GROUP 1

Humans Are Growing Weird, Bone Spikes on Their Skulls. Smartphones May Be the Culprit.
The hours we spend scrolling through our smartphones appear to be changing our skulls. This may be
the reason why some people — especially the younger crowd — are developing a weird, bony spike just
above their necks.

The bony skull bump — known as an external occipital protuberance — is sometimes so large, you can
feel it by pressing your fingers on the base of your skull.

"I have been a clinician for 20 years, and only in the last decade, increasingly, I have been discovering
that my patients have this growth on the skull," David Shahar, a health scientist at the University of The
Sunshine Coast, Australia, told the BBC in a fascinating feature about the changing human skeleton. [10
Amazing Things We Learned About Humans in 2018]

A cause-and-effect relationship hasn't been identified, but it's possible that the spike comes from
constantly bending one's neck at uncomfortable angles to look at smart devices. The human head is
heavy, weighing about 10 lbs. (4.5 kilograms), and tilting it forward to look at funny cat photos (or
however you spend your smartphone time) can strain the neck — hence the crick people sometimes
get, known as "text neck."

Text neck can increase pressure on the juncture where the neck muscles attach to the skull, and the
body likely responds by laying down new bone, which leads to that spiky bump, Shahar told the BBC.
This spike distributes the weight of the head over a larger area, he said.

In a 2016 study in the Journal of Anatomy, Shahar and a colleague looked at the radiographs of 218
young patients, ages 18 to 30, to determine how many had these bumps. Regular spikes had to measure
at least 0.2 inches (5 millimeters), and enlarged spikes measured 0.4 inches (10 mm).

In all, 41% of the group had an enlarged spike and 10% had an especially large spike measuring at least
0.7 inches (20 mm), the doctors found. In general, enlarged spikes were more common in males than in
females. The largest spike belonged to a man, sticking out at 1.4 inches (35.7 mm).

Another study of 1,200 individuals, ages 18 to 86, that Shahar and a co-researcher did revealed that
these spikes are more prevalent in younger people. Enlarged spikes occurred in 33% of the group, but
participants ages 18 to 30 years old were significantly more likely to have these spikes than the older
generations, they found.

These bony spikes are likely here to stay, Shahar said. "Imagine if you have stalactites and stalagmites, if
no one is bothering them, they will just keep growing," he told the BBC. Luckily, these spikes rarely
cause medical issues. If you are experiencing discomfort, however, try improving your posture, he said.

Link: https://www.livescience.com/65711-humans-growing-bony-skull-spikes.html
GROUP 2

An Integrated Framework for Ecological Drought across Riverscapes of North America

Drought and climate change together offer unprecedented threats to freshwater biodiversity, especially
when coupled with invasive species expansions, habitat modification, and water withdrawal. To
effectively address the escalating threat of ecological drought, there is a clear need to reenvision how
abiotic and biotic conditions are monitored and how these data are integrated across riverscapes. The
current system of monitoring in the United States and throughout North America is insufficient for
addressing ecological vulnerability to drought throughout the vast majority of aquatic ecosystems. The
fields of climatology, hydrology, biology, and evolutionary ecology must better integrate efforts so that
robust prioritization efforts and management plans for social–ecological systems concerning freshwater
become feasible and holistic. This will require adopting a new framework that prioritizes data collection,
monitoring, synthesis, and drought-vulnerability analysis across entire riverscapes, especially in
headwater streams that are critical for many terrestrial and aquatic species and ecosystem services. The
integrated and hierarchical ecological-drought vulnerability framework we describe can appropriately
account for existing ecological theory concerning riverine environments (e.g., Frissel et al. 1986, Fausch
et al. 2002), leverage recent statistical advances that better account for and describe heterogeneity
across scales, account for human dimensions, and more realistically account for the needs of aquatic
organisms in freshwater systems. Ultimately, shifting toward a fully integrated drought-vulnerability
framework will improve the capacity for societal drought adaptation, the conservation of numerous
species dependent on stream and river environments, and our understanding of ecohydrological
processes in a changing world.

Link: https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/69/6/418/5482300

GROUP 3

Sunlight harvested by nanotubes

Rolling an atom-thick semiconductor layer into a nanoscale tube allows it to convert solar energy into
electricity without the need for semiconductor junctions — prerequisite features of conventional solar
cells.

For decades, the development of a cheap and efficient way to convert sunlight into electricity has been
at the forefront of research, from the physical sciences to engineering. Usually, devices for harvesting
solar energy, called solar cells, are made of semiconductors such as silicon. In these devices, electrical
power is generated at the junction between two types of semiconductor material. However, the
efficiency of junction-based solar cells has almost reached its theoretical limit, and it is therefore
imperative to explore methods for converting sunlight into electricity that do not require semiconductor
junctions. Writing in Nature, Zhang et al.1 report a key advance in this direction. They demonstrate a
junction-free solar cell that is produced by curling an atom-thick semiconductor layer into a nanoscale
tube.

In a conventional solar cell, different chemical elements are added to two regions of a semiconductor in
a process known as doping. Electrical transport occurs through negatively charged electrons in one
region and through positively charged electron vacancies, called holes, in the other. An electric field is
generated at the junction between these two regions. When sunlight is absorbed at this junction,
electron–hole pairs are produced. The electrons and holes are then separated by the electric field, giving
rise to an electric current (Fig. 1a). This conversion of solar energy into electricity is known as the
photovoltaic effect.

Figure 1 | Two types of solar cell. a, A conventional solar cell is made of a semiconductor such as silicon.
Electrical transport occurs through electron vacancies called holes in one region (bottom), and through
electrons in another region (top). An electric field is generated across the junction between these two
regions. When this junction is illuminated by sunlight, electron–hole pairs are produced. The electrons
and holes are then separated by the electric field, giving rise to an electric current. b, Zhang et
al.1 report a junction-free solar cell that is made of a non-centrosymmetric semiconductor — one whose
structure lacks symmetry under a transformation known as spatial inversion. Under illumination,
electron–hole pairs are produced and separated because of a phenomenon called the bulk photovoltaic
effect, generating an electric current.

Zhang and colleagues fabricated junction-free solar cells using the semiconductor tungsten disulfide.
Crystals of this material have a layered structure, and can be peeled off layer by layer in a similar way to
graphite. The resulting atom-thick sheets can then be rolled by chemical methods into tubes that have
diameters of about 100 nanometres. The authors made devices from three types of tungsten disulfide: a
monolayer, a bilayer and a nanotube (see Fig. 1a of the paper1).
The authors found that, whereas the monolayer and bilayer devices generated a negligible electric
current under illumination, the nanotube device exhibited a large photovoltaic effect. Given that these
three types of solar cell have the same, uniform chemical identity, how does the nanotube device
convert light into electricity without the assistance of a junction? And why is this ability absent in the
monolayer and bilayer devices? Zhang et al. point to a phenomenon called the bulk photovoltaic effect
(BPVE), and attribute the diverse performance of the solar cells to their distinctive crystal symmetries.
The BPVE can spontaneously generate a current in a uniform semiconductor, without the requirement
for a junction (Fig. 1b).

