is one-step selection, carried out at 5 to 6 months of age. During this time,
traits such as body weight, body condition, structure, back fat thickness, number of estrus cycles, and
growth rate are used in selection. Some researchers expanded those criteria to include structural
soundness, body conditions, vulva size, number of nipples, body weight and litter size at birth.
Criterion 1: Structural Soundness and Condition
Hooves and legs indicated strength and durability. Desirable legs are strong, straight, set to pasterns,
and wide apart. Legs with very soft pasterns, buck kneed, too steep hock joints, or with any other
abnormalities are undesirable. Properly developed limbs will support the added weight of the boar
during mating, maintain proper condition during pregnancy, and prevent piglet crushing during
farrowing. The problems with poor feet and leg soundness and osteochondrosis are one of the main
reasons to replace sows. Those weaknesses are visible during locomotion and changes in leg position.
Osteochondrosis is caused by a few factors including rapid growth, inheritance, or nutrition.
According to Yazdi et al, correlation between osteochondrosis and longevity was low (r=0.07), but
significant (P<.01). Consequently higher risk of culling occurs, impacting sow longevity. Heritability
estimates ofr leg structure traits, leg score, and locomotion are low to moderate depending on the
population and favourably associated with sow longevity. Direct selection for improved leg
soundness provides an opportunity to increase sow lifetime productivity. The two types of scoring
system for leg confirmation traits are binary and linear. Both types depends on observers training
and experience, which may cause wide variation.
Criterion 2: Reproductive Organs
The udder is a very important criterion for replacement gilts, when modern females can farrow more
piglets than the number of functional nipples. The evaluation is based on the number, size, shape and
location of the nipples. The udder should be wide and properly developed. Gilts should have at least
12 to 16 nipples. Regardless of the number, nipples should be in a straight line and evenly spaced to
provide free access to all piglets. The last 3 or 4 pairs of nipples tend to tilt, making it difficult for
piglets to access them. It is important to avoid clogged nipples is affected by the presence of males in
the litter from which the gilt was born (more males in the litter results in gilts with fewer nipples).
The gilt should have a well-developed and well-shaped vulva, proportional in size, with the tip
pointing downward.
Criterion 3: Body Weight and Litter Size at Birth
Gilts are impacted by the dam’s fertility, milk production, and reproductive history, which is based
on performance in the same housing conditions of the dam, gilt offspring of the dam, and siblings to
the gilt undergoing selection from previous litters. Additionally, a dam’s reproductive history is based
on good maternal ability. This trait is very individual, so elimination of sow with poor maternal
responsiveness should be based on behavioural observations. There are two main trends of choosing
gilts based on litter size. First, replacement gilts should be chosen from the largest and heaviest litter
and their dams should have a high fertility rate, at least 12 to 13 piglets per litter. Moreover, gilts
should be chosen from sows in their third parity, when it is possible to assess the fertility of the dam.
On the other hand, Jarzyck et al showed that replacement gilts should be selected from smaller litters
because they have more uterine space, and consequently had better conditions for development and
growth during gestation. Additionally, research conducted by Flowers showed positive effects of
being raised in a small litter which consequently increased gilt longevity (to parity 6) and lifetime
reproductive performance. Replacement gilts from litters with a larger number of females had more
piglets than gilts from litters with more male siblings. Litters with more than 12 piglets and a large
number of males (67%) can cause problems with reproduction for gilts from this litter. Thus is due
to the occurrence of one-way blood flow in the uterus and because foetuses are exposed to hormones
produced by the embryos that preceded them, which may be the other sex.
Criterion 4: Growth Rates
Gilts, which consume more feed, grow faster but tend to accumulate fat. Overweight gilts at breeding
are possible risk factor for reduced longevity and herd reproductive efficiency. It is important to
choose gilts with a good appetite but to prevent their excessive fattening.

Construction of Reproductive Organs and Uterine Capacity

The length of the vagina and cervix and uterine capacity are increasingly used as indicators of
reproductive efficiency. Uterine capacity is defined as the ability of the uterus to provide the
appropriate development of some number of embryos from implantation until birth. Each
incremental increase in uterine size increases the number of offspring obtained because the uterine
horn length is correlated with ovulation rate, thus, uterine size is an important limiting factor
affecting litter size at birth. Prenatal mortality is mostly caused by intrauterine crowding. Foetuses
that die in a crowded uterus are more likely to be male. In addition to limited space in the uterus,
another important conceptus survival factor is the appropriate transport of necessary nutrients. It is
observed that localization of an embryo within the uterine horn is correlated with its survival and
growth. Thus, longer uterine horns can interfere with the ability of the uterus to provide the
necessary nutrients for all foetuses, there are several scientific theories which try to explain this
relationship. According to the theory from Mossman, embryos implanted closest to the ovary
demonstrate the greatest degree of development. In turn, Hammond proposed that the rate of
metabolic processes in different tissues influences the distribution of nutrients carried by the blood.
Therefore, with limited nutrients, just the most important tissue may continue to grow at the expense
of lower tissue metabolism. Consequently, in numerous litters, the fetal development was delayed
and reduced birth body weight occurred. It is caused by the rate of blood flow through the placenta,
not by uterine mass. An unidirectional flow of blood passes through the pig uterus washing all
foetuses inside the uterine horns. Another theory seeking to explain the relationship between the
embryo growth and survival was formulated by Eckstein et al, whereby the number of embryos in
the uterine horns affects the weight of the fetus and mass of the placenta. Embryos are exposed to
two impact factors: a larger number of embryos in the uterine horn results in lower blood pressure
and reduced blood pressure indirectly impacts the size of the fetus. Even in the early stage of
pregnancy, the competition for nutrients and space is observed among fetuses. The optimum space
for each embryo in the uterine horn should be 20 to 35 cm. previous research suggested 36 cm as the
minimal space for normal development for every fetus. The uterine horn length can only be measured
posthumously, so it leads to the search for correlations with the other reproductive organs. Rillo et
al reported that for each centimetre the vagina increased in length, the uterine horns increases 8 to
9 cm. furthermore, other research showed a relationship between vaginal and cervix length (VLC)
and litter size. It is confirmed by Dybala et al, who also reported that sows with a longer VCL were
from litters that had 0.98 more piglets when compared to gilts with shorter VCL. On the other hand,
Tarocco and Kirkwood obtained opposite results. They suggested the measurement of VCL in the
second estrus was not an indicator of litter size. Uterine size and VCL showed great diversity between
females and increased with gilt age and subsequent litters. Although, according to Dominguez et al,
the reproductive tract of gilts stabilized after the first litter, so gilts have a shorter VCL than sows
after first parity. Therefore, the length of reproductive organs is not a significant factor for gilt
selection and determination for their future potential. However, other researchers have reported
correlations between: ovulation rate and length of uterine horn (r= 0.38), prenatal survival of
foetuses and uterine capacity (r=0.95), uterine length and capacity (r=0.51), and VCL and litter size
(r=0.36).
Boar Exposure
Replacement gilts with body weights between 90 and 100 kg should be introduced into the breeding
herd, as it is the optimal time to use boar for exposure. The stimulation should be started around 140
days of age because age at puberty has been shown to be associated with age at onset of boar
exposure. On the other hand, van Wettere et al suggested that fist boar exposure should be delayed
until 182 days of age because greater synchrony occurred within gilt groups. After stimulation, gilts
achieved first estrus sooner and consequently their lifetime productivity was greater. Kaneko and
Koketsu noticed gilts in herds using boar exposure around 13 days younger at first mating than those
in herds using only indirect boar contact. It is assumed that gilts that experience estrus within 30
days of boar stimulation will have more piglets in their first litters and reach greater lifetime
productivity.
Longevity
High breeding herd productivity is associated with sow longevity. Many factors impact sow longevity,
including genetics, nutrition, housing, disease, age at first mating, length of lactation, body condition,
and growth rate. The goal is for the first litter produced by a replacement gilt to recuperate the cost
of her introduction into the herd. Subsequent litters will bring economic profit to producers. To
maximize profitability of sows, females are replaced after 4 to 5 parities or longer on small farms and
at 3 to 4 parities or earlier on large farms.The decision to replace sows depends mostly on average
herd productivity. The most productive parities are 2, 3 and 4 with a reduction of 0.3 to 1 piglets
beginning with parity 5. A high sow culling rate decreases farm productivity, especially in terms of
the average number of piglets weaned per sow per year and increases the risk of introducing diseases
into the herd by replacement gilts.
SUMMARY
Over the last 20 to 30 years, the swine industry has undergone numerous changes. Despite those
substantial technological and scientific changes, methodology involved in replacement gilt selection
has remained largely the same as 20 years ago. The traditional selection of replacement gilts does
not completely guarantee suitable reproductive efficiency. The greatest hopes are focused on genetic
improvement, increased selection intensity, and the opportunity for producers to select animals with
improved reproductive efficiency. Methods such as maternal responsiveness and VCL hold promise
for such improvements, but more research and development is needed to perfect and disseminate
these methodologies as selection tools.
REFERENCES
1. Safranski T. Management of replacement gilts. Paper presented at: PORK Academy; June 2005; Des
Moines, Iowa.
2. Suwanasopee T, Koonawootrittriron S. Genetic markers on reproductive traits in pigs. Thai J Vet
Med Suppl. 2011;41:73-76.
3. Wilkie PJ, Paszek AA, Beattie CW, Alexander LJ, Wheeler MB, Schook LB. A genomic scan of porcine
reproductive traits reveals possible quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for number of corpora lutea. Mamm
Genome. 1999;10:573-578.
4. Bidanel JP. Biology and genetics of reproduction. In: Rothschild MF, Ruvinsky A, eds. The Genetics
of the Pig. 2nd ed. Wallingford, UK: CAB International; 2011:222-232.
5. Engblom L, Lundeheim N, Dalin AM, Andersson K. Sow removal in Swedish commercial herds.
Livest Sci. 2007;106:76-86.
6. Kaneko M, Iida R, Koketsu Y. Herd management procedures and factors associated with low
farrowing rate of female pigs in Japanese commercial herds. Prev Vet Med. 2013;109:69-75.
7. Lucia T Jr, Dial GD, Marsh WE. Lifetime reproductive performance in female pigs having distinct
reasons for removal. Livest Prod Sci. 2000;63:213- 222.
8. Onteru SK, Fan B, Nikkilä MT, Garrick DJ, Stalder KJ, Rothschild MF. Whole-genome association
analyses for lifetime reproductive traits in the pig. J Anim Sci. 2011;89:988-995.
9. Martin Rillo S, de Alba Romero C, Romero Rodriguez A, Cidoncha R, Ziecik AJ. Litter size and vagina-
cervix catheter penetration length in gilts. Reprod Domest Anim. 2001;36:297-300.
10. Stalder KJ, Saxton AM, Conatser GE, Serenius TV. Effect of growth and compositional traits on
first parity and lifetime reproductive performance in U.S. Landrace sows. Livest Prod Sci.
2005;97:151-159.
11. Young MG, Tokach MD, Aherne FX, Dritz SS, Goodband RD, Nelssen JL, Loughin TM. Effect of space
allowance during rearing and selection criteria on performance of gilts over three parities in a
commercial swine production system. J Anim Sci. 2008;86:3181-3193. *
12. Früh B. Organic Pig Production in Europe. Health Management in Common Organic Pig Farming.
Switzerland: Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL); 2011:4. http://orgprints.
org/19166/1/MB_OrganicPigProduction_ en_11_leicht.pdf. Accessed May 16, 2014.
13. Tummaruk P, Kesdangsakonwut S, Kunavongkrit A. Relationships among specific reasons for
culling, reproductive data, and gross morphology of the genital tracts in gilts culled due to
reproductive failure in Thailand. Theriogenology. 2009;71:369-375.
14. Zhao Y, Liu X, Mo D, Chen Q, Chen Y. Analysis of reasons for sow culling and seasonal effects on
reproductive disorders in Southern China. Anim Reprod Sci. 2015;159:191-197.
15. Vargas AJ, Bernardi ML, Bortolozzo FP, Mellagi AP, Wentz I. Factors associated with return to
estrus in first service swine females. Prev Vet Med. 2009;89:75-80.
16. Rodriguez-Zas SL, Davis CB, Ellinger PN, Schnitkey GD, Romine NM, Connor JF, Knox RV, Southey
BR. Impact of biological and economic variables on optimal parity for replacement in swine breed-
to-wean herds. J Anim Sci. 2006;84:2555- 2565.
17. Kernerová N, Václavovský J, Matoušek V, Hanyková Z. The use of performance test parameters for
selection of gilts before their placement into breeding. Czech J Anim Sci. 2006;51:253-261.
18. Matysiak B, Kawęcka M, Pietruszka A, Jacyno E, Kołodziej-Skalska A. Użytkowość rozpłodowa loch
w zależności od stopnia umięśnienia w dniu pierwszego pokrycia [Reproduction performance of
sows depending on level of meatiness during first service]. Acta Sci Pol, Zootechnica. 2010;9:153-
160.
19. Szostak B. The influence of the intensity of the growth of gilts on the reproduction performance
in first farrow. Acta Sci Pol, Zootechnica. 2011;10:141-148.
20. Hermesch S, Luxford BG, Graser HU. Genetic parameters for lean meat yield, meat quality,
reproduction and feed efficiency traits for Australian pigs: 3. Genetic parameters for reproduction
traits and genetic correlations with production, carcase and meat quality traits. Livest Prod Sci.
2000;65:261-270.
21. Knauer MT, Cassady JP, Newcom DW, See MT. Phenotypic and genetic correlations between gilt
estrus, puberty, growth, composition, and structural conformation traits with first-litter
reproductive measures. J Anim Sci. 2011;89:935-942.
22. Kapelański W, Jankowiak H, Bocian M, Grajewska S, Dybała J, Cebulska A. The effect of the growth
rate and meatiness of young gilts during rearing on the growth and development of their
reproductive system. Acta Vet Brno. 2013;82:19-24.
23. Serenius T, Stalder KJ. Genetics of length of productive life and lifetime prolificacy in the Finnish
Landrace and Large White pig populations. J Anim Sci. 2004;82:3111-3117.
24. Su G, Lund MS, Sorensen D. Selection for litter size at day five to improve litter size at weaning
and piglet survival rate. J Anim Sci. 2007;85:1385-1392. *
25. SEGES Pig Research Centre. Annual Report 2015. http://www.pigresearchcentre.dk/~/
media/Files/PDF%20-%20Aarsberetning%20 VSP%20English/VSP%C3%A5rsberetning%20
UK%202015.pdf. Published March 2016. Accessed October 2, 2017.
26. Rekiel A, Więcek J, Rafalak S, Ptak J, Blicharski T. Effect of size of the litter in which Polish Landrace
and Polish Large White sows were born on the number of piglets born and reared. Roczniki Naukowe
Polskiego Towarzystwa Zootechnicznego. 2013;9:41-48.
27. Rekiel A, Więcek J, Wojtasik M, Kulisiewicz J, Batorska M. The internal environment and
reproduction in multifetal species. Roczniki Naukowe Zootechniki Monografie i Rozprawy.
2010;44:79-88.
28. Bertoldo M, Grupen CG, Thomson PC, Evans G, Holyoake PK. Identification of sow-specific risk
factors for late pregnancy loss during the seasonal infertility period in pigs. Theriogenology.
2009;72:393-400.
 29. Iida R, Koketsu Y. Interactions between climatic and production factors on returns of female pigs
to service during summer in Japanese commercial breeding herds. Theriogenology. 2013;80:487-
493.
30. Koketsu Y, Dial GD, King VL. Returns to service after mating and removal of sows for reproductive
reasons from commercial swine farms. Theriogenology. 1997;47:1347-1363.
31. Vargas AJ, Bernardi ML, Paranhos TF, Gonçalves MA, Bortolozzo FP, Wentz I. Reproductive
performance of swine females re-serviced after return to estrus or abortion. Anim Reprod Sci.
2009;113:305-310.
32. Kraeling RR, Webel SK. Current strategies for reproductive management of gilts and sows in
North America. J Anim Sci Biotechnol. 2015;6:3.
33. Koketsu Y, Takahashi H, Akachi K. Longevity, lifetime pig production and productivity, and age
at first conception in a cohort of gilts observed over six years on commercial farms. J Vet Med Sci.
1999;61:1001-1005.
34. Le Cozler Y, Dagorn J, Lindberg JE, Aumaître A, Dourmad JY. Effect of age at first farrowing and
herd management on long-term productivity of sows. Livest Prod Sci. 1998;53:135-142.
35. Patterson JL, Beltranena E, Foxcroft GR. The effect of gilt age at first estrus and breeding on third
estrus on sow body weight changes and long-term reproductive performance. J Anim Sci.
2010;88:2500-2513.
 Efficacy of Three Disinfectants against Senecavirus A on Five Surfaces
and at Two Temperatures

