Me 43 PDF

Accelerometers and Gyroscopes
by
Kharl Gurrea
Francis Neil Soquino
Ronnie Ray Dumdum
What is Accelerometer?
• A sensor that measures the physical acceleration experienced
by an object due to inertial forces or due to mechanical
excitation.
• Also referred to as a transducer which comprises of
mechanical sensing elements and a mechanism which
converts mechanical motion into an electrical output.
The types of Accelerometer are:
1. Potentiometric
2. Hall Effect
3. Capacitive
4. Piezoelectric
5. Piezoresistive
What is a Gyroscope?
• A gyroscope is a device that uses Earth's gravity to help determine
orientation.
• An instrument for measuring or maintaining orientation, based on the
principles of conservation of angular momentum – the momentum of a
system is constant if there are no external forces acting on the system.
The types of Gyroscope are:
• Mechanical Gyroscope
• Optical Gyroscope
• Vibrating Structure Gyroscope
Types of Accelerometers
1. Potentiometric Accelerometer
• A type of accelerometer that relies on a spring-mass system. It’s main
components are mass, spring, damper/dashpot, and resistive element. It
works by changing the position of the wiper after force was applied to the
mass, resulting to a change in resistance of the resistive element and
thus sending signal through current or voltage.
• This type of accelerometer can only be used in low frequency vibration
which is less than 30 Hz.
2. Hall Effect Accelerometer
• Another type of accelerometer that relies on the spring-mass system.
What makes this type of accelerometer different from Potentiometric
is that it works on the principle of electromagnetism.
• Hall Effect happens when an electric current flows through a
conductor in a magnetic field, the magnetic field exerts a transverse
force on the moving charge carriers which tends to push them to one
side of the conductor.
3. Capacitive Accelerometer
• Also works on spring-mass system principles. It is composed of spring,
damper, mass, and capacitors. It has the ability to sense static and
dynamic acceleration on equipment or devices. A diaphragm (capacitor
connected to the mass), is installed between two capacitors.
• The acceleration is determined by the distance between the diaphragm
and the stationary capacitors. Vibrations trigger the change in distance
between capacitors which will send a signal on the change of
capacitance.
• This is also used in MEMS (Micro-Electro Mechanical Systems)
• Capacitive accelerometers are widely implemented in computational and
commercial applications, such as airbag deployment sensors in
automobiles, human computer interaction (HCI) devices and
smartphones.
4. Piezoelectric Accelerometer
• Uses lead zirconate titanate sensing elements which under acceleration
produce a proportional electric charge or output. Piezoelectric
accelerometers are the most widely used accelerometer for test and
measurement applications; and are the first choice for most vibration
measurements due to their wide frequency response, good sensitivity, and
easy installation.
• Utilizes the piezoelectric effect of certain materials to measure dynamic
changes in mechanical variables, such as mechanical shock, vibration
and acceleration.
• Examples of piezoelectric materials: Ceramic, quartz, lead titanate, lithium
tantalate
• A piezoelectric accelerometer consists of a mass attached to a
piezoelectric crystal which is mounted on a case. When the
accelerometer body is subjected to vibration, it modifies its internal
alignment of negative and positive ions and results in accumulation
of a charge on the opposite surface.
5. Piezoresistive Accelerometer
• A piezoresistive accelerometer produces resistance changes in strain
gauges that are part of the accelerometer’s seismic
system. Piezoresistive accelerometers have a very wide bandwidth
which allows these to be used for measuring short duration (high
frequency) shock events such as crash testing.
• Piezoresistive accelerometers are by far the best type for impulse/impact
measurements where the frequency range and amplitude are typically
high
• Applied mechanical stress changes the resistivity of a semiconductor.
The force exerted by the seismic mass changes the resistance of the
strain gages.
GYROSCOPE
SENSORS
Gyroscopes are devices that:
• Can measure the angular velocity of an object.