Read the paper: Enhanced intrinsic photovoltaic effect in tungsten disulfide nanotubes

The BPVE was first observed2 at Bell Labs in New Jersey in 1956, just two years after the invention of
modern silicon solar cells3. The effect is restricted to non-centrosymmetric materials4, which are
characterized by a lack of symmetry under spatial inversion (the combination of a 180° rotation and a
reflection). The BPVE has two intriguing features: the light-generated current depends on the
polarization of the incident light, and the associated voltage is larger than the material’s bandgap (the
energy required to excite conducting free electrons). However, the effect has a typically low conversion
efficiency, and so has remained of academic rather than practical interest over the years.

To achieve a high BPVE efficiency, a material must have high light absorption and low internal
symmetry. However, these two properties do not usually coexist in a given material. Semiconductors
that absorb most incident sunlight generally have high symmetry, which diminishes or even prevents the
BPVE. And common materials that have low symmetry, such as compounds called perovskite oxides,
absorb little sunlight owing to their large bandgap. To circumvent this problem, tremendous effort has
been devoted to enhancing light absorption in materials that have low symmetry, for example by using
doping5. Meanwhile, it has been shown that the BPVE can be enabled in semiconductors when it is
otherwise prohibited, by using mechanical fields to tailor the material’s crystal symmetry6.
Zhang and colleagues’ work calls attention to a hitherto-unexplored approach: shaping the
semiconductors that have high light absorption into nanotubes. In the case of tungsten disulfide, the
crystal symmetry of the nanotube is reduced with respect to that of the monolayer and bilayer, because
of the tube’s curved walls. The combination of excellent light absorption and low crystal symmetry
means that the nanotube exhibits a substantial BPVE. The density of the electric current associated with
the BPVE surpasses that of the materials that have inherently low symmetry, even though the
conversion efficiency of the BPVE is still much lower than that of the junction-based photovoltaic effect
in conventional solar cells.

The authors’ results demonstrate the great potential of nanotubes in harvesting solar energy, and raise
several technological challenges and scientific questions. From an applications perspective, it would be
instructive to fabricate and characterize a solar cell that is made up of an array of semiconductor
nanotubes, to check the feasibility of scaling up the approach. The direction of the current generated by
the BPVE in each nanotube would be largely determined by the material’s internal symmetry. Therefore,
a uniform symmetry across the nanotube array would be needed to gather a collective current from the
solar cell. In a worst-case scenario, if the currents generated in different nanotubes were in opposite
directions, they would cancel each other out.

An important but unanswered question is whether the BPVE and the junction-based photovoltaic effect
could cooperate in the same solar cell, to boost the overall efficiency. These two effects could harness
solar energy in a successive manner. Nevertheless, despite the remaining challenges, Zhang and
colleagues’ work provides a possible route towards the design of highly efficient, unconventional solar
cells.

Nature 570, 310-311 (2019)

Link: https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-01767-6

GROUP 4

Measurement and implications of Saturn’s gravity field and ring mass

INTRODUCTION

The interior structure of Saturn, the depth of its winds, and the mass and age of its rings have been open
questions in planetary science. The mass distribution inside a fluid and rapidly rotating planet like Saturn
is largely driven by the ratio between centrifugal and gravitational forces. In static conditions, the planet
should rotate uniformly and its gravity field should be axially and hemispherically symmetric and thus
described by even zonal harmonics. However, optical tracking of clouds in the atmospheres of gas giants
indicates that their rotation is not uniform. If the velocity field seen at cloud level extends deep into the
interior, then there is a redistribution of mass that modifies the gravity field. Gravity measurements
therefore constrain both Saturn’s deep interior and the depth of its winds. They also provide the mass of
its rings, which dynamical and compositional dating methods have shown is related to their age.

Abstract

The interior structure of Saturn, the depth of its winds, and the mass and age of its rings constrain its
formation and evolution. In the final phase of the Cassini mission, the spacecraft dived between the
planet and its innermost ring, at altitudes of 2600 to 3900 kilometers above the cloud tops. During six of
these crossings, a radio link with Earth was monitored to determine the gravitational field of the planet
and the mass of its rings. We find that Saturn’s gravity deviates from theoretical expectations and
requires differential rotation of the atmosphere extending to a depth of at least 9000 kilometers. The
total mass of the rings is (1.54 ± 0.49) × 1019 kilograms (0.41 ± 0.13 times that of the moon Mimas),
indicating that the rings may have formed 107 to 108 years ago.

Cassini's last look at Saturn's rings

During the final stages of the Cassini mission, the spacecraft flew between the planet and its rings,
providing a new view on this spectacular system (see the Perspective by Ida). Setting the scene, Spilker
reviews the numerous discoveries made using Cassini during the 13 years it spent orbiting Saturn. Iess et
al. measured the gravitational pull on Cassini, separating the contributions from the planet and the
rings. This allowed them to determine the interior structure of Saturn and the mass of its rings.
Buratti et al. present observations of five small moons located in and around the rings. The moons each
have distinctive shapes and compositions, owing to accretion of ring material. Tiscareno et al. observed
the rings directly at close range, finding complex features sculpted by the gravitational interactions
between moons and ring particles. Together, these results show that Saturn's rings are substantially
younger than the planet itself and constrain models of their origin.

RATIONALE

In its final 22 orbits, the Cassini spacecraft passed between the rings and the atmosphere of Saturn. In
six of these orbits, while the spacecraft was in free fall under the combined attraction of Saturn and its
rings, radio tracking from an antenna on Earth was established to measure the radial velocity of the
spacecraft with accuracies between 0.023 and 0.088 mm·s−1 at a 30 s integration time. Fitting these data
with a dynamical model of the forces acting on the spacecraft allowed us to determine the separate
signatures from each zonal harmonic and the ring mass.

RESULTS

The estimated quantities were a zonal gravity model for Saturn and the gravity from a uniformly
distributed mass spanning the A, B, and C rings. Additional small accelerations of unknown origin
(possibly related to a time-variable gravity field) were required to obtain a good fit of the data. The
determination of Saturn’s static zonal coefficients and ring mass does not depend on the assumed
source of these small effects. We found that the measured values of J6, J8, and J10 are so large that they
cannot be matched with interior models relying on uniform rotation and plausible compositions, but
they are in agreement with interior models that assume deep differential rotation, extending from the
equator into the interior up to distances of 0.7 to 0.8 Saturn radii from the spin axis. The equatorial
outer layers of Saturn must rotate at an angular velocity that is 4% faster than that of the deep interior,
whereas regions at higher latitudes must rotate 1 to 2% slower, regardless of the assumed rotation
period. A thermal-wind approach shows that flow profiles that are similar in general character to the
observed one yield solutions within the uncertainty of the gravity measurements when extended to a
depth of ~9000 km, confirming that the flows are very deep and likely extend down to the levels where
magnetic dissipation occurs.

We also found that the mass of the rings is 0.41 times that of the Saturnian moon Mimas, which is at the
lower end of the expected values.