Senecavirus A (SVA) is a small, non-enveloped picorna virus having a single stranded,

positive-sense RNA genome. It belong to genus Senecavirus, which is closely related to the genus
Cardiovirus in Picornaviridae. The virus was initiallu identified as a cell-culture contaminant in
PER.C6 cell, but has now been reported in pigs from several countries including Australia, Canada,
Italy, New Zealand, United States and recently Brazil. In the United States, SVA been detected in
California, Illinois, Iowa, Louisiana, Minnesota, New Jersey, North Carilina and South Dakota.
Although Kochs’s postulates have not been fulfilled, pigs infected with SVA do exhibit fever, erosions
on snout, and swelling of coronary bands, along with blanching and broken vesicles, sloughing of
hooves and dewclaws, and eventually lameness. Unfortunately, the clinical signs are
indistinguishable from other vesicular disease (FMD). It is important, therefore to confirm that the
pigs are infected with SVA and not FMD virus (FMDV). A single case of FMD misdiagnosed as SVA will
allow FMDV to take a foothold, resulting in huge economic losses in terms of control measures and
loss of exports.
The transmission routes of SVA are not well understood, but it can be safely assumed that SVA
spreads, as in the case of FMDV, by direct contact with infected individuals or fomite’s, or exposure
to aerolized virus. Detectable levels of infectious virus have been found in nasal secretions, sputum,
blood, urine and stool of human cancer patients treated with intravenous SVA in clinical trials for
therapeutic use. Animals’ houses can be contaminated via excretions of infected animals. Regular
cleaning and disinfection of these premises is a cost-effective biosecurity measure to control and
preven viral diseases and to minimize their impact.
The effectiveness of disinfectants depends on many factors, such as chemical nature of the
disinfectant, temperature at which it is used, type of contaminated surface, and physicochemical
characteristics of the virus (e.g. size and enveloped or non-enveloped). This makes it important to
test a particular disinfectant against the pathogen in question. This study was designed to evaluate
the efficacies of three commercially available disinfectants against SVA at two different temperatures
(˜25°C and 4°C) using a carrier surfaces discs of aluminium, steel, rubber, plastics and cured cement.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Virus Propagation
A field strain of SVA, isolated in September 2015 in the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, university
of Minnesota, was used. The virus was propagated and titrated in swine testicular (ST) cells. The titer
of stock virus was 10.62 median tissue culture infective doses (TCID50) per mL.
Disinfectants
Three disinfectants, describe in Table 1 and commonly used on swine farms in Minnesota, were
evaluated in this study. Dilutions of disinfectants as recommended by their manufacturer were
prepared in sterile distilled water.
Procedures
The experiments were performed at room temperature (˜25°C) and at 4°C. Coupons of aluminium,
stainless steel, rubber and cures cement placed in individual wells of sterile 24-well cell culture plates
(Corning, Kennebunk, Maine) were used as carrier surfaces for testing the disinfectant efficacy. The
surface of the 24 well plate (without any coupon) was used as the plastic surface. Before use, the
coupons were sterilized by autoclaving at 121°C for 15 minutes, and temperature-sensitive autoclave
tape was used to confirm sterility. To each sterile coupon, 40µL was applied. The coupon was then
dried in a laminar flow hood for approximately 45 minutes. The inoculum volume of 40µL used with
the intent to cover at least half of the coupon surface with the virus. A volume of 40µL was found to
be appropriate for this purpose. Disinfectant to be tested was then applied to dried virus layer at
50µL per coupon. The volume of 50 µL per coupon ensured that all of the virus inoculum came into
contact with the disinfectant.
For negative control, 50µL of minimum essential medium (MEM) was used instead of the disinfectant.
Contact times were 1, 3,5,10, and 15 minutes for bleach and 10, 15, 20 and 60 minutes for Tek-Trol
and Synergize. After various contact times, 400µL of eluent solution (3% beef extract in 0.05 M
glycine solution; pH 7.5) was added to all wells. The eluent was repeatedly pipetted back and forth
in each well to facilitate virus elution from the surface. Serial tenfold dilutions of elutes were
prepared immediately in MEM followed by inoculation of all dilutions in monolayers of ST cells
contained in 96-well microtiter plates, using three wells per dilution. Inoculated plates were
incubated at 37°C and observed daily for up to 4 days for the appearance of virus-induced cytopathic
effects. Virus titers were calculated by the method of Reed and Muench. Virus titers in disinfectant-
treated and MEM-treated (control) wells were compared to determine the amount of virus
inactivated by the disinfectant. Efficacy of each disinfectant at each time point was analysed in terms
of percent reduction of virus. All experiments were performed in triplicate.
Statistical analysis
To test for differences among the five surfaces, a permutation test using Friedman’s test statistic was
used, treating each temperature and time combination as a block, with surface labels permuted
within each temperature level. To test for differences between temperatures, the same technique was
used, but with surface and time combinations as blocks and temperature labels permuted within each
surface level. Tests were performed separately for each disinfectant. To test for differences between
disinfectants, we examined time points 10 minutes and 15 minutes and performed pairwise
Wilcoxon tests between the three disinfectants, paired by surface and temperature, with corrections
for multiple corrections using the Bonferroni-Holm adjustment. A value of P<.05 was considered
statistically significant.
Table 1: Disinfectants and their dilutions used to inactivate Sencavirus A*