• Can determine the orientation of an object.
TYPES OF GYROSCOPES
■ Mechanical Gyroscope
■ Optical Gyroscope
■ Vibrating Structure Gyroscope
Application:
■ Internal Navigation System
■ Camera Stabilizer
■ Anti Lock Brakes (ABS)
■ And many more..
MECHANICAL GYROSCOPES
■ THE MOST COMMON TYPE OF GYROSCOPE
• THE ROTOR WILL MAINTAIN ITS SPIN

AXIS DIRECTION REGARDLESS OF
THE ORIENTATION OF THE OUTER
FRAME. GIVEN THAT NO FORCE IS
APPLIED
PROPERTIES OF THE MECHANICAL
GYROSCOPE
RIGIDITY
■ The axis of rotation (spin axis) of the gyro
wheel tends to remain in a fixed direction
in space if no force is applied to it.
PRECESSION
■ The axis of rotation has a tendency to
turn at a right angle to the direction of
an applied force.
PRINCIPLES BEHIND THE MECHANICAL
GYROSCOPE
■ The spinning rotor is the main reason why the gyroscope can maintain its
orientation.
■ The angular momentum developed by the spinning motor maintains the balance of
the gyroscope
■ The gimbal parts of the gyroscope has one to two degrees of rotational freedom.
■ An input force to the gyroscope will result to an output force perpendicular to the
direction of the input force.
■ The mechanical gyroscope does not rely on gravity to maintain its orientation
APPLICATIONS OF THE MECHANICAL
GYROSCOPE
Inertial Navigation System
is a navigation device that uses a computer,
motion sensors (accelerometers) and rotation sensors
(gyroscopes) to continuously calculate by dead
reckoning the position, the orientation, and the
velocity (direction and speed of movement) of a
moving object without the need for external
references.
Used on:
1. Ships (Gyroscope Actuator)
2. Aircraft (Altitude Indicator)
3. Submarines (Gyrocompass)
4. Spacecraft
5. Guided Missiles
GYROSCOPE
Gait Phase Detection Sensor (GPDS)
This system is basically an actuator to human-
muscle used by a paralyzed person.
It consists of a Gyroscope and force meter
Gyroscope placed in a shoe-sole measures the
angular velocity which is processed with sensed data of
force meter to give stimulation to the muscles
GYROSCOPE
ANTI LOCK BRAKES (ABS)
In vehicles equipped with
ABS, you only need to plant
your foot firmly on the brake
pedal, while the ABS pump the
optimum brakes for you so you
can concentrate on steering to
safety.
GAS-BEARING MECHANICAL GYROSCOPE
• The rotor is suspended by
pressurized gas, reducing
the amount of friction
between moving parts.
• The most accurate gyroscope

available
• These types of gyroscopes were used by the
NASA in the development of the Hubble
Telescope. According to NASA, the gas-bearing
gyroscopes are much quieter than other forms of
gyroscopes and also have greater accuracy.
ELECTRIC MECHANICAL GYROSCOPE
■ It uses electricity to turn the rotor of the gyroscope.

■ Used in the turn coordinator of an Airplane
OPTICAL GYROSCOPE
• Also known as Fibre-Optic Gyroscope (FOG)
• The optical gyroscope senses the change
with the use of the Sagnac Effect
• Optical gyroscopes are not based on the
conservation of angular momentum. These
gyroscopes use two coils of fiber optic
cable spun in different orientations.
SAGNAC EFFECT
▪ The Sagnac effect is a
phenomenon encountered in
interferometry that is elicited
by rotation.
■ According to the Sagnac