CONCLUSION

Saturn’s gravity field measured by Cassini implies a strong and deep differential rotation, extending to a
depth of ~9000 km. This differs from Jupiter, where winds are shallower (~3000 km). The gravity
measurements are consistent with a mass of Saturn’s core of 15 to 18 Earth masses.

The low value of the ring mass suggests a scenario where the present rings of Saturn are young,
probably just 10 million to 100 million years old, to be consistent with their pristine icy composition.
Nevertheless, the rings may have evolved substantially since their formation and were perhaps once
more massive than they are today. Models for a young ring system invoke the chance capture and tidal
disruption of a comet or an icy outer Solar System body, suggesting that catastrophic events continued
to occur in the Solar System long after its formation 4.6 billion years ago.

Link: https://science.sciencemag.org/content/364/6445/eaat2965

GROUP 5

Assessment of Selected Nutrients and Toxic Chemicals in Ethiopian Khat

Abstract

Heavy metal pollution is among the leading health concerns all over the world because of their long-
term cumulative effects. khat (Catha edulisforsk), a plant used as a stimulant is grown in certain areas of
East Africa and the Arab Peninsula this day it is a known cash crop in Ethiopia. Due to increased demand
and value, many farmers have not only begun growing it but have also adopted modern farming
methods which include application of fertilizers, pesticides, compost manure, and irrigation. Yet some of
these agricultural practices such as application of fertilizers and pesticides are known to increase the
concentration of heavy metals such as Cd, Pb, Zn and Cu in the soil. Some of these heavy metals such as
Pband Cd are toxic even at low concentrations while Zn, Cu, Fe and Cr though essential in the body, are
toxic at high levels This call for monitoring to make sure that the levels of heavy metals in khat do not
exceed the threshold limits recommended by WHO due to their adverse health effects to man. This
study therefore assesses selected chemical nutrients and toxic metal in khat that is available in Ethiopia.
khat samples were collected from16 sits of the three main khat growing regions namely Oromiya, South
Nation and Nationality and Amhara regional state Known weights of oven dried khat samples were
digested using nitric andPerchloric acids. The digests were analyzed for selected heavy metals using
flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The following concentration ranges in dry weight (μg/g)
were obtained in khat: Zn (25.15-73.95), Cu (0.10-41.80), Cr (ND-39.50), Cd(ND-0.90) and Pb (0.50-
13.00). Cd was only detected in khat samples from Oromiyaare more susceptible to adverse effects of
Pb than adults. The results suggested that there was significant different (p 0.05) in the levels of heavy
metals between khat from various regions. Levels of studied heavy metals in khat were below the
maximum limits recommended by WHO except for Pb and Cr Therefore children should be discouraged
from chewing khat since they are more susceptible to adverse effects of Pb than adults.

Link:
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/journal/paperinfo?journalid=125&doi=10.11648/j.sjc.2019070
1.15

GROUP 6

Gammarids Species in Tunisia, what Indicator Interest can it Prove on Fresh Waters Bio-
monitoring?
Introduction

In Tunisia, it is increasingly asked to ecotoxicologists to develop tools allowing to determine the intensity
and duration of contamination events and to assess associated ecological risks, through the prediction
of potential effects of contaminant exposure in freshwater. One approach to meet this social demand
for bio monitoring methods is the development of biomarkers. This approach considers that the best
method to detect the biological impact of contaminant exposure is to investigate the effects of
contaminants on organism level responses. Indeed, compared to traditional methods focusing on
physical and chemical properties of soils or waters, biomarkers are assumed to focus on the effects of
the bioavailable (i.e. transmitted to living organisms) fraction of environmental chemicals and to
integrate the putative interactive effects of complex mixtures of chemicals in the Ecological Risk
Assessment (ERA). Theoretically, a “biomarker” can be defined from any observably and/or measurable
functional response to exposure to one or several contaminants that can be characterized at the sub
individual level of biological organization (molecular, biochemical, cellular, physiological, behavioral) [1].
Importantly, the response is assumed to indicate a departure from healthy status that cannot be
detected from an intact organism [1]. The concept of biomarker is thus based on the causal relationship
between the contamination of environments by any chemical inducing a stress (pesticides, polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), metals, etc.) and biological changes induced by the contaminated
environment.

The application of biomarkers for ERA purposes relies on more technical issues. Therefore, biomarkers
should be used on sentinel species, i.e. on wild organisms sampled in natural populations from the field
rather than on laboratory specimens [2]. Working on sentinel species implies that biomarkers may be
developed on varying species corresponding to the taxonomic diversity of the ecosystem of interest.
Considering the ERA of soil pollution in aquatic ecosystems, it is well admitted that, because they
represent important ecological functions of freshwater ecosystems, species from the macrofauna should
be considered as potential indicators of water quality.

The use of gammarids freshwater biomonitoring is relevant [3], because their sensitivity to pollutants
and other disturbances, had offered to them to be widely used in experimental toxicity tests [3]. Many
published studies exist on toxicity of a wide range of chemicals and natural water samples toward
gammarids such as pesticides, metals, and surfactants [4-11].

In gammarids, toxicant-induced, reductions in feeding rate can result in reduced growth, size, fecundity,
and survival of individuals [12-14], thereby affecting the stream community structure [15]. Irreversible
effects of a toxicant on a behavioral mechanism or expression are also observed in the behavioral
response of an organism, after the toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic processes have started (e.g.,
acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition exerted by neurotoxins [16].

The inhibition of feeding rate was one of the first and interest observed responses to large variety of
environmental contaminants [17-19]. Thus,

1. It can be correlated with ecosystem processes [20,21].

2. It has an ecological concern because it can be related to alteration in life-history traits [22-25] and

3. Its interpretation can be linked with the modulation of molecular biomarkers of specific modes of
action [24,26]. The inhibition of cholinesterase (ChE) activity has been used as a specific biomarker for
exposure to Organophosphore sand Carbamate pesticides [27,28], heavy metals [29], surfactants
[30,31], hydrocarbons [32,33] and pharmaceuticals [34].

Applying gammarids, as biondicators of freshwater quality, has been extensively developed during
recent decades in different countries, since many research provide its interest role environmental
assessment [19,35-38]. However, the appropriate use of Tunisian gammarid species in biomonitoring
freshwater required testing its bioindicator role, since no study has confirmed its ecotoxicological
interest. For this, we have chosen two biomarkers jugged ideals reliable, robust, and easy applied and
only modulated by contaminants. In this context, we have proposed feeding rate and AChE activity
[27,19].

The present study aims to illustrate the importance gammarids as an indicator of water quality in
Tunisia. We proceed in two steps: first, we test, in laboratory conditions, the influence of Methomyl on
feeding rate and acetylcholinesterase activity of different gammarids populations. Then we examine, in
situ, the sensitivity of gammarids to contaminated stations

Materials and Methods

Sampling and maintenance of gammarids

Gammarids were collected using a net (by kick sampling) from the northern rivers of Tunisia (Table 1).
Stations have good water quality according to CRDA data records (Administration of Water) and a high
density of gammarids was found. Different size classes were separated by sieving. Immediately after
sampling, specimens were stored in plastic bottles containing stream water and quickly transferred to
the laboratory. Gammarids were kept during an acclimatization period of at least 10 days in 30 L tanks
continuously supplied with drilled groundwater adjusted to the sampling site conductivity (i.e., 600
μS.cm-1). The tanks were under constant aeration. An 8/16-h light/ dark photoperiod was maintained
and the temperature was kept at 16 ± 1°C. The organisms were fed with leaves of Quercus canariensis.
The leaves were conditioned for at least 6 ± 1 days in water. Thanks to Dr. Chritophe Piscart, seven
populations of Echinogammarus simoni and two populations of Gammarus nsp were identified.