Disinfectant Manufacturer Disinfectant Active Ingredient Recommended

Category Dilution
Bleach Champion Chlorine Sodium 1:20
packaging and hypochlorite
Distribution, (5.25%)
Woodridge,
Illinois
 Tek-Trol Bio-Tek, a Division Phenol Ortho- 1:250
of ABC phenylphenol
compounding, (12%), otrho-
Atlanta, Georgia benzyl-
parachlorophenol
(10%), para-
tertiary-
amylphenol (4%)
Synergize Preserve Quaternary Alkyl dimethyl 1:256
International, ammonium benzyl,
Reno, Nevada compounds + ammonium
aldehyde chloride (26%0,
glutaraldehyde
(7%)
 Three types of disinfectants were tested as describe in the Table.
Results
At 10 and 15 minute time points, all three disinfectants tested were significantly different (P<.01 at
10 minutes and P<.05 at 15 minutes). Household bleach at 1:20 dilution inactivated ≥99.99% of the
virus within 10 to 15 minutes on aluminium, rubber and plastic at room temperature (table 2).
Results obtained with bleach on stainless steel and cures cement were 99.97% and 99.98%,
respectively. At 4°C, bleach inactivated ≥99.99% of the virus within 5 to 15 minutes on all surfaces
except rubber. On rubber, bleach inactivated 99.91% of the virus after a contact period of 15 minutes.
Results for synergize were intermediate between those obtained with bleach and Tek-Trol. Synergize
inactivated 93.54% to 99.81% of the virus within 60 minutes at either temperature and on all
surfaces tested (table 2). The differences between surfaces were not significant for bleach, Tek-Trol,
or synergize (P=0.12, P=.55, and P= .44, respectively), nor were differences between the
temperatures (P=1.0, P=.25, amd P=.13, respectively).
Discussion
Each suspected case of SVA must be thoroughly investigated to rule out trans boundary animal
diseases such as FMD. The control strategy against SVA should include proper cleaning and
disinfections of premises. Since SVA spreads very rapidly, the availability of an effective disinfectants
is very important for disease control. In the present study, we tested three different disinfectants that
are in common use on swine farms, including household bleach (sodium hypochlorite). Tek-Trol
(phenolic compounds) and Synergize (quaternary ammonium compound and glutaraldehyde).
Although 4°C is not representative of conditions inside the barn, it does reflect outside conditions,
especially during winters in the US Midwest. We emphasize that all experiments in this study were
performed without any added organic matter (except for the small amount that is present in MEM).
The presence of organic material, such as manure, reduces the efficacy of various disinfectants under
field conditions. We further emphasize that dry surfaces were used in this study, which is rarely the
case in swine facilities. Whether the results of this study can be extended to apply to wet surfaces in
the presence of organic matter remains to be seen. It is well known that no disinfectant is highly
effective in the presence of organic matter, and hence cleaning of the facilities before the application
of disinfectants is a prerequisite.
Viral susceptibility to disinfectants depends on several factors, including virus type (enveloped or
non-enveloped), size, morphology, and nucleic acid (single or double stranded). In general, non-
enveloped viruses such as enteroviruses are more resistant than enveloped viruses to the action of
commonly used disinfectants such as 70% alcohol and 1% quarternary ammonium compounds. In
addition, non-enveloped viruses are more stable outside their hosts and have a greater potential to
spread via contaminated environment.
Disinfectants containing chlorine are recommended for inactivating a wide variety of viral and
bacterial pathogens. In the present study, 2500 ppm of household bleach was found to be the most
effective; it inactivated > 4 log 10 (≥99.99%) of SVA on at least three surfaces within 10 to 15 minutes.
Harada et al reported that sodium hypochlorite, in a suspension test, reduced the titer of FMDV by
99.55% within 30 seconds. It is well known that disinfectants are less effective on dry viruses than
on wet viruses in suspension. Hence, it is not surprising that it took only 10 to 15 minutes for sodium
hypochlorite to inactivate 4 log10 (99.99%) of dried SVA on various surfaces. Our results are in
agreement with previous studies on the sodium hypochlorite inactivation of coronavirus, human
influenza virus, coxsackei B virus, adenovirus type 5, and rotavirus. Although bleach was the most
effective, it should be noted that it is corrosive and should be used with caution.
The phenolic homologue evaluated in our study (TekTrol) was not very effective in inactivating SVA
eben after a contact time of 60 minutes. In one of our experiments, double the recommended
concentration against SVA (data not shown). Our findings are in agreement with those of other
studies in which disinfectants with lipophilic properties (phenol homologues) were not active
against small (20 to 30 nm), non-enveloped viruses belonging to Picornaviridae and Parvoviridae.
Quarternary ammonium compounds (QAC) are reported to be less effective against hydrophilic, non-
enveloped viruses’ eg.feline calicivirus, canine parvovirus, and poliovirus. In the present study, a
combination of QAC and glutaraldehyde inactivated 93.54% to 99.81% of SVA, but only after a
contact time of 60 minutes. Ineffectiveness of QAC against FMDV in a suspension test has been
previously reported.
In this study, we did not use a neutralizer to neutralize the disinfectants. However, at each point, we
used 400 µL of an eluent solution to recover any surviving virus. The original amount of the applied
virus was 40 µL per coupon, and elution of this amount of virus in 400 µL resulted in a 1:10 dilution
of the eluate. Serial tenfold dilutions of this eluate were then made and inoculated in cell cultures,
and hence the effective dilution of the eluate was 1:100. We relied on this 1:100 dilution to effectively
reduce the continuing action of the disinfectant in the inoculated cells. In disinfectant testing, this is
generally considered adequate.
Our findings suggest that sodium hypochlorite at 2500 ppm is suitable for use as a virucide against
SVA on various surfaces both at room temperature and at 4°C. Testing at 4°C is important because in
the US Midwest climate, disinfectants are often used in both cold and warm atmospheric conditions.
On the basis of these results, treatment of contaminated surfaces with sodium hypochlorite may
reduce the viral load of contaminated surfaces and thereby reduce the risk of virus transmission
during outbreaks. At both 10 and 15 minutes, efficacies of the three disinfectants were significantly
different, indicating that such studies should be conducted with various disinfectant-virus-surface-
combinations to ensure that the chosen disinfectant is effective against the virus in question. The
identification and evaluation of an optimal disinfectant against any pathogen is an essential and cost-
effective way to control and prevent the spread of that pathogen.
Implications

 Under the conditions of this study, disinfectants commonly used in the swine industry have
different anti SVA efficacies.
 It is important to test various disinfectants against different viruses to ensure that they are
effective against a given virus under the conditions of use.
References
Alexandersen S, Knowles N, Dekker A, Belsham G, Zhang Z, Koenen F Picornaviruses In: Zimmerman
J, Karriker L, Ramirez A, Schwartz K, Stevenson G, eds. Diseases of Swine. 10th ed.Ames, Iowa: John
Wiley & Sons, 2012;587-620
Adams MJ, Lefkowitz EJ, King AMQ Bamfor DH, Breitbart M, Davidson AJ, Ghabrial SA, Gorbalenya
AE, Knowles NJ, Krell P, Lavigne R, Prangishvili D, Sanfacon H, Siddell Sg, Simmonds P, Carstens EB.
Ratification vote on taxonomic proposals to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses
(2015).. Arch Virol, 2015; 160:1837-1850.
Hales LM, Knowles NJ, Reddy PS, Xu L, Hay C, hallenbecj PL. Complete genome sequence analysis of
Seneca valley virus-0001, a novel oncolytic picornavirus. J Gen Virol,2008;89:265-275
Pasma T, Davidson S, Shaw SL, Idiopathic vesicular disease in swine in Manitoba, Can vey j 2008;
49: 84-85
Vannucci FA. Linhares DCL, barcellos DESN, Lam HC, Collins J. Marthaker D. identification and
complete genome of Seneca valley virus in vesicular fluid and sera of pigs affected with idiopathic
vesicular disease, brazil. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2015;626: 589-593
Knowles NJ, hales LM, Jones BH. Epidemiology of Seneca Valley virus: Identification and
characterization of isolates from pigs in the United States. Northern lights EUROPIC. 2006
Singh K, Corner S, Clark SG, Scherba G, Fredrickson R. Seneca Valley virus and vesicular lesions in a
pig with idiopathic vesicular disease. J Vest Sci Technol, 2012;3:123
Montiel N, Buckley A, Guo B, Kulshreshtha V, VanGeelen A, Hoang H, Rademacher C, Yoon KJ, Lager
K. Vesicular disease in 9 week-old-pigs experimentally infected with Senecavirus A. Emerg Infect
Dis. 2016; 22:7: 1246-1248.
Yang M, van Bruggen R, Xu W. Generation and diagnostic application of monoclonal antibodies
against Seneca Valley virus. J Vet Diagn Invest. 2012:24:42-50
Meyer S. Seneca Valley Virus could cost producer billions. The national Hog farmer. September 21,
2015
Rudin CM, Poirier JT, Senzer NN. Phase 1 clinical study of Seneca Valley virus (SVV-001), a
replication-competent picornavirus, in advanced solid tumors with neuroendocrine features.
Friedman M. The use of ranks to avoid the assumption of normality implicit in the analysis of
variance. J Am Stat Assoc. 1937;32: 675-701.
Russel AD, Russel NJ. Biocides: activity, action and resistance. Sympt Soc gen Microbiology 1995;
53: 327-365.
 The Effects of Antiseptic Compounds on Umbilical Cord Healings in
Piglets in a Commercial Facility

The umbilical cord serves as channel for the blood supply between the fetus and the placenta
throughout pregnancy, during the birthing process, the umbilical cord ruptures, leaving it open-
ended. This umbilical cord may become a potential route for pathogen entry into the newborn,
increasing the risk of septecemia. Nielsen et al reported that 2.1% of live-born piglets died from
septecemia, which may result from umbilical infections, although there are several other common
causes if this condition in piglets. Subclinical umbilical infections may prevent the abdominal wall
musculature from healing completely, increasing the risk for umbilical hernias during the growing
phase. The prevalence rate of umbilical hernias in the swine industry is approximately 1%.
Preventing infections of the umbilical stump at birth through the use of antiseptic compounds is the
most common approach for producers to attempt to decrease the prevalence of umbilical hernias,
and tincture of iodine is the most commonly used antiseptic for this purpose. In 2007, the Drig
Enforcement Administration listed iodine under the Controlled Substances Act. This regulation has
made it difficult to obtain anything greater than 2% tincture of iodine. Trisodium citrate is a
component of recently developed, commercially available umbilical dip (NavelShield Navel Dip;
Zurez Pharmagra LLC, Middleton, Wisconsin). It is a non-iodine formulation that provides a wide
spectrum of germicidal activity. The nisin dry dip was developed in efforts to increase drying and
healing time of umbilicus tissue. In pigs, nisin has effective antimicrobial activity against
Streptococcus suis, a major worldwide swine pathogen associated with meningitis, arthritis,
pneumonia and septicaemia. The nisin compound was mixed in a talc base because talc is relatively
biologically inert and absorbs moisture without caking.
The objective of this project was to compare three antiseptics (2% iodine, 10% trisodium citrate and
a nisin based product) to no antiseptic treatment and determine their impact on umbilical healing
and 24-and 48-hour infection rates in piglets in a field trial.