Effect, when the device is
tilted, the two beams of light
will travel different distances,
which can be measured.
PRINCIPLE BEHIND THE OPTIC
GYROSCOPE
Two beams from a laser are injected into the same fibre
but in opposite directions. Due to the Sagnac effect, the
beam travelling against the rotation experiences a slightly
shorter path delay than the other beam. The resulting
differential phase shift is measured through
interferometry, thus translating one component of the
angular velocity into a shift of the interference pattern
which is measured photometrically.
OPTICAL GYROSCOPES
OPTICAL GYROSCOPES
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
■ It offers higher sensitivity. Hence it ■ Some designs of FOG are sensitive
helps in determining direction of the to vibrations. The impact can be
Earth's poles based on measurements mitigated when multiple-axis FOG is
of angular velocity only. coupled witn accelerometers.
■ Since it is a solid state device with no
moving part nor sealed cavity. It is
■ The FOGs are required to be
highly raliable and offers longer life calibrated
time. Moreover it does not need any ■ Linearity and scale factor stability of
preventive maintenance.
gyroscope are easily deteriorated
■ It offers high performance due to its due to fluctuations in the intensity
inherent low random noise. of incident light on the
■ FOG does not have any dither photodetector.
mechanism. Hence it is perfectly silent
device. It is used for submarine
navigation.
VIBRATING STRUCTURE GYROSCOPE
■ A vibrating structure gyroscope, defined by the IEEE
(Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) as a Coriolis
vibratory gyroscope (CVG)
■ Is a gyroscope that uses a vibrating structure to
determine the rate of rotation. A vibrating structure
gyroscope functions much like the halteres of flies.
■ The physical principle
is that a vibrating object tends to continue vibrating in
the same plane even if its support rotates. The Coriolis
effect causes the object to exert a force on its support,
and by measuring this force the rate of rotation can be
determined.
■ Application:
Inexpensive vibrating structure gyroscopes
manufactured with MEMS technology are widely used
in smartphones, gaming devices, cameras and many
other applications.
TYPES OF VIBRATING STRUCTURE
GYROSCOPES
• Piezo-Electric Gyroscope
• Tuning Fork Gyroscope
• Vibrating Wheel
Gyroscope
MEMS TECHNOLOGY
■ Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems, or MEMS, is a

technology that in its most general form can be defined
as miniaturized mechanical and electro-mechanical
elements (i.e., devices and structures) that are made
using the techniques of microfabrication.
■ Microsensors and microactuators are appropriately
categorized as “transducers”, which are defined as
devices that convert energy from one form to another.
Video Links:
■ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_6gEphTp2G4
■ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hVsx4XWafXg
■ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cquvA_IpEsA
■ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eqZgxR6eRjo
■ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i2U49usFo10
Distance Sensors
By Benedict Layan, Ramon Monsanto, & Natty
Pagarancute
What is a Distance Sensor?
Displacement Sensor is a device
that measures the distance
between the sensor and an
object by detecting the amount
of displacement through a
variety of elements and
converting it into a distance.
Depending on what element is
used, there are several types of
sensors, such as optical
displacement sensors, linear
proximity sensors, and ultrasonic
displacement sensors.
Difference between Distance
and Proximity Sensors
 Distance sensors, ultrasonic or not, measure the
distance of a target from the sensor and send a
signal that represents the distance.
 Proximity sensors, ultrasonic or not, sense that an

object is within the sensing area at which the
sensor is designed to operate. They do not
indicate the distance, just that something is there
and send a signal indicating such, usually a
switch closure or a voltage for on or off, there or
not there.
Types of Distance Sensors
 Ultrasonic Sensors
-measure distances
without contact by
sending a sonic pulse
signal and
evaluating the pulse
duration.
 Optical Sensors
-The diode sends a laser pulse

signal, which is reflected by the
object to be detected. The time,
which the light pulse signal
requires from the diode to the
object and back, is measured
and evaluated. The distance is
calculated from the time and the
speed of light.
Distance = speed of light x time

 Inductive Sensors
-designed for non-contact

measurement of
displacement, distance,
position, oscillation and
vibrations. They are
particularly suitable when
high precision is required in
harsh industrial
environments (pressure, dirt,
temperature).
 Capacitive Sensors
-perform non-contact
measurements of
displacement, distance
and position of
electrically conductive
targets with high
precision.
 Laser Sensors
-are used in
measurement and
monitoring tasks in
factory automation,
electronics production,
robotics and vehicle
construction.
 Laser Distance Sensors
-are designed for non-
contact distance
measurements: laser
gauges for measuring
ranges up to 10m, laser
distance sensors for up to
3,000m.
 Draw-wire Displacement
Sensors
-measure almost linearly
across the entire measuring
range and are used for
distance and position
measurements of 50mm up
to 50,000mm.
The End.
Hehehehe byeeee~~
ELECTRONIC
NOSE
What is odor?
• An odour is a mixture of light and small molecules, also