Locality Sampling stations GPS coordinates Species

36°40.96.8 N
Hamem Saiala Torech E. simoni (si1)
009°09. 677 E

36°, 38.431N
Bousalem Kasseb E. simoni (si2)
009°, 00.303E

Nefza Ain Zouraa E. simoni (si 3)

Ain 36°48.004N
Abaissia E. simoni (si 4)
Changoula 009°, 08.305E

36°45.137 N
Saidia E. simoni (si 5)
009°, 08.991 E

Nefza Ain Ghrab E. simoni (si 6)

36°, 46.232N
Balta Bouaoen Rbaania E. simoni (si 7)
008°, 55.292E

Joumine Ziatine - E. macrophtalmi (nsp1)

Tborba - - E. macrophtalmi (nsp2)

Table 1: Detailed information of sampling stations.

Laboratory exposure

Choice of contaminant: Methomyl (MT) [IUPAC: S-methyl N (methylcarbamoyloxy) thioacetimidate] was

tested in our experiments. The compound was widely used as carbamate insecticide because of its high
insecticidal activity with rapid reversibility and its relative low persistence when compared with other
insecticidal classes [39]. This insecticide has been thoroughly studied in terms of its efficiency in
controlling target pests [40,41]. However, considering the nonecologically selective profile of methomyl
[41], its toxicity to aquatic non-target organisms and the further consequences of the aquatic ecosystem
need scrutiny. According to Xuereb et al. [38], this pesticide inhibits the feeding rate and AChE activity in
gammarids.

Methomyl exposure: The methomyl (MT) dose of 20 μg/l was chosen as a suitable concentration for our
experiments. It conduced to low mortality (between 0 and 13%). MT stock solutions were prepared in
ultrapure water. The contaminated media were obtained by adding 2 mL of MT stock solution to 2 L of
uncontaminated drilled ground water (i.e., 600 μS.cm-1; temperature previously kept to 16 ± 1°C). Water
controls without toxicant were included as well as a solvent control. Four replicates of 20 male
gammarids ranging in weight from 10 to 15 mg were exposed in 500 mL glass beakers maintained at 16
± 1°C in a thermoregulated water bath. A piece of polyamide net (mesh size: 500 μm; length × width: 6
cm × 5 cm) was added to the vessel to provide a resting surface, thus minimizing cannibalism and the
confrontations between organisms. To assess the feeding rate (FR), ten alder leaf discs (20 mm in
diameter, without major veins) were supplied in each beaker (i.e., 5 per glass beakers). Ninety-six hour
methomyl semi-static exposure tests were conducted at a temperature of 16 ± 1°C and under a
photoperiod of 8/16 h light/dark. The media were renewed every 24 h, and at the same time the living
organisms were counted and the dead ones were removed. Water quality parameters (pH, conductivity,
temperature and dissolved oxygen) were recorded before and after the renewal of the test solutions.

In situ deployments: In situ, exposures were adapted according to the method described by [42]. We
deployed four replicates of 20 adult male gammarids (G.simoni) with homogenous body size in stations
presented in Table 2 (near here. Organisms were placed in polypropylene cylinders (diameter 5 cm,
length 10 cm) capped at their ends with pieces of net (mesh size: 1 mm). 20 alder leaf discs of Quercus
canariensis (20 mm in diameter, without major veins) were supplied in each container. Two containers
with only leaf material were deployed at each station as a control. After 7 days of exposure, the
gammarids were counted (for survival rate assessment) and kept for the AChE activity measurement.
The alder leaf discs were collected for FR computation.

Locality River GPS Coordinates Type of pollution Effect in invertebrates T°C in ex

Beja Oued 36°77’87.45’’N (DRRB) - 19

Beja 9°.15’10.40 E - - -

Bousalem Oued 36°37’42.00’’ N Industrielle Decrese in diversity and equitability of meiofauna 20

Kasseb 9°00’18.48’’ E Abidi Bejaoui [53] - -

Bousalem Oued 6°36’15’’ N Agricole [53] - 18

Bouhertma 5°6’18.4’’E - community -

Table 2: Detailed informations of in situ deployments.

Biomarkers measurements

Feeding rate (FR): To assess the feeding rate (FR), the leaf discs were numerically scanned using an
Epson perfection 3490 PHOTO® scanner at the beginning of the experiment (t0) and every 24 h when the
media were renewed. The surfaces of the ten discs were then measured daily using SigmaScan® Pro v5.0
Imaging Software (Systat Software). The FR expressed as a consumed surface per gammarid per day was
(mm2/day/organism).

Acethylcholinesterase activity: Concerning the measurements of the AChE activity, pools of five
organisms were randomly sampled in each beaker of polypropylene cylinder to obtain five replicates for
each population (n=5).
Immediately after sampling, the organisms were weighted, frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at -80°C
until the measure of enzyme activity. Pools of whole bodies gammarid species were homogenised in
1:10 (W: V) ice-cold phosphate buffer (100 mM; pH 7.8)+0.1% Triton X-100 with an Ultra-Turrax ®T25
basic at 24,000 rpm for 35 s. The homogenate was centrifuged at 9000 × g at 4° for 15 min then clear
supernatant was collected and kept at 4°C to be used as an enzyme source. Enzyme activity was
determined in triplicate for each sample according to the colorimetric method initially developed by [43]
then adapted by Xuereb et al. [38]. Briefly, 990 μL of phosphate buffer (0.1 M, pH 7.8), 60 μL of the
chromogenic agent DTNB (0.0076 M) and 60 μL of supernatant were added to the bath. The
measurement of enzyme activity was initiated by adding 30 μL of acetylthiocholine iodide solution
(0.076 M). The absorbance measurement was recorded at 405 nm every 60 s for 7 min using JENWAY
6300. The absorption kinetics were calculated in a linear range and then converted to Nano moles per
minute according to the molar extinction coefficient of DTNB (ε=1.36 × 104 Lmol-1cm-1) [38].

Data Analysis

Statistical analyses were performed using Statistica 9 software (StatSoft, USA) and expressed as a mean
± standard deviation. The differences in variability of biomarkers’ populations and species and the effect
of methomyl in situexposure on the FR and AChE activity were examined using the ANOVA test. Non
parametric tests were used when data did not fulfill homogeneity requirements. Multivariate analysis
was performed on both AChE activity and FR for every population. A similarity matrix based on Bray-
Curtis coefficient was classified by hierarchical agglomerative clustering using Unweighted Pair Group
Mean Arithmetic (UPGMA) and multi-dimensional scaling. The examination of relative 180 similarities of
populations through relative ordination distance was done by means of non-metric multidimensional
scaling ordination (MDS). The Analysis of Similarity Sample Statistic Global (ANOSIM tests) were carried
out to determine if there were significant differences between gammarid species considering both
markers at the same time. SIMPER (Similarity Percentage) led to assess the biomarker that contributed
to the average of similarity between gammarid species. Calculations were performed with PRIMER 6.0.
The level of significance was established at P<0.05 for statistical tests.