Materials and Methods

This study was approved by the Iowa State University IACUC committee.
A total of 470 mixed-sex commercial piglets (PIC 1050 sow x Danbred 600 sire; average birth weight,
1.15kg; standard error, 0.33kg) from a breed-to-wean sow farm were enrolled in this study. Piglets
received small ear tags that identified treatment groups. Sows were housed in farrowing stalls (2.1m
x0.91m). the piglet areas was 0.6 m x 1.8 m on each side of the farrowing stall, with a heat lamp 0.7
m above the floor surface and one rubber mat on the floor underneath the lamp.
Piglets were randomly assigned by alternating the four treatments across birth order within a litter:
2% iodine (n=116); 10% trisodium citrate (n=119); a novel dry dip created using an antibacterial
peptide (nisin) mixed with talc (formuation concentration = 3.105g nisin per 100 g talc on a weight
per weight basis (n=117); and no treatment (n=118). Piglet umbilical cords were dipped within one
hour of birth using a small disposable cup filled with the antiseptic. Treatments were applied to the
umbilical cord tissue and the umbilical stump for 5 seconds to ensure consistency of application
between treatments and to ensure that the vulnerable opening of the cors was thoroughly
disinfected.
At the end of the farrowing period, stall conditions of the farrowing area behind the sow and the next
to the sow on the rubber mat in each individual stall were evaluated on a wet-dry 3 point scale
(1=<10% wet, 2=10% to 70% wet, and 3=>70% dirty). Prior to initial dipping, diameter of each
umbilical cord just distal to the abdomen, at the widest width of the cord, was determined using
digital calipers (Mitutoyo 500-197-30 Absolute Digita Caliper, Aurora, Illinois0 at birth and 24± 1
hours of age as an indicator of cord drying and healing. As a potential indicator of early umbilical
infection, surface temperature of the umbilical stump (along with a reference point at the midpoint
of the sternum) was measured using a dual laser infrared thermomter (Model 42570; Ectech
Instruments, nashua, New Hampshire). The infrared temperature measurements were obtained at
birth, at 24±1 hours of age, and at 48 hours of age, in addition, redness and swelling of the umbilical
stump were evaluated visually at both 24 and 48 hours. Redness was recorded as either being present
or not present, minimal or clinically significant. Piglets were available for this trial for only the first
48 hours of life.
All data were analysed using PTOC UNIVARIATE produce of SAS to determine normality of
distribution. All data were further analysed using mixed linear regression (PROC MIXED; SAS Version
9.3, SAS Institute Inc.,Cary, North Carolina). All models included the fixed effects of the umbilical
diameter at birth, sex (female or male piglets), stall conditions and treatment. Orthogonal contrasts
were used to determine differences in the rate of healing and incidence of infection between piglets
with untreated umbilical cords and those that were treated with antiseptics, as well as differences
among the antiseptic treatments. All values reported are least square means. Significance was
declared at P<.05.
Results
Variations in stall conditions at birth in this study had no effect on healing of the umbilical stump or
umbilical infection in the piglets (P>.05). Mean stall cleanliness score at farrowing was 2.1 ±0.7, while
mean stall dryness score at farrowing was 1.6 ± 0.6. Mean diameter of umbilical cord for all piglets
was 6.60 mm at birth and decreased to a mean of 3.25 mm at 24 hours of age. Additionally, 32.6% of
piglets had an umbilical cord that had healed to the point of separation from the body at 48 hours of
age. There were no observed treatment differences 9P>.05 for umbilical cord drying and healing
(Table 1). There were no observed umbilical infections (as indicated by elevated umbilical stump
surface temperature) in piglets within the first 48 hours. In addition, no umbilical infections were
observed (as indicated by redness and swelling measurements at 24 hours and 48 hours) in any of
the piglets within the first 48 hours of life.
Discussion
Despite the perceived importance of umbilical cord care after birth for potentially reducing the
incidence of umbilical hernias, very few randomized trials have evaluated umbilical cord care and
antiseptic use in production animal settings. In one epidemiological study using dairy calves, risk of
calf mortality was significantly lower following use of chlohexidine than after use of iodine or no cord
care, while iodine tended to increase mortality risk. In a more recent study, Robinson et al reported
no differences between umbilical antiseptic treatments (7% iodine, 10% trisodium citrate, 4%
chlorhexidine, and 1000 mmol per L chlorine) for enhancing healing or reducing the incidence of
infection in Jersey calves in a clean, dry environment. However, an important consideration when
comparing across species is that calves have a much larger umbilical cord than do piglets, which may
affect both healing time and risk of infection.
However, the findings of this study with piglets indicated that appropriate antimicrobial solutions
applied to the umbilical cord within 1 hour of birth did not affect umbilical infection rate in the first
48 hours of life. There were no observed differences between any of the treatments tested for
decreasing the incidence of omphalitis in new born piglets. In fact, there were no clinical umbilical
infections observed in any piglets in this trial, whether they were treated with antiseptic or remained
untreated. Umbilical infections often occur after 2 days of age; however we were able to observe
piglets only during the first 48 hours. These data suggest that dipping the piglet umbilical cod with
an antiseptic within an hour of birth does not affect the incidence of umbilical infection or healing
within the first 48 hours of life piglets are kept in a clean, dry environment. Because no infections
were observed during this time period, we were unable to validate the usefulness of surface
temperature for detecting umbilical infections in newborn piglets. Validation of the infrared surface
temperature thermometer for detecting infections has yielded mixed redults in previous studies.
Each antiseptic used in this trial has a different mode of action. Iodine rapidly penetrates into
microorganisms and attacks key groups of proteins, nucleotides, and fatty acids, which culminates in
cell death. Trisodium citrate affects Mg2+ binding binding and removal of Ca2+ from the surrounding
milieu of microorganisms that confers antimicrobial properties, as Ca2+ may regulate survival of
microbes. Nisin is generally more active on gram-positive than on gram-negative bacteria, and its
bactericidal effect is exerted at the cytoplasmic membrane. Nisin kills susceptible bacteria through a
multi-step process that destabilizes the phospholipid bilayer of the cell and creates transient pores.
Nisin is a small amphiphilic peptide that is cationic at neutral pH. It has been shown to adsorb to
surfaces, maintain in activity, and kill cells that have adhered into vitro. Bisin is a safe chemical to use
for food animal treatment according to FDA Code of Federal Regulation listing nisin as a Generally
Recognized As Safe (GRAS) substance. In addition, for the purposes of this trial, nisin was mixed with
talc to absorb and help increase the drying and necrosis time of the umbilical tissue, thus decreasing
the availability of a potential route for pathogen entry.
The current study also evaluated a potentially novel technique for assessing early signs of infection
using the surface temperature of the umbilicus area compared to the sternal temperature (as
determined using infrared technology). An increase in umbilical stump temperature when compared
to the sternal temperature, combined with a tender umbilical stump, may indicate the presence of an
infection. Similar approaches using infrared technology has been used to diagnose infection in human
medical applications. The application of this technology has the potential to be used in detecting
subclinical umbilical infections, but could not be validated in this study. Sternal temperature was
used as a reference point for normal body temperature. Umbilical stump temperatures were lower
than sternal temperatures at birth in all piglets (n=470) due to decreased blood flow to that area
associated with healing. This may have been because of low ambient temperature in the pen areas
where the piglets were born, diverting blood flow away from non-essential areas and reducing
umbilical stump temperature.
In addition, the use of digital calipers to measure the diameter of the umbilical cord may be useful to
assess healing rate of the cord. A decrease in the diameter of the cord indicates that the umbilical
cord is desiccating and the stump is healing.
In conclusion, there was no benefit to using an antiseptic treatment on piglet umbilical cords for
improving healing or reducing the incidence of infections during the first 48 hours of life under the
clean, dry stall conditions that were present in this study. Several management and environmental
factors specific to this study may have affected the association between disinfectants, infection rate,
and cord healing. Piglets in this study originated from a single farm, were born during the same
season, and were housed in temperature-controlled facilities. In addition, piglets were removed from
the study at 48 hours of age, and there may have been differences in infection rate after that time
point.

REFERENCES
Nielsen NC, Riising HJ, Larsen, Jl, Bille N, Svendsen J. preweaning mortality in pigs. Acute septecemia.
Nord Vet Med. 1975;27: 129-139
Blackwell T, hayes R, Charbonneau G. Umbilical hernias: problems for pigs, producers and packers.
Pig Chat News Letter. 2007;104
Spicer EM. Preweaning mortality. In: Straw BE, Zimmerman JJ, D’Allaire S, Taylor DJ, eds. Diseases of
Swine 9th ed. Ames, Iowa: John Wiley and Sons; 2006:993-1009
Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). Changes in the Regulation of Iodine Crystals and Chemical
Mixtures Containing Over 2.2 percent iodine. 2007.
Zurex Pharmagra Brochure. 2012.
LeBela G, Pichea F, Frenettea M, Gottschalk m, Grenier D, Antimicrobial activity of nisin against the
swine pathogen Streptococcus suis and its synergistic interaction with antibiotics. Peptides,
2013;50:19-23
FDA Food and Drug Administration. Talc. 2014
Waltner-Toews D, martin SW, Meek AH. Dairy calf management, morbidity and mortality in Ontario
Holstein herds. IV. Association of management with mortality. Prev Vet Med. 1986;4:159-171.
McDonell G, Russell AD. Antiseptics and disinfectants: Activity, action, and resistance. Clin Microbiol
Re. 1999;12:147-179
Lubelski J, Rink R, Khusainov R, Moll GN, Kuipers OP. biosynthesis, immunity, regulation, mode of
action and engineering of the model antibiotic nisin. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2008;65:455-476.
 Determining Feeder Space Allowance across Feed Forms and Water
Availability in the Feeder for Growing-Finishing Pigs

Optimal feeder space allowance should not only maintain performance and welfare of pigs, but
should also achieve the maximal potential of the feeder. When attempting to determine optimal
feeder space allowance, researchers have opted to assign arbitrary pig-to-feeder space ratios and
concluded their findings exclusively on the basis of these selected ratios. In fact, the maximum
potential of a feeder, which is defined as the maximal number of pigs that can be fed from it, is
primarily a reflection of the total amount of time that each pigs needs to spend eating on a daily basis
(total eating time). Many factors affect the amount of time needed for pigs to consume their feed, such
as feed form (mash versus pelleted), availability of water in the feeder (dry versus wet-dry), body
weight and age, and eating behavior of the pigs. The optimal feeder space allowance, which is defined
as the maximal number of pigs sharing one feeding space without reduction in performance and
well-being of the pigs, may vary with these influencing factors. Consequently, it is difficult for
researchers to arbitrarily select pig-to-feeder space ratios in order to identify the ideal ratio and the
optimal feeder space allowance for pigs at different production settings. The “ideal way” to determine
how many pigs can be fed from a single-space feeder is to keep increasing the number of pigs until it
results in a drop in productivity or eating time. This type of testing is expensive and time consuming.
However, if a standard test could be developed, it would prove to be invaluable for both researchers
and producers. That is, researchers could employ the test to investigate optimal feeder space
allowance for pigs under different production settings, and producers could perform the test on farm
to determine the maximal potential of existing feeders. The goal of this study was to develop and
validate such a standard test. It was hypothesized that pigs might change their total eating time as
they grow, and with feed form and water availability in the feeder provided, consequently changing
feeder occupancy rate (percentage of the cumulated time period that a feeder is occupied by pigs
over a 24-hour period) and optimal feeder space allowance. The objectives of this study were to
determine total eating time in pigs fed mash or pelleted diets from feeders with or without a water
source in the feeder (dry or wet-dry) during both growing and finishing phases; to estimate feeder
occupancy rates on the basis of total eating time; and to evaluate effects of feeder occupancy rates on
eating behaviour and growth performance of pigs. Eventually, the optimal feeder space allowances
that do not limit eating behavior, feed intake, or growth, while maintaining the maximum feed
occupancy rate, were estimated.