Results

For basic values of feeding rate and AChE, no significant differences were observed between the
populations of E.simoniand the two populations of Gammarus nsp (p-value ≥ 0.05). At inter-specific
level, FRs and AChE activity were homogeneous and no significative difference was found (p-value ≥
0.05) (Figures 1a, 1b and 1c).
Figure 1a: Basic levels of AChE activity (nmol/min) and feeding rate (mm2/ G/j) in populations of E.
simoni (si) and G. new species (nsp) respectively.

Figure 1b: Basic levels of AChE activity (nmol/min) and feeding rate (mm2/G/j) in populations of and G.
new species (nsp) respectively.
Figure 1c: Basic levels AChE activity (nmol/min) and feeding rate (mm2/G/j) in the two species.

After 20 μg.L-1 of methomyl exposure, there is no significant mortality in exposed gammarids (23%).
However, this compound inhibits significantly (p-value ≤ 0.05) the feeding rate (FI between 50%-98%)
and the AChE activity (RI between 20% and 60%). An intraspecific difference (p-value<0.005) was found
in FI and RI. Based on inter-specific levels, our results showed a significant difference in value of AChE
activity; however no significant variability was registered in FI (p value ≥ 0.5)
between E.simoni and Gammarus nsp (Figures 2a, 2b and 2c).

Figure 2a: Feeding inhibition (FI) and AChE inhibition(RI) in populations of E.simoni(si) respectively, after
methomyl exposure (20μg/L).
Figure 2b: Feeding inhibition (FI) and AChE inhibition(RI) in populations of G. new species (nsp)
respectively after methomyl exposure (20μg/L).

Figure 2c: FI and RI in the two species. Significant differences against the controls (0.lg/l) are indicated
by asterisks (one way-ANOVA and HSD Tukey post hoc; (n=20; *p<0.005).

MDS, Simper and ANOSIM test

MDS results and ANOSIM test (Figure 3 and Table 3) indicate that, for basic and sensitive values of the
two biomarkers, all gammarid populations were arranged on one group with high percentage of
similarity (80%) and no significant variability was registered between them (ANOSIM R=0.28 for basic
value and 0.374 for sensitive value; p-value ≥ 0.05). The SIMPER results showed that both AChE activity
and feeding rate (basic and sensitive values) contribute to average of similarity.

Figure 3: Arrangement of the gammarid populations according to the MDS (non- parametric Multi-
Dimensional Scaling) method realized by considering the transformed basic (a) and sensitive (b) values
(square root) of feeding rate (FR) and AChE activity of each population (si: simoni; nsp: new species).

ANOSIM: Analysis of Similarities sample stastic

Global R: 0.177 Significance level of sample SIMPER : Similarity Percentages-species
stastic:18.8% contributions

Average Markers % contribut

Groups R statistic Significance level % similarity contribuate average sim

RI (AChE) 53.79
Basic values of the two
0.374 0.1 84% activity 53.79
tested biomarkers
FI 53.79

AChE 58.61
Sensitives values of the
0.287 0.2 91.1 activity 41.39
two tested biomarkers
Feeding rate -

Table 3: Pairwaise similarity in Gammarid species (E. simoni and G. nsp) and percentage of biomarkers
contribution.

In situ exposure

In oued Kasseb downstream station, we observed a total mortality of E.simoni. However, in Bouhertma,
level of mortality was less than 20%. In this station, values of the two biomarkers were significantly less
than that of animals deployed at Oued Beja (p<0.05) (Figure 4).
Figure 4: AChE activity rate in E. simoni populations (si1 and si2) exposed in reference station (Beja
upstream) and in polluted station (Bouhertma downstream). Significant differences against the controls
(0.lg/l) are indicated by asterisks (one way-ANOVA and HSD Tukey post hoc; (n=20; *p< 0.005).

Discussion

Basic value of AChE activity and feeding rate

Our results showed that the feeding levels were similar throughout all tested populations. These
observations suggest that Tunisian gammarids will feed whenever food is available regardless their
origin. However, knowing that environmental conditions tend to vary over space and time in nature,
these later are known to favor different species potentially leading to different behavior. Nevertheless,
we suggest that the gammarid tested populations were more closely related species to still share more
similar niches under a different environment, which may lead to found behavior similarity as it has been
shown in our study.

Our results showed that AChE activity, varied between 7.5 and 9.75 nmol/min in all tested populations.
These values were near those of 25 with different G. fossarum populations (between 7.4 and 9.5). Our
results showed also absence of intra and interspecific variability of AChE values which could be probably
explained by genetic stability. This state was also noted by [27] in G. fossarum. However, some other
authors observed significance interspecific difference in mean activity of AChE in Acartia and Siriella
Genus [44]. According to Toumi et al. [45], there is also intraspecific significance variability in AChE
activity in the cladoceran Daphnia magna. This state may be explained by difference in expression of
AChE value. Thus, in his study of AChE activity normalization, [27] affirm that when expression of AChE
activities are normalized against the protein content in sample extracts and expressed in nanomoles of
substrate hydrolyzed or DO units min−1 mg protein−1, it may cause a variation in AChE activities. This
state is due to the natural variation of structural protein contents, related to physiological changes (such
as reproductive status) and constitutes a source of variability leading probably to an under- or over-
estimation of the basal level of AChE activity. However, when AChE activity was expressed in nmol min-
1
(our case), this variation is lower and generally no significative.
Sensitives values of AChE activity and feeding rate after methomyl exposure

Despite its different origins, organisms showed similar stress responses to methomyl (20 μg/L) exposure.
The current study is in good agreement with previous research concerning the effects of methomyl in
diverse species of gammarids such as G. fossarum and G. pulex [28,46,47]. Concerning classical
mechanistic action of methomyl on AChE activity, [48] affirm that carbamic acid esters of methomyl
attach to the serine hydroxyl group of the reactive site of AChE. When unbound acetylcholine
accumulates at the cholinergic nerve endings, there is continual stimulation of electrical activity.

The significative variability in inhibition of the two biomarkers (at intra and interspecific level) could
probably assign to variability of organism response after methomyl exposure. It’s clear that pollution
create disturbance in behavior and that each population response according to its physiology and
capacity to defend itself. Thus, difference on metabolic pathways predominantly employed
in detoxification and excretion capabilities has been described by [46]. The genetic differences may,
also, lead to a difference in inhibition rate [49]. Therefore, deviations among cryptic lineages regarding
physiological and behavioral characteristics are conceivable as well [50].

Following the trend observed in inhibition of AChE activity, methomyl was chronically more toxic to
the Gammarus nsppopulations than to E. simoni. Considering that methomyl is a contact insecticide
[51], the main intake route of the toxicant in gammarids will be mostly through body surface rather than
via filtration of toxicant-bound food particles. Accordingly, a difference surface-to-volume ratio may
explain the difference of sensitivity (RI) to methomyl of gammarids. Further research will be done to see
difference with presence or no surface-tovolume ratio difference between the two species found if
populations are genetically distinct certainly in mechanism of detoxification and therefore their
tolerance to the toxicant can be constrained by the genotype.

Multivariate analysis proved that intra and interspecific variability of basic or sensitive values of two
biomarkers (AChE activity, feeding rate) does not exclude the approach of using model gammarid
populations for biomonitoring water quality.

In situ exposure

The biological monitoring of the environment or “biomonitoring” has the objective of integrating these
various aspects, particularly by using sentinel species as model. Thus, in situ exposure takes into account
the influence of the multiple parameters present in the environment that intervene under natural
conditions to affect toxicity: abiotic ecological factors (such as temperature, salinity, conditions of
oxygenation), interspecific variability and the interactions between species, the heterogeneity of
populations in their interactions with pollutants, or between pollutants an abiotic factors of the
environment [52]. For this, we proposed, for the first time an in situ exposure with gammarids.

The two used biomarkers have been proposed as ecologically relevant in situ indicator of water
quality [19,21,26]. Values of AChE activity and feeding rate observed in reference station (Oued Beja
upstream) was similar to those observed in our laboratory study, in controls. This state, led us to
purpose this station as reference. However, several authors affirm that biomarkers values, in reference
station, should not usually be defined as baseline values, such biotic and non-toxic environmental
influences could lead to the misinterpretation of individual markers in water chemical quality
assessment, during in situ or post exposure assays, with caged organisms such us temperature,
conductivity, pH, season). However, for gammarids, [19] affirm that feeding rate was only modulated by
season and temperature. In addition, AChE activity was not influenced by any abiotic factors [26].
Finally, our in situ exposure was done on the same season and same periods that let us purpose this
station as reference.

Total mortality of E. simoni populations in Kasseb downstream, should be related to the low oxygen
level, caused by high Biologic Oxygen Demand. Thus, [53] affirmed that effluent of dairy caused high
organic matter pollution. The low percentage of mortality in Bouhetma downstream, does not means
good water quality. Thus, feeding rate and Ache activity decrease significantly. These observations
should be a result of an exposure of varied pollution such as pesticide, heavy metals, as affirmed by
several authors [18,19,24,54-58].

Conclusion

Despite the interest of gammarids in biomonitoring in Tunisia, the use of this aquatic invertebrate in
toxicology is still absent. In this context, we proposed to test in laboratory and in the fields the response
of gammarids to methomyl and pollution respectively. Results show that despite the variability in
sensitivity, in all exposed animals AChE activity and feeding rate decrease significantly. This state proves
that tunisian gammarids are robust, responsive, and relevant for Tunisian fresh water biomonitoring.
Clearly, there is a need for further studies in this area, to include both laboratory and field studies from
clean and reference sites, we suggest the following priority research areas like a) Field monitoring is
required to assess the quality of the majority of Tunisian rivers, b) Studies are required to develop and
adapt other biomarkers in gammarids assessing water quality and c) Assessments into the impacts of
known industrial pollutants in Tunisia on Gammarids.

Link: https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/gammarids-species-in-tunisia-what-indicator-interest-
cans-it-prove-on-fresh-waters-biomonitoring-2375-4397-1000226-104776.html

GROUP 7

Laurel (Litsea glaucescens Kunth) Regeneration in the Presence of Disturbance Events: A Case
Study
A study was carried out in an Abies religiosa Kunth Schltdl. et Cham forest of the community of San
Antonio Tecocomulco Tres Cabezas, Municipality of Singuilucan, Hidalgo, to evaluate the resprouting
ability of laurel (Litsea glaucescens Kunth) in response to controlled burning treatments and removal of
entire stems. The number of laurel bushes, shoots, and mean plant height were evaluated, and three
treatments were applied: controlled surface burn; all sprouts cut from the base; and control treatment.
Nine weeks after the treatments were applied, the plants in the stem removal treatment remained alive
(100 percent), and the appearance of shoots with a mean height of 4.8 cm increased by 18 percent,
whereas in the controlled burning treatment, the number of live plants and shoots decreased by 38.2
and 71.5 percent, respectively, with a mean height of 1.1 cm. In the control, the number of bushes
remained at 100 percent, and shoots increased by 9.9 percent with a mean bush height of 7.6 cm. This
indicates that although surface forest fires tend to affect laurel, surviving plants tend to emit more
vigorous shoots, whereas stem removal in laurel bushes generates more shoots.

Link: https://academic.oup.com/forestscience/advance-article-
abstract/doi/10.1093/forsci/fxz032/5520193?redirectedFrom=fulltext

GROUP 8

Studies Reveal How Dogs Process Words

Have you ever wondered if a dog really understands what someone is saying? For example, when a dog
hears the word “bird”, it might perk up or even run to a window and look out. But, to the dog, does the
word mean, “Something is happening!”, or does the dog picture a feathered winged animal perched on
a tree? What is really happening in the dog’s brain when it hears a person say bird? That’s exactly what
a team of researchers wanted to find out; so they conducted a study to looks at how dog’s brains react
to human words.

Ashley Prichard, a Ph.D. candidate in Emory University’s Department of Psychology and first author of
the study, said in a statement:

“Many dog owners think that their dogs know what some words mean, but there really isn’t much
scientific evidence to support that. We wanted to get data from the dogs themselves — not just owner
reports.”

In a recent study, researchers used brain imaging to probe how dogs process words they have been
taught to associate with objects. They discovered that dogs have at least a rudimentary neural
representation of meaning for words they’ve been taught and can differentiate words they’ve heard
before from those they have not. The study has been published in the peer-reviewed journal Frontiers in
Neuroscience.

Neuroscientist Gregory Berns, senior author of the study and author of the bestselling book “What it’s
Like to be a Dog”, said:

“We know that dogs have the capacity to process at least some aspects of human language since they
can learn to follow verbal commands. Previous research, however, suggests dogs may rely on many
other cues to follow a verbal command, such as gaze, gestures and even emotional expressions from
their owners.”

Dog fMRI scan while being shown images while words are spoken

Berns is also the founder of the Dog Project – a project with the intent of better understand the dog’s
mind. They’re even going so far as to scan the dog’s brains, to truly understand by seeing what is going
on when they “think”. Part of the project involves training dogs to voluntarily enter a functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanner and remain motionless during scanning, without restraint or
sedation. It was the first project to accomplish such a task.
The Study

The research focus was set to questions surrounding the brain mechanisms dogs use to differentiate
between words, as well as what constitutes a word to a dog.

12 dogs of varying breeds were trained to retrieve two different objects, based on the objects’ names.

Each trained dog lay in the fMRI scanner while the dog’s owner stood directly in front of the dog at the
opening of the machine and said the names of the dog’s toys at set intervals, then showed the dog the
corresponding toys.