Materials and Methods

The study was conducted on the 600-sow faro-to-finish facility of the research farm of the Prairie
Swine Center in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada. The University Committee of Animal Care and
Supply of the University of Saskatchewan reviewed and approved the protocol to this study to ensure
adherence to the guidelines of Canadian Council on Animal Care.
Trial 1
The first trial was determine the total amount of time that a single-space feeder in inuse by small
groups of pigs fed diets in different forms (mash vs pelted) from feeders with or without a water
source in the feeder (dry vs wet-dry). The data were extrapolated to estimate feeder occupancy rate
for pigs that were provided with each combination of feed form and water availability in the feeder.
Ninety-six pigs (body weight mean ±standard deviation (SD) 21.4±2.40 kg; PIC Canada Ltd, Winnipeg,
Manitoba) were weighed individually, sorted and assigned to eight pens on fully slatted floors, each
pen providing 12.2 m2 (1.0 m2 per pig), excluding space occupied by the feeder. Pigs were randomly
allotted (by random number generator) within sex and weight categories such that each pen housed
six barrows and six gilts, and the average weight and variation in weight within each pen were
similar. Two pens were then randomly assigned (by random number generator) to each of four
treatment combinations: mash diets fed from a dry feeder (DM), mash diets fed from a wet-dry feeder
(WM), pelleted diets fed from a dry feeder (DP), and pelleted diets fed from a wet-dry feeder (WP).
Both the dry and wet-dry feeders were single-space, shelf-type feeders (Crystal Spring, Model #
F2000; St Agatha, Manitoba, Canada) for growing-finishing pigs, as described by Gonyou and Lou.
The dry feeders had the same design as the wet-dry feeders except that there was no nipple drinker
in the dry feeder. Both the dry and wet-dry feeders provided feed access, by means of gravity, on a
shelf approximately 25 cm above the feeder pan. The area of the feeder pan measured 38 cm x 38 cm
for all feeders. Pigs had ad libitum to a barley and soybean-meal-based diet in a two-phase feeding
program formulated according to National Research Council (NRC) standards. For the initial 6 weeks
of the trial (growing phase; initial weight (±SD)=21.4 ±2.40 kg, end weight = 59.4±4.91kg), the diet
was formulated to contain 3.26 Mcal digestible energy (DE) per kg and 16.8% crude protein (CP).
The diet for the second phase (finishing phase; initial weight =59.4±4.91 kg, final weight = 100.0±9.66
kg) was formulated to contain 3.21 Mcal DE per kg and 16.1% CP. Pens with a dry feeder had one
nipple drinker on the wall opposite the feeder. For pens with a wet-dry feeder, the only source of
water was one water nipple located in the feeder, and no additional drinker was provided. Pigs were
housed in the same mechanically ventilated room. Temperature in the room was controlled to the
thermo neutral zones for pigs. Light period was 12 hours daily. Room temperature, feeders, drinkers,
and animal health were checked twice daily, in the morning and afternoon. Feed added to the feeders
was recorded on a pen basis. Remaining feed and individual pigs in each pen were weighed every 2
weeks, from which average daily gain (ADG) and average daily feed intake (ADFI) were calculated.
When pigs were removed from the trial, the date and reason for removal were recorder.
When pigs weighed between 35 and 45 kg during the growing phase, the feeder area in each pen was
video-recorded for two consecutive 24-hour periods. Within each pen, pigs’ activities were video-
recorded by two cameras (Panasonic WV-BP120; Osaka, Japan) installed above the feeder, a quad
input device (Panasonic AG-6730; recording 10 images per second). A second set of video recordings
was taken for two consecutive 24-hour periods in the finishing phase, when the pigs weighed
between 90 and 100 kg, to determine the effect of pig size on time spent eating and to determine the
effect of pig size on time spent was consistent across the treatments. During video-recording periods,
the normal lighting schedule was maintained; however, supplemental low-level light (a 40 watt light
bulb) was used to illuminate the feeder area to assist video-recording. The video-recordings were
analysed using instantaneous sampling at 5-minute intervals in order to determine time spent eating.
All data were summarized and expressed as total eating time per day per pig. Eating was defined as
a pig having its head in the feeder. Eating rate was calculated for each pen on the basis of ADFI and
total eating time.
Table 1: Total eating time and estimated feeder occupancy rate of growing and finishing pigs when
eating different forms of feed (mash versus pelleted) from single-space feeders with or without
presence of water in the feeder (dry versus wet-dry feeders)*

Mash Pellets
Dry Wet Dry Dry Wet-dry SEM
No. pens 2 2 2 2 NA
No. pigs per pen 12 12 12 12 NA
Total eating time (min/pig/d)
Growing pigs 106.5 72.5 75.9 78.6 4.6
Finishing pigs 105.7 63.5 65.2 64.6 4.6
Estimated feed occupancy rate (%)
Growing pigs 88.8 60.4 63.3 65.5 3.8
Finishing pigs 88.1 52.9 54.3 53.8 3.8
*Pigs in each pen were video-recorded for 2 consecutive 24-hour periods
SEM- standard error of the mean; NA-not applicable, descriptive variables; min-minutes; d- day.
Trial 2
Using the behavior data collected from Trial 1 (Table 1), the number of pigs required to create various
levels of feeder occupancy rate under each previously outlined feeding condition was calculated.
Feeder occupancy were estimated using equation.
Feeder occupancy rate (%) = number of pigs in the pen x total eating time (minutes per pig per
day)/ (24 hours x 60 minutes) x 100%

The feeder occupancy rate was defined as 100% when the feeder was expected to be used 24 hours
a day by the pigs. In other words, 100% feeder occupancy rate means that the single space feeder
was occupied by a pig at any given time over a 24-hour period. During the growing phase, the lowest
level of feeder stocking capacity was maintained at 12 pigs per feeder (referred to as the “standard
feeder occupancy rate” (Table 2) for all the combinations of feed form and water availability in the
feeder, in order to verify results from Trial 1. This standard occupancy rate was equivalent to
approximately 88%, 60%, 63% and 65% feeder occupancy rate for DM, WM, DP and WP diet
treatments, respectively. In addition to the standard occupancy rate, three feeder occupancy rates of
approximately 95%, 110% and 125% for each combination of feed form and water availability were
included to evaluate the optimal feeder space allowance during the growing phase. During the
finishing phase, feeder occupancy rates were reduced to approximately 80%, 103% and 125% for
the DM, WM, and DP treatments due to barn space restrictions. For the same reason, only feeder
occupancy rates of 80% and 125% were represented in the WP treatment. Feeder occupancy rates
exceeding 100% were tested in anticipation that pigs would to some degree, adapt to feeder
crowding by eating faster and to ensure that the highest occupancy rates would result in reduced
productivity. During the finishing phase, all combinations of feed form and water availability in the
feeder included a feeder occupancy rate of 80%, allowing a comparison of feed form and water
availability in the feeder treatments under uncrowded feeding condition. Table 2 outlines the
number of pigs used to generate estimated feeder occupancy rates for each combination of feed form
and water availability in the feeder during both growing and finishing phases. Pigs were from the
same source as for Trial 1.
To evaluate effect of feeder occupancy rate on eating behavior and growth performance of pigs, two
identical grower-finisher rooms were used for Trial 2, with each treatment combination represented
in both rooms. The rooms had fully slatted floors, were mechanically ventilated to achieve
thermoneutral conditions, and were managed as in Trial 1. Pen size varied with the number of pigs
in the pen such that each pig had the same floor space allowance. Floor space allowance was
calculated on the basis of the predicted final weight of the pigs in that growth phase using this
equation;
Floor are (m2) = 0.035 x BW (kg) 0.667
The resulting floor space allowance was 0.54m2 and 0.76m2 per pig for the growing and finishing
phases, respectively. Feeders were the same as those used in Trial 1. As in Trial 1, pens with a wet-
dry feeder had one water nipple in the feeder as their only water source, while pens with a dry feeder
were equipped with two nipple drinkers located on the opposite side of the pen from the feeder. Feed
formulation was the same as in Trial 1 and remained consistent across treatments.
Five hundred and sixty pigs (21.3 ±3.43 kg) without visible signs of compromised health were
randomly assigned (by random number generator) within each pen were similar at the beginning of
the growing phase. The numbers of barrows and gilts within a pen were equal when total pig number
was even, or differed by one when total number was odd. Two pens were randomly assigned (by
random number generator) to each treatment combination (feeder occupancy rate x feed form x
water availability in the feeder) for both growing and finishing phases. Pigs remained in the growing
phase for 6 weeks. The pigs were then weighed individually and sorted sex and weight. Among them,
454 pigs (60.6 ± 7.14kg) without obvious signs of compromised health were selected for data
collection in the finishing phase. These pigs were allocated randomly (using random number
generator) within sex and weight categories to each treatment pen without consideration of previous
treatment during the growing phase. The treatments for the finishing phase were continued for only
4 weeks (final weight of pigs = 92.8±9.66kg) due to restrictions of barn space. Feed was weighed as
it was added to the feeders in a pen basis. Individual pigs and any remaining feed in each pen were
weighing every 3 weeks during the finishing phase and every 2 weeks during the finishing phase.
During the growing phase, when pigs reached between 35 and 45 kg, all feeders were video-recorded
for two consecutive 24-hour periods, as in Trial 1. During the third week of the finishing phase, when
the pigs weighed between 75 and 85 kg, feeders were again video recorded for 2 consecutive 24-hour
periods. As in Trial 1, video recording were analysed using instantaneous samoling at 5 minute
intervals in order to determine total eating time.
Data Analysis