For example, Eddie, a golden retriever-Labrador mix, heard his owner say the words piggy or monkey,
then his owner held up the matching toy. As a control, the owner then spoke gibberish words – such as
bobbu and bodmick – then held up novel objects like a hat or a doll.

The Results

There was greater activation in auditory regions of the brain to the novel invented words compared to
the trained words.

Prichard explained:

“We expected to see that dogs neurally discriminate between words that they know and words that they
don’t. What’s surprising is that the result is opposite to that of research on humans — people typically
show greater neural activation for known words than novel words.”

The Hypothesis

The dogs may show greater neural activation to a new, unknown word because they sense their owners
want them to understand what they are saying, and they are trying to do so.

Berns explained:

“Dogs ultimately want to please their owners, and perhaps also receive praise or food… Dogs may have
varying capacity and motivation for learning and understanding human words, but they appear to have
a neural representation for the meaning of words they have been taught, beyond just a low-level
Pavlovian response.”

Conclusion

Dog Stella with the toys it was trained with to find out how dogs process words

This does not mean that spoken words are the most effective way for an owner to communicate with a
dog. Prichard and Berns led another separate study, which was recently published in Scientific Reports,
that revealed the neural reward system of dogs is more attuned to visual and to scent cues than to
verbal ones.

Prichard said:

“When people want to teach their dog a trick, they often use a verbal command because that’s what we
humans prefer. From the dog’s perspective, however, a visual command might be more effective, helping
the dog learn the trick faster.”
Link: https://www.intelligentliving.co/studies-reveal-how-dogs-process-words/

GROUP 9

Putting Equity First in Climate Adaptation

In September, the United Nations will set out a global agenda for helping communities adapt to climate
change through the framework of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). As nations draw up their
strategies, we call on them to put equity first.

Poor people face a double burden of inequality — from uneven development and climate change. In
Mozambique, for example, two-thirds of the population lives in extreme poverty, on less than US$1.9
per day. In March, the nation was hit by Cyclone Idai, followed by Cyclone Kenneth in April. Idai alone
killed 1,000 people and left 3 million in need of help. Most were in poor, isolated rural communities and
coastal settlements that were cut off from emergency responses.

People on extremely low incomes often live along coasts and riversides that are prone to flooding, and
in other exposed areas. In Nigeria, the poorest 20% are 50% more likely to lose their lives, assets,
livelihoods or health in a flood than the average Nigerian1. They are also 130% more likely to be
affected by a drought, and 80% more likely to be affected by a heatwave.

Global supply chains spread the impacts of unusual weather in one place to people far away. For
example, food riots erupted across 14 African countries when drought slashed wheat yields in Australia,
the United States, Russia and the Ukraine in 2007–08, doubling the prices of some commodities2.

Those living just above the poverty line will also be badly hit as the world warms. For example, many
farmers in coastal parts of Bangladesh have had to abandon their land owing to regular flooding. They
are moving to cities, where they find it hard to make a living. If current climate and development trends
continue, then by 2030, tens of millions of people will join the 736 million now living in extreme
poverty1.

More of the same kind of development is not the answer. Building infrastructure that ignores local
population needs and creating low-skilled jobs perpetuates old patterns that concentrate land, capital
and resources in the hands of a few. Nor do targets focused on easy wins solve the problem. For
example, the Millennium Development Goals (the predecessors of the SDGs) halved rates of extreme
poverty in the developing world by pushing people who were just below the poverty line over it.
Tackling extreme poverty is proving difficult. In sub-Saharan Africa, the number of extremely poor
people is not expected to fall for more than a decade, despite strong economic growth and
development. Extreme poverty is also becoming more concentrated, with nearly 9 in 10 extremely poor
people expected to be living in the region by 2030.

Adaptation must be equitable. Policymakers must put the needs of the most vulnerable first. They
should align development and climate policies and actions from local to global scales, and supply public
information about risks and solutions. Scientists must elucidate links between poverty, risk and loss to
allow global targets to be reset.
Most of all, we must listen to the voices of impoverished people to realize the aim of the SDGs — to
‘leave no one behind’.

Vulnerable populations

Poor people are less able than others to withstand hazards, and they lose a greater proportion of their
wealth when disaster strikes. They have few savings; any dwellings, belongings and equipment they own
tend to be fragile. Even minor shocks such as an illness can destroy the economy of a household that is
under long-term stress. Private insurance is generally unaffordable. Those who can purchase medicine,
rebuild homes or restock farms often pay high prices in the aftermath, which can lead to spiralling debt.
When poor people migrate, this is often driven by crisis; they cannot rely on affluent relatives elsewhere
sending remittances home.

It is difficult to get government welfare, such as affordable housing or subsidized health care, to the
poorest, who sometimes avoid these schemes for fear of repression. Most of the bottom few per cent
(in income terms) rent or live in informal housing, including camps for refugees and displaced people.
More than half of the 3.1 million people who live in Nairobi, one of Africa’s richest cities, dwell in
informal settlements, for example. Poor people frequently lack access to the information and tools they
need to make adaptation decisions and to hold authorities to account.

The losses of poor people tend not to be accounted for in macroeconomic calculations of climate
impacts. In Panama, Honduras and Colombia, for instance, the bottom 20% of the population contribute
just 4% to the national income, yet their lives are likely to be hit much harder. For the poorest, losing
tools, a workshop or a few livestock means the difference between earning a living and becoming
destitute. Describing losses not as an absolute number but as a proportion of a household’s savings or
assets puts poor communities and countries at the top of economic loss and risk tables.

Current development practices often increase risks, rather than diminish them, for the extremely poor.
Most adaptation projects focus on engineering or environmental responses. For example, Salt Lake in
Kolkata, India, has been modernized steadily since the 1970s. Sturdy houses, well-planned streets and
drainage have turned a swamp into one of the most comfortable and least flood-prone districts of
Kolkata. These improvements make Salt Lake a healthy and secure place for its richer residents. But
those who serve them — the barbers, rickshaw drivers and maids — live in informal settlements on the
outskirts. There is little investment there in land drainage, housing quality is low and waterlogging and
flooding are common3.

Adaptation practices also assume that ‘one size fits all’. Yet impoverished women, children, elderly and
disabled people, migrants and those from minority groups are over-represented in vulnerable groups.
Child protection and safe spaces for women need to become priorities in disaster responses. Early-
warning information will be heard only if it is provided in the languages of migrant groups and in
culturally sensitive ways. Designs of emergency shelters should consider the privacy needs of women
and girls, to encourage use without fear of social stigma or abuse.

Equitable adaptation

Adaptation must meet the needs of the poorest directly, putting them at the centre of decision-making
with funding. The case for equitable adaptation is clear: it is a moral duty, and it improves economic
productivity, social cohesion, health and peace.
Adaptation projects should create opportunities as well as reduce risk. For example, Costa Rican coffee
farmers are being encouraged to grow more citrus to boost their incomes as the climate warms. And in
the Dominican Republic, flood evacuation routes in the urban slums of Santo Domingo provide safer
access to schools and build social cohesion.