All data were analysed using mixed linear regression and using the Mixed and Glimmiz
procedures of SAS (SAS Institute Inc, Cary, North Carolina), with pen as the experimental
unit. Two separate analyses were conducted. The first analysis examined effects of feed form
and water availability in the feeder on total eating time of pigs under the standard (growing
phase) or 80% capacity (finishing phase). For this purpose, data from both Trial 1 and Trial
2 were used. For the growing phase, all pens containing 12 pigs were included in the analysis.
For the finishing phase, the data from pens containing 12 pigs in Trial 1 and pens with 80%
feeder stocking capacity in Trial 2 were used. Initial analyses were conducted to compare
differences were conducted compare differences in eating behavior and growth
performance between the 2 trials. No significant differences were detected (all P>.10), and
the data from the 2 trials were combined. The model included feed form, water availability
in the feeder, and their interaction as fixed effects, with trial and room serving as random
effects. The second analysis was conducted to evaluate the effect of feeder occupancy rate on
pigs under each combination of feed form and water availability in the feeder. In this case,
only data from Trial 2 were used. The same model, but separate analyses, were conducted
for the growing and finishing phases, respectively. The model included feeder occupancy
rate, feed form, water availability in the feeder, and their interaction as fixed effects with
room as the random effect. Differences between means were tested by PDIF using a Tukey
test with adjustment for multiple comparisons. Significant differences were identified at
P<.05 and trends at P<.10.
Results
A total of pigs from three pens were removed from Trial 1, and 15 pigs from 12 pens were
removed from Trial 2 due to compromised health, with no more than two pigs removed per
pen. There was no evidence that the number of pigs removed from the study was associated
with feed form water availability in the feeder, or feeder stocking capacity treatments.
Effects of feed form and water availability in the feeder
The P values for effects of feeder occupancy rate, feed form, and water availability in the
feeder for both the growing and finishing phases.
Growing phase: Across feed form and water availability in the feeder combinations, an
increase in feeder occupancy rate led to a decrease in ADG (P<.001). Feeder occupancy rate
interacted with water availability in the feeder to influence ADG (P<.05). Pigs using wet-dry
feeders had a larger decrease in ADG (from 0.812 kg at 80% feeder occupancy rate to 0.680
kg at 125% feeder occupancy rate, SEM (standard error of the mean)= 0.013; P<.001) than
those using dry feeders (from 0.773 kg at 80% feeder occupancy rate to 0.707 kg at 125%
feeder occupancy rate, SEM=0.013; P<.05) as feeder occupancy rate increased. There was no
interactive effect of feeder occupancy rate and feed form on ADG.
Overall, ADFI decreases when feeder occupancy rate increased from 80% to 125% (P<.001).
There was no interactive effect of feeder occupancy rate and feed form or water availability
in the feeder on ADFI. Feeder occupancy rate did not affect gain:feed, and there was no
interactive effect of feeder occupancy rate and feed form or water availability in the feeder
on feed efficiency.
As feeder occupancy rate increased, total eating time increased (P<.001). Feeder occupancy
rate did not interact with feed form, but tended to interact with water availability in the
feeder (P<.10) with an effect on total eating time. Pigs using dry feeders tended to have larger
reduction in total eating time than pigs using wet-dry feeders as feeder occupancy rate
increased. An increase in feeder occupancy rate tended (P<.10) to increase eating rate. There
was no interaction of feeder occupancy rate with feed form or water availability in the feeder,
Finishing phase: Across feed forms and water availability in the feeder, ADG decreased
when feeder occupancy rate increased (P<.001). Feeder occupancy rate interacted with
water availability in the feeder (P<.01) to influence ADG. As feeder occupancy rate increased,
pigs using wet-dry feeders had a larger reduction in ADG 0.989, 0.653, and 0.608 kg at 80%,
103% and 125% feeder occupancy rate, respectively, SEM=0.029; P<.001) than those using
dry feeders (0.893, 0.835, and 0.726 kg at 80%, 103% and 1255 feeder occupancy rate,
respectively, SEM = 0.029; P<.01; means with no common superscript differ).
Across feed form and water availability in the feeder combinations, ADFI decreased (P<.001)
as feeder occupancy rate increased. Feeder occupancy rate tended (P=.052) to interact with
feed form to influence ADFI, with pigs fed mash diets tending to have larger reduction in
ADFI than pigs fed pelleted diets as feeder occupancy rate increases. Feed efficiency was not
affected by feeder occupancy rate.
Total eating time decreased (P<.001) as feeder occupancy rate increased across feed forms
and water availability in the feeder. Feeder occupancy rate interacted (P<.05) with feed form.
Pigs fed mash diets had a larger decrease in total eating time than pigs fed pelleted diets as
feeder occupancy rate increased. Feeder occupancy rate tended (P=.051) to interact with
water availability in the feeder occupancy rate increased, pigs using dry feeders tended to
have larger decrease in total eating time than pigs using wet-dry feeders. Feed occupancy
rate did not affect eating rate in finishing pigs.
Discussion
In this study, we explored a novel method of determination of feeder space allowance for
pigs. This method emphasizes that, in order for researchers to identify the optimal feeder
space allowance, the treatment levels of feeder space to be examined should be based on the
eating behavior of the pigs, and then feeder occupancy rate can be determined using small
groups of pigs under uncrowded feeding conditions. On the basis of results of previous
studies, 12 pigs eating from a single-space feeder were chosen for the uncrowded feeding
condition. Gonyu and Lou demonstrated that there was no difference in growth performance
when 12 pigs were fed from a single-space dry feeder versus a single-space-wet-dry-feeder,
or from a single space feeder versus a double-space feeder. Likewise, Hyun and Ellis reported
that there was no difference in growth performance between eight pigs and 12 pigs fed from
a single-space feeder. Hyun and Ellis also demonstrated that when 12 pigs were fed mash
diets from a dry feeder, they occupied the feeder 83% of the time during the growing period,
and 74% of the time during the finishing period. Pigs may spend less time eating and have a
lower occupancy rate of the feeder when provided pelted wet-dry diets than when provided
dry mash diets. As a result, the uncrowded feeding condition was designed at approximately
80% or lower feeder occupancy rate across feed form and feeder design treatments in this
study. Accordingly, both 12 pigs per single-space feeder and 80% feeder occupancy rate
were considered uncrowded feeding conditions.
The interactive effect of feed form and water availability in the feeder on eating behavior and
growth performance were determined during both growing and finishing phases. The
performance data were consistent with previous findings that pigs fed from wet-dry feeders
had higher ADG and ADFI than did those fed from dry feeders. By testing a wide variety of
feeders, Gonyou and Lou found that wet-dry feeders consistently produced pigs with higher
ADG and ADFI than dry feeders, indicating the improved productivity was likely due to the
provision of water at the feeder. Berstrom et al demonstrated that the benefit of wet-dry
feeders to improve ADG in pigs was diminished when the same wet-dry feeders were used
as dry feeders (water source removed). An interactive effect between feed form and water
availability in the feeder on ADG and ADFI in growing pigs was observed in the current study,
that is, wet-dry feeders increased ADG and ADFI when pigs were fed mash diets, but not
when pigs were fed pelleted diets. This interaction could be attributable to several factors.
One factor could be the increased feed wastage by pigs fed a dry mash diet. When feeding a
mash diet, water consumption is much higher than when feeding more often in order to
drink. This interrupted feeding leads to an increase in the number of times the pigs enters
and exits the feeder, increasing the chance of more feed being wasted. In contrast, a wet-dry
feeder allows pig to either mix feed with water before eating (the water thereby acting as a
lubricant) or drink while eating at the feeder because water is at the feed source.
Either way, this will decrease feed wastage and the number of times that the pig must exit
the feeder. A pelleted diet, even fed from a dry feeder, presumably does not become sticky,
according to our on-farm observations, so the pigs is more likely to eat without having to
interrupt its meal with many drinks, decreasing the total time required for eating and
decreasing feed wastage and the number of feeder exits.
The current study demonstrated that both feed form and water availability in the feeder
affected total eating time, and consequently, feeder occupancy rate. Pigs fed mash diets spent
more time eating than did pigs fed pelleted diets. The provision of water at the feeder
reduced total eating time, especially in pigs fed mash diets. In agreement with our results,
Laitat et al noted that pigs fed a dry pelted diet had a shorter total eating time than those fed
a dry mash diet. Gonyou and Lou reported a 17% decrease in total eating time when water
was made available at the feeder and mash diets were fed. In agreement with Laitat et al,
results of the current study suggested that water availability at the feeder had more impact
on eating time when pigs were fed mash diets rather than pelleted diets. With this
information and the data from the current study, it can be inferred that when pelleted diets
are fed, eating behavior is less influenced by the presence of water within the feeder than
when mash diets are fed. The possible reasons for this are similar to the rationale for changes
in productivity. That is, the stickiness of the mass diet necessitates an increase in water
consumption, thereby adding time to the meal by increasing the number of intra-meal
intervals. When water is provided at the feeder intra-meal intervals would be dramatically
decreased when a mash diet is fed. The fact that consumption of pelted diets requires less
water likely shortens total eating time by decreasing the number of visits to the feeder
required to finish a single meal. It is also true that pigs can consume dry pelted diets at a
faster rate than dry mash diets, and these effects may be additive. So if pigs can eat pelleted
diets faster without requiring frequent water breaks, it would seem to follow that the
dramatic effect of a wet-dry feeder on mash diets would not be seen when a pelleted diet is
fed.
Due to these effects on total eating time, the number of pigs needed to generate a designated
level of feeder space allowance differs depending on the feed form and water availability in
the feeder, for example, according to results of this study, 11 finishing pigs will be needed to
generate 80% feed occupancy rate for a single-space feeder when DM diets are fed, whereas
18 pigs will be needed when WM diets are fed. In addition, since pigs spent more time eating
DM diets, increasing the number of pigs per feeder occupancy rate, compared with that when
pigs are eating other diets. Using the traditional method of assigning fixed pig-to-feeder-
space ratios to evaluate feeder space allowance when pigs are eating different forms of feed
from feeders with or without the presence of water in the feeder will result in differences in
feeder occupancy rate, which consequently may change the eating behavior of the pigs and
might result in misleading conclusions. In contrast, the method explored in this study
suggests that different pig-to-feeder-space ratios should be based on the feed form and water
availability in the feeder.
This study further confirmed that pigs eat faster as they grow. Although finishing pigs had
higher ADFI, they spent similar or shorter time eating, depending on the feed form and water
availability in the feeder, than is spent by growing pigs. As a result, depending on feed form
and water availability in the feeder, 17 to 25 pigs were needed during the growing phase,
whereas 18 to 28 pigs were needed during the finishing phase, to design 125% feeder
occupancy rate in the current study. By using designed levels of feeder occupancy rate
instead of a set number of pigs per feeder space, the extent to which pigs could adapt their
eating patterns to crowding at the feeder and the influence of feed form and water
availability in the feeder on this ability could be examined.
Across all feed forms and water availability in the feeder treatment, ADG was great,ly
reduced during both growing and finishing phases as feeder occupancy rate increased.
However, pigs fed different forms of feed from feeders with or without water source in the
feeder responded differently to the increase in feeder occupancy rate. In general, pigs fed
WM diets showed the greatest response, followed by pigs fed WP diets during both growing
and finishing phases. In contrast, pigs fed DM diets were not significantly affected by an
increase in feeder occupancy. It is possible that, while the estimated feeder occupancy rate
remained the same, small group sixes for the dry mash treatment allowed these pigs to be
more flexible in modifying their eating behavior to maintain growth performance. This is
supported by the fact that, in the current study, although total eating time decreased
significantly regardless, of feed form or water availability in the feeder, a pig fed a DM diet at
125% feeder occupancy rate still spent approximately 25 minutes per day longer eating than
did pigs on any other treatment at the same feeder occupancy rate. Nielsen et al found that
pigs stocked at 5,10, 15, or 20 per feeder space and fed a dry mash diet had remarkably
different eating behaviors, such as the number of feeder visits, duration of feeder visits, and
diurnal patterns of feeder visits, but they had similar growth performance, such as ADFI, ADG
and feed efficiency. These results suggests that pigs may be able to adapt their eating
behavior to feeder occupancy rate and maintain growth performance when there are not
many pigs for each feeder space. However, the number of pigs per feeder space may have
been limited in the previous study and larger numbers of pigs per feeder space may subject
pigs to more limitations that restrict their adaptability to increased feeder occupancy. In
other words, with a large number of pigs sharing single feeding space, not all pigs may gain
access to the feeder or achieve desired feed intake. That might be why a dramatic decrease
in ADG was observed in pigs fed other diets, but not a DM diet. Regardless of the interaction
between feed form and water availability in the feeder, pigs tended to perform better when
feeder occupancy rate was maintained lower than 100%. In addition, in the current study,
across all combinations of feed form and water availability in the feeder, total eating time
tended to decrease when feeder occupancy rate reached above 80%, indicating that pigs
were not given enough time to eat. These results suggest that pigs have limited ability to
adapt their eating behavior to high occupancy rates of the feeder in order to maintain feed
intake and growth. This is further supported by the eating-rate data from the current study.
As feed occupancy rate increased, increases in eating rate were not significant, regardless of
feed form or water availability in the feeder. Collectively, results of the current study suggest
that an 80% feeder occupancy rate should be recommended to maintain both growth
performance and welfare of pigs, regardless of the size of pigs, feed form, or feeder design.
Implications
 Under the conditions of this study, when testing levels of feeder space allowance and
identifying the optimum, the designated number of pigs per feeder space should be
determined according to the eating behavior of the pigs and the feeder occupancy rate
under different production settings.
 Both feed form and water availability within the feeder affect eating behavior, and
consequently affect feeder occupancy rate.
 To maintain growth performance and allow enough time for pigs to eat their desired
amount of feed, 80% feeder occupancy rate is recommended for pigs during both
growing and finishing phases.
References
Hyun Y, Ellis M. effect of group size and feeder type on growth performance and feeding
patterns in growing pigs. J Anim. Sci. 2001; 79:803-810
Rasmussen DK, Weber R, Wechsler B. performance, lean meat production and behavior
of fattening pigs given a liquid diet at different animal/feeding place ratios. Animal Sci.
2006;82: 575-580
Averos X, Brossard L, Dourmad JY, de Greef KH, Edwards SA, Meunier-Salaun MC. Meta-
analysis on the effects of the physical environment, animal traits, feeder and feed
characteristics on the feeding behavior and performance of growing-finishing pigs
Animal. 2012;6:1275-1289
Laitat M, vandenheede M, Desiron A, Canar B, Nicks B. Influence of diet form (pellets or
meal) on the optimal number of weaned pigs per feeding space. J Swine Health Prod.
2004; 12:288-295
Gonyou HW, Lou Z. Effects of eating space and availability of water in feeders on
productivity and eating behavior of grower/finisher pigs. J Anim. Sci. 2000; 78: 856-870
Bergstroom JR, Nelssen JL, Tokach MD, Dritz SS, Goodband RD, DeRouchey JM. The effects
of feeder design and dietary dried distillers grains with solubles on the performance and
carcass characteristics of finishing pigs. J Anim. Sci. 2014;92:3591-3597
Hyun Y, Ellis M. Effect of group size and feeder type on growth performance and feeding
patterns in finishing pigs. J Anim. Sci. 2002;80:568-578
Ruw WM, Soler J, Tibau J, Reixach J, Gomez Raya L. Feeding time and feeding rate and its
relationship with feed intake, feed efficiency, growth rate, and rate of fat deposition in
growing Duroc barrows. J Anim. Sci. 2006;84: 3404-3409
Young JM, Cai W, Dekkers JCM. Effect of selection for residual feed intake on feeding
behavior and daily feed intake patterns in Yorkshire swine. J Anim. Sci. 2011;89 639-647
Canadian Council on Animal Care. CCAC guidelines on the care and use of farm animals
in research, teaching and testing. 2009.
Bruce JM, Clarke JJ. Models of heat production and critical temperature for growing pigs
Anim. Prod. 1979; 28:353-369
Martin P, Bateson P. Measuring Behavior: An Introductory Guide: 2nd ed. Cambridge,
United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press; 1993;84-100
 Table 2 (Trial 2): No. of pigs per single-space feeder to estimated feeder occupancy rate
when feed was offered in different forms (mash versus pelleted) from feeders with or
without presence of water in the feeder (dry versus wet-dry)
Mash Pellets
Estimated feed occupancy rate (%)* Dry Wet-dry Dry Wet-dry
Growing pigs (No. of pigs per pen)
Standard† 12 12 12 12
95 13 19 18 17
110 15 22 21 20
125 17 25 24 23
Finishing Pigs (No. of pigs per pen)
80 11 18 18 18
103 14 23 23 ND
125 18 28 28 28
* Percent of the time that the feeder was expected to be used by pigs daily to consume the
amount of feed maximized growth performance was calculated using the equation
occupancy rate (%) = (number of pigs x total eating time (min/d/pig)/1440 min/d x
100%), where the total eating time was defined as the pig having its head in the feeder.
The estimated feeder occupancy rate was defined as 100% when the feeder was
expected to be used all the time by pigs in a pen under uncrowded feeding conditions or
when feeder access was deemed to not be limiting.
† The standard group was designed to validate results of Trial 1 using group size of 12 pigs
per single-space feeder. The estimated feeder occupancy rate was 885, 60%, 63% and
65% for pigs fed with dry mash, dry pelleted, and wet-dry pelleted diets, respectively.
ND = Not done due to restrictions of barn space.