More emphasis should be placed on the rule of law, security of the person, equality of opportunity and
inclusivity. For example, the Salt Lake service workers could have been given formal contracts and
affordable homes with drainage, clean drinking water and sanitation.

An exemplar of equitable adaptation is the Mukuru Special Planning Area in Nairobi. This urban
upgrading scheme of 138,000 households was planned jointly by Nairobi City County and the Muungano
Trust, a collaborative of community-based organizations. Local residents are being provided with
information and leadership training. Decisions on land-use planning, environmental standards, drainage,
water and security are taken in partnership. Community-run microcredit and loan schemes help locals to
establish small businesses and build buffers against poverty and risk.

Science challenges

To roll out equitable adaptation worldwide, greater understanding is needed on how rights, justice and
entitlements reduce risks and promote resilience. Scientific studies face three challenges.

First, researchers and practitioners rarely ask poor people what concerns them most or what solutions
they prefer. For example, there can be disagreement in a community over who is most at risk, or how
support should be prioritized. Risk assessments and resilience plans fail to capture the richness of local
experience. Researchers typically deploy data and maps to convince locals that more infrastructure is
the answer. They assume locals’ lives and attitudes must change, not theirs. Local people tend not to be
offered skills training or leadership roles.

Second, adaptation is often falsely presented solely as a local agenda. But local livelihoods and building
designs rest on national and international norms, standards and policies in economics, land-use planning
and building codes, for example. Adaptation policies must align on all scales to achieve their potential.
Fostering community-based adaptation will be ineffective if it runs counter to national policies and a
political economy that disadvantages the most vulnerable in the first place.

Third, policy progress is measured mostly in averages and aggregates. These measures don’t capture the
needs and realities of the most vulnerable. For example, indicators of disaster risk and impacts, such as
those shared by the SDGs and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, are focused on
reducing sizes of economic losses and the number of people affected by disasters. Those closest to the
threshold of these targets are easiest to lift out, repeating the Millennium Development Goals trap.

Three axioms

Researchers and practitioners should thus be guided by these three axioms:

Invest in relationships. For adaptation to be consensual and progressive, researchers must stop talking
about the most vulnerable and provide room for them to speak for themselves. In Nairobi, for example,
organized groups of the urban poor work with city authorities to facilitate urban planning. One focus is
on reducing the health impacts of polluted air, soil and water and other risks from solid waste, including
flooding and fires.
Researchers and funders should develop formal processes for scientists and locals to co-produce
knowledge, such as mapping risks in informal settlements or harnessing local ecological expertise to
fine-tune climate forecasts. The United Kingdom’s £1.5-billion (US$1.95-billion) Global Challenges
Research Fund, for example, prioritizes funding for projects that are based on equitable partnerships.

Support local innovation. Researchers need to combine data and methodologies from political, social
and Earth-systems sciences to model risk holistically from local to global scales. They should integrate
inequality concerns into climate impact modelling, for example4, and assess how multiple factors
magnify risks for certain groups. For instance, how do global climate, weather and local coasts, lakes and
rivers interact to produce flooding in certain areas? Risk factors that are linked over large distances must
be considered, such as how floods and droughts influence food prices globally.

A global fund oriented at tackling the root causes of risk and poverty would be a major step forward.
The Climate Action Summit to be held in New York in September is a clear opportunity to turn such
ambitions into global action.

Measure success in the most vulnerable. Adaptation interventions should focus on social vulnerability,
rather than broader resilience, to bring disparities to the foreground. Strategies can then be targeted at
supporting the people who will suffer most, rather than shifting statistical averages for people who are
better able to adapt.

The many factors that contribute to resilience need to be unpacked, along with the impacts of different
choices and behaviours. For example, in Niamey, Niger, many extremely poor boys work in food
markets, where they receive tips in food. So the closure of markets after flooding disproportionately
affects them, compared with girls who work in domestic service in areas less prone to risk5. Knowing
this, the markets might be flood-proofed or food aid targeted at children. Unexpected failures might
also be predicted; for example, pressures on hospitals in Paris and London rose during heatwaves in
2003 as many elderly people became ill.

Climate change is transforming our world. We will have to adapt. Let’s combat poverty and inequality at
the same time.

Link: https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-01497-9

GROUP 10

Agricultural expansion as risk to endangered wildlife: Pesticide exposure in wild chimpanzees

and baboons displaying facial dysplasia.
Editors´motivation for choosing this paper

This paper reports on the relationship of exposure to agricultural pesticides by wild chimpanzees and
baboons affected by facial dysplasia in Uganda. Chemical analyses of maize seeds and fish samples
collected from 2014-16 showed that such facial deformities were caused by excess levels of the
pesticides DDT, DDE, chlorpyrifos and imidacloprid found at the vivinity of the Kibale National Park .
Chimpanzees are considered endangered species being extremely important for Uganda ecotourism.
Scientific papers like this one will attract social media and authorities attention facilitating a better
environmental protection for endangered wildlife in Uganda.

Abstract

Prenatal exposure to environmental endocrine disruptors can affect development and induce
irreversible abnormalities in both humans and wildlife. The northern part of Kibale National Park, a mid-
altitude rainforest in western Uganda, is largely surrounded by industrial tea plantations and wildlife
using this area (Sebitoli) must cope with proximity to human populations and their activities. The
chimpanzees and baboons in this area raid crops (primarily maize) in neighboring gardens. Sixteen
young individuals of the 66 chimpanzees monitored (25%) exhibit abnormalities including reduced
nostrils, cleft lip, limb deformities, reproductive problems and hypopigmentation. Each pathology could
have a congenital component, potentially exacerbated by environmental factors. In addition, at least six
of 35 photographed baboons from a Sebitoli troop (17%) have similar severe nasal deformities. Our
inquiries in villages and tea factories near Sebitoli revealed use of eight pesticides (glyphosate,
cypermethrin, profenofos, mancozeb, metalaxyl, dimethoate, chlorpyrifos and 2,4-D amine). Chemical
analysis of samples collected from 2014 to 2016 showed that mean levels of pesticides in fresh maize
stems and seeds, soils, and river sediments in the vicinity of the chimpanzee territory exceed
recommended limits. Notably, excess levels were found for total DDT and its metabolite pp'-DDE and for
chlorpyrifos in fresh maize seeds and in fish from Sebitoli. Imidacloprid was detected in coated maize
seeds planted at the edge the forest and in fish samples from the Sebitoli area, while no pesticides were
detected in fish from central park areas. Since some of these pesticides are thyroid hormone disruptors,
we postulate that excessive pesticide use in the Sebitoli area may contribute to facial dysplasia in
chimpanzees and baboons through this endocrine pathway. Chimpanzees are considered as endangered
by IUCN and besides their intrinsic value and status as closely related to humans, they have major
economic value in Uganda via ecotourism. Identifying and limiting potential threats to their survival such
be a conservation priority.

Links:

Editor’s motivation:

https://www.journals.elsevier.com/science-of-the-total-environment/editors-choice/agricultural-
expansion-as-risk-to-endangered-wildlife-pestic

Abstract:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28454037