Table 3 (Trial 1 and Trial 2): Effect of feed form (mash versus pelleted) and water availability
in the feeder (dry versus wet-dry) on performance and eating behavior of pigs using
single-space feeders*

Mash Pellets P
Parameter Dry Wet-dry Dry Wet-dry SEM Form Water availability Interaction
Growers
No. pens 4 4 4 4 NA NA NA NA
ADG(kg) 0.771b 0.848a 0.812a 0.825a 0.023 .35 <.001 <.01
ADFI(kg) 2.11 b 2.37a 2.08b 2.16b 0.055 <.01 <.01 .04
Gain:feed 0.369b 0.363b 0.393a 0.387a 0.035 .02 .48 .98
TET(min/pig/day) 106.9a 71.6b 81.8b 79.3b 2.85 <.01 <.001 <.001
ER(g/pig/min) 19.7c 33.4a 25.9b 27.2b 3.71 .99 <.001 <.001
Finishers
No. pens 4 4 4 4 NA NA NA NA
ADG (kg) 0.837c 0.924ab 0.882b 0.957a 0.047 .14 <.01 .81
ADFI (kg) 2.73b 3.06a 2.64b 2.79b 0.100 .03 <.01 .22
Gain:feed 0.207b 0.303b 0.334a 0.346a 0.025 .02 .79 .55
TET(min/pig/day) 106.5a 66.6b 67.0b 65.1b 2.98 <.001 <.001 <.001
ER(g/pig/min) 25.6b 46.7a 39.5a 43.4a 3.14 .06 <.001 <.01
*Data were derived from 12 pigs/feeder in both Trial 1 and Trial 2 for the growing phase,
and 12 pigs/feeder in Trial 1 and 80% feeder occupancy rate in Trial 2 for the finishing
phase.
†Mash versus pelleted feed
ǂ Dry versus wet-dry feeders.
SEM = standard error of the mean; ADG = average daily gain; ADFI = average daily feed
intake; gain:feed = weight gain per unit of feed intake; TET = total eating time of pigs,
referring to total amount of time that pigs spent eating daily; ER = eating rate of pigs, based
on ADFI and TET; min = minute(s); NA = not applicable, descriptive, variables.
means within a row into no common superscript differ (Tukey tests adjusted for multiple
abcd

comparisons; P<.05)
 Prevalence of Swine Gastrointestinal Parasites in Four Selected Local
Government Areas of Nasarawa State, Nigeria
G. P. Karaye, A. G. Dogo, D. Iliyasu, and H. K. Madu
Department of Parasitology and Entomology, University of Jos, NIGERIA

Department of Theriogenology and Production, University of Ilorin, NIGERIA Department

of Agricultural Technology, Federal College of Horticultural Technology. Dadain Kowa,
Gombe state. NIGERIA

Introduction
Gastrointestinal parasitic infection in swine is a major hindrance to profitable pig production
and cause of substantial reproductive loss and poor reproductive performance in swine
industry in Nigeria (Nsoso et al., 2000; Boes et al., 2000). Internal parasites are known to
deteriorate the wellbeing of pigs by robbing the essential nutrients that are required for
optimum reproduction and productivity (Esrony, et al., 1997). Prevalence of 23.4 % of
internal parasites has been reported in Morogoro region of Tanzania by (Esrony, et al., 1997).
The internal parasites is also known to injured some vital organs which play key role in
metabolic activities (Ngowi, etal., 2004). The consequences are anorexia, poor growth rate,
anaemia, emaciation, infertility and condemnation of affected organs after slaughter (Nsoso
et al., 2000; Ngowi, et al., 2004). Severe case of helminthiasis in young pigs has been reported
and is commonly associated with diarrhea, loss of electrolytes and death (Stewart and Hoyt
2006). High morbidity and mortality associated with helminthes infection compromised the
productivity and reproductive performance of pigs in Africa. (Marufu et al., 2008; Nissen et
al., 2011). Other enteric diseases which could serve as an impediment to pigs production
includes: Post weaning diarrhea, Edema disease, Salmonellosis, Entamoebiasis, Coccidiosis
and Rota viral enteritis (Silva et al., 1999). Porcine production has a high potential to
contribute to economic gains as pigs have high fecundity, high feed conversion efficiency,
early maturing, short gestation period, pigs are multiparous and relatively small space
requirement for piggery (Rekwot et al., 2003). Pigs provide about 40 % of meat as animal
protein around the globe. In spite of these advantages, diseases and poor herd health
management practices pose significant challenges to efficient management and profitable
swine production in developing countries including Nigeria (Rekwot et al., 2003; Adebisi,
2008).The sustainable development of the swine industry is faced with same constraints like
helminthiasis (Aliaga-Leyton et al., 2011). Therefore the current study is designed to identify
the common important gastro-intestinal parasites of pigs in predominant pig production
area in the four Local Government areas namely Laminga, Tammah, Nasarawa (oversea) and
Kusa of Nasarawa state, Nigeria.
Materials and Method
Study Area
Nasarawa state is centrally located in the middle belt region of Nigeria. The area lies within
latitude 8° 32′N and longitude 8° 18′E and occupied a land area of about 27, 117 square km
with total population of 20, 40097. The State is bordered with Kaduna state in the north,
Abuja, the Federal Capital Territory to the west, Kogi and Banue states to the south and
Taraba and Plateau states to the east, Agriculture is the mainstay of its economy throughout
the year it is within the North Central Geo-political zone of Nigeria. (Marcus and Bimbol,
2007).
Sample Collection
Two hundred feacal samples were collected from 4 local government area (Laminga,
Tammah, Nasarawa and Kusa) of Nasarawa state within (March- July 2015). Fifty samples
were randomly collected from pigs farms in the five local government areas considered for
the study, within 5 months of the study period. The faecal samples were collected from the
rectum of the pigs, following proper restraint, the person gloved and lubricates his hand
before inserted into the rectum and scooped some feces. The face were transferred into well
labeled polythene bags and transported under cool box at 10 °C to the Department of
Parasitology and Entomology Laboratory, at the National Veterinary Research Institute Vom,
for examination. Faecal egg count and helminths identification were determined as
described by (Ngowi, et al., 2004)
Laboratory Examination
The fecal samples were grossly examined for the presence of adult parasite. Microscopic
Examination was also carried out using direct normal saline method and Iodine method.
Direct Fecal Smear Method
A drop of (0.85 %) normal saline was placed at the centre of a clean grease free slide and a
small portion of the stool was picked by applicator stick and smear was made and covered
with a cover slip and examined under the microscope using × 10 and × 40 objectives
respectively.
Iodine Method
A drop of 1% iodine was placed at the centre of a clean grease free glass slide and a small
portion of the feces was emulsified in the drop using applicator sticks. The smear was
covered with a cover slip and examined under the microscope using × 40.
Formal Ether Sedimentation Technique
The formal ether sedimentation technique was employed to analyze the collected samples
for intestinal parasites. About 1g of faces is placed in 10ml of 10 % formol solution in a screw
capped bottle and shaken vigorously to mix then filtered with a wire sieve into a centrifuge
tube, 3- 5ml of diethyl ether was added to the supernatant. It was centrifuged at
approximately 200 × g for five minutes. A stick was used to loosen the layer of fecal debris
from the side of the tube. The tube was inverted to discard the ether, fecal debris and formol
solution. The bottom of the tube was tapped to suspend the sediment and a drop of the
sediment was placed on clean grease free glass slide and covered with cover slip and
examined microscopically using ×10 and × 40 objectives.

Result
Five species of gastrointestinal parasites were identified and the overall species prevalence
was 16.5 % and13.5 % for Ascaris suum and strongyloides while Fasciola, trichuris suis cyst
and Oesophagustomum oocyst had a prevalence of 7.5 % and 2.5 % respectively as presented
in Table 2. A prevalence of 61.5 % was observed in the 200 fecal samples analysed. Coccidian
oocyst, the only protozoan parasite encountered, had a prevalence of 14 % (Table 1). One
hundred and three (123) samples were positive for the ova of various swine helminthes
(Table 3). Laminga local government recorded the highest prevalence of 18% followed by
Tammah and Nassarawa (Oversea) Local Government areas had 17.5% and 16.5
respectively. Kusa local Government had the least prevalence of 10.5%. Based on species,
Ascaris suum had the highest prevalence of 16% followed by coccidian oocyst 14% and
Strongyloides 13.5% while Trichuris suum oocyst had the lowest prevalence of 2.5%.
Table 1: Prevalence of Intestinal Parasites of Swine in Four Selected Local Government Areas
in Nasarawa State.N=50
Location Positive Negative Prevalence
Laminga 36 14 18%
Tammah 35 15 17.5%
Nassarawa (over sea) 33 17 16.5%
Kusa 29 31 10.5%
Total 123 77 62.5%

Table 2: Distribution of Different Species of Gastrointestinal Parasites in the Fecal Samples

Swine (n=50)
Parasite species Positive Prevalence
Strongyloides 27 13.5%
Coccidian oocyst 28 14%
Ascaris ova 33 16.5%
Fasciola ova 15 7.5%
Trichuris cyst 5 2.5%
Oesophagustomum oocys 15 7.5%
Table 3: Species of Parasites Identified From the Gastro Intestine of Pigs in Four Selected
Local Government Areas in Nassarawa State
Local Govt Ascaris ova Strongyles Oocysts of Trichuris Strongyloides
Areas ova coccidian ova ova
Laminga 12 (12.0%) 8 (12.5%) 4 (20.0%) 4 (13.3%) 8 (16.6%)
Tammah 10 (10.0%) 10 (15.6%) 3 (15.0%) 3 (13.3%) 8 (16.6%)
Nasarawa 20 (20.0%) 8 (12.5%) 3 (15.0%) 3 (10.0%) 4 (8.3%)
Kusa 8(8.0%) 6 (9.4%) 0 (0.0%) 4 (13.3%) 4 (8.3%)
Total 50 32 10 15 24

Discussion
The study revealed 61.5 % prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites recorded among the pigs
from the four local government areas compared to 23.4 % prevalence reported in Tanzania
by (Esrony et al., 1997). The prevalence is significantly higher compared to 32.5 % and 50%
reported by (Sowemimo et al., 2012) and (Nwoha and Ekwurike, 2011) in pankshin, Plateau
state, and Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria respectively. But higher prevalence 91% was
reported in Burkina Faso (Tamboura et al., 2006; Obonyo, et al., 2012). The high prevalence
recorded in this study may be attributed to poor animal husbandry and biosecurity measures
in place. Similar findings were observed by (Obonyo et al., 2013) in Kenya. The differences
in prevalence of GIT helminthes may also be associated with differences in environmental
conditions, stocking rate, nature of their diet immunity status (Kumar, et al., 2002). The
prevalence of GIT helminthes of pigs of each local government area may reflect the actual
situation of the endemic helminthiasis in the area. The helminth burden was significantly
involved Ascaris spp and Strongyloides compared to Coccidia oocyst examined. The
presence of high count of helminthes eggs and the oocysts signifies that pigs were at
parasites endemic arears. The parasites infections may have compromised their
performance and production. Therefore, there is a need for combined efforts to control
parasites infections in pigs study areas, for optimum production of pigs. In conclusion, this
study revealed parasitic infection as threat to pig production in Nasarawa state, infected pigs
in the area may saver as risk factor for spreading of the disease among humans and animals.
In the community pig production remains one of the major sources of income, therefore
there is need to combat the menace of gastro intestinal parasites infection for optimum
production and prevention of zoonotic helminthiasis in the areas.
Reference
1. Adebisi, O.R. (2008). Gastrointestinal helminthes and public health: Overview of a
neglected sector. Internet Journal of Veterinary Medicine 4(2).
2. Aliaga-Leyton, A. Webster, E. Friendship, R. Dewey, C. Vilaca, C and Peregrine, A. (2011).
An observational study on the prevalence and impact of Isospora suis in suckling piglets in
South Western Ontario and risk factors for shedding oocysts, Canadian Veterinary Journal,
52(2) 184-188.
3. Boes, J., Willinggham, A. L., Shi, F.H.,. Hu, X.G., Eriksen, L., Nansen, P. and Stewart, T.B.
(2000). Prevalence and distribution of pig helminths in the Dongting Lake Region (Human
Province) of the People’s Republic of China, Journal of Helminthology, (74) 45-52.
4. Esrony. K, Kambarage , D. M, Mtambo, M. M, Muhairwa, A. P and Kusiluka, L. J. M. (1997).
Helminthosis in local and cross-bred pigs in the Morogoro region of Tanzania, Preventive
Veterinary Medicine 32: 41-46.
5. Kumar, S., Prasad, K. D and Singh, S. K. (2002). Prevalence of common gastrointestinal
parasites in pigs at and around Ranchi, Jharhand, India, Journal of Animal Science, 7235-37.
6. Marufu, M. C, Chanayiwa, P, Chimonyo, M and Bhebhe, E. (2008). Prevalence of
gastrointestinal nematods in Mukota pigs in a communal area of Zimbabwe. African Journal
of Agricultural Research 3(2): 091-095.
7. Marcus, N.D and Binbol, N.L, (2007). “In Geographic Perspectives of Nasarawa State”.A
Publication of the Department of Geography, Nasarawa State University, Keffi-Nigeria.Onaivi
publisher, Keffi.
8. Ngowi, H.A., Kassuku, A. A., Meada, G.E., M.E. Boa and A.L. Willingham, (2004). A slaughter
slab survey for extra-intestinal porcine helminth infections in Northern Tanzania, Tropical
Animal Health and Production, 36, 335-340.
9. Nissen, S. Paulsen, I. Nejsum, P. Olsen, A. Roepstorff, A. Rubaire, A and Thamsborg, S .M.
(2011). Prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes in growing pigs in Kabale District, Uganda,
Tropical Animal Health and Production 43: 567-572.
10. Nsoso, S.J., Mosala, K.P., Ndebele, R.T. and Ramabu, S.S. (2000). The prevalence of internal
and external parasites in pigs of different ages and sexes in southeast district, Botswana,
Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res., 67217-220.
11. Nwoha, R.I.O. and Ekwurike, J.O. (2011). Prevalence of gastrointestinal nematode
parasites in intensively managed pigs of different ages and sexes in Umuahia city of Abia
State, Int. Res. J. Biochem. Bioruform, 1(6) 161-167.
12. Obonyo, F .O, Maingi, N. Githigia, S. M and Ng’ang’a, C. J. (2012). Prevalence, intensity and
spectrum of helminths of free range pigs in Homabay District, Kenya. Livestock Research for
Rural Development. Volume 24, Article #48.Retrieved October22, 2014, from
http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd24/3/obon24048.htm
13. Obonyo, F .O, Maingi .N, Githigia, .S .M and Ng’ang’a C, .J .(2013) Farming practices and
risk factors for transmission of helminths of free range pigs in Homabay District, Kenya.
Livestock Research for Rural Development. Volume 25, Article #36. Retrieved October22,
2014, from http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd25/3/bon25036.htm
14. Silva A.M, Bambirra EA, Oliveira AL, Souza PP, Gomes DA, Vieira EC, Nicoli JR (1999).
Protective effect of bifidus milk on the experimental infection with Salmonella enteritidis
subsp. typhimurium inconventional and gnotobiotic mice. Journal of Applied Microbiology.
86: 331 – 336.
15. Sowemimo, O.A. Asaolu, S.O. Adegoke F.O. and Ayanniyi, O.O. (2012). Epidemiological
survey of gastrointestinal parasites of pigs in Ibadan, Southwest, Nigeria, Journal of Public
Health and Epidemiology, 4(10) 294-298.
16. Tamboura, H.H., Banga-Mboko, H., Maes, D., Youssao, I., Traore, A., Bayala, B. and
Dembele, M.A. (2006). Prevalence of common gastrointestinal nematode parasites in
scavenging pigs of different ages and sexes in Eastern Centre Province, Burkina Faso,
Onderskpoort J. Vet. Res., 735360.
17. Rekwot, P.I., Abubakar, Y.U., Jegede, J.O. (2003). Swine production characteristics and
management systems of small holder piggeries in Kaduna and Benue States of North Central
Nigeria. Nigerian Veterinary Journal 24(2).