at very low concentrations in the inhaled air, that, upon
coming in contact with the human sensory system, is
able to stimulate an anatomical response: the
experienced perception is the odour
• odor, or odour, is caused by one or more
volatilized chemical compounds that are generally found
in low concentrations that humans and animals can
perceive by their sense of smell. An odor is also called a
"smell" or a "scent", which can refer to either a pleasant
or an unpleasant odor.
Electronic Nose
• It is a device that detects the
smell more effectively then the
human sense of smell. An
electronic nose consists of a
mechanism for chemical
detection.
• It is an intelligent sensing
device that uses an array of gas
sensors which are overlapping
selectively along with a pattern
reorganization component.
• Have provided external benefits
to a verity of commercial
industries, agriculture,
biomedical, cosmetics,
environmental, food, water and
various scientific research
fields. It also detects the
hazardous or poisonous gas
which is not possible to human
sniffers.
Electronic Nose
• It is an array of chemical
sensors, connected to a
pattern-recognition system
that responds to odors
passing over it. Different
odors cause different
responses in the sensors,
and these responses
provide a signal pattern
characteristic of a particular
aroma. The computer
evaluates the signal pattern
and can compare the
aromas of different
samples, using pattern
recognition.
Process Example
Sensors and Arrays in the Electronic Nose
Working Principle:
• The electronic nose was developed in order to mimic human
olfaction whose functions are non separate mechanism , i.e. the
smell or flavor is perceived as a global finger print. Essentially the
instrument consists of sensor array, pattern reorganization modules,
and headspace sampling, to generate signal pattern that are used
for characterizing smells. The electronic nose consists of three
major parts which are detecting system, computing system, sample
delivery system.
3 Systems used in
Electronic Nose
1. Sample
Delivery
System
2. Detection
System
3. Computing
System
Data Analysis:
1. Graphical
Analysis
2. Multivariate data
Analysis
3. Network Analysis
Commonly used sensors in Electronic
Nose
1. Metal Oxide Sensors (MOS)
2. Conducting Polymers
3. Quartz Crystal Microbalance
Metal Oxide
Sensors
• Semiconductor gas sensors rely
on a gas coming into contact
with a metal oxide surface and
then undergoing either oxidation
or reduction. The absorption or
desorption of the gas on the
metal oxide changes either the
conductivity or resistivity from a
known baseline value. This
change in conductivity or
resistivity can be measured with
electronic circuitry. Usually the
change in conductivity or
resistivity is a linear and
proportional relationship with
gas concentration. Therefore, a
simple calibration equation can
be established between
resistivity/conductivity change
and gas concentration.
Conducting
Polymers
• Conducting polymer
nanomaterials are
potentially useful for the
fabrication of
miniaturized sensors
that enable small sample
volumes, portability, and
high-density arrays.
Quartz Crystal
Microbalance
(QCM)
• Quartz Crystal
Microbalance (QCM) is
an extremely sensitive
mass balance that
measures nanogram to
microgram level
changes in mass per
unit area. The heart of
the technology is a
quartz disc. Quartz is a
piezoelectric material
that can be made to
oscillate at a defined
frequency by applying
an appropriate voltage
usually via metal
electrodes.
Applications of Electronic Nose
1. Medical diagnostics and Health monitoring
2. Environmental monitoring
3. Food industry
4. Space applications (NASA)
5. Quality Control Laboratories
6. Detection of explosives, drugs and harmful
bacteria
7. Gas Leak Detection
Medical diagnostics and Health monitoring
• Detection of Lung Cancer and Diabetes through Breath

analysis
- a research study was conducted, which consisted of 35 patients with lung
cancer and 35 healthy patients whose breaths were analyzed through
electronic nose
- The statistical analysis found out a positive predictive value of 79% and a
negative predictive value of 76%. Furthermore the sensitivity of the electronic
nose was 74% and the specificity was 80%.
- Research title: Early diagnosis of lung cancer by the electronic nose:
Preliminary results by
Sedda, Gasparri, Guarize, Brambilla, Borri, Santonico, Pennazza, Natale, Paol
esse, D'Amico, Spaggiari
Detection of Lung
Cancer through
Breath analysis
• The preliminary results
of the said research
were satisfactory and
concluded that the
electronic nose as a
promising tool for early
diagnosis. Further
studies are necessary to
extend the analysis to
evaluate larger groups of
patients.
Environmental Monitoring
• In environmental field applications, electronic noses are principally
used to analyze air. However, they can also be used for the
evaluation of water. In these instances, the characteristics of the
water can be detected by using an electronic nose in the head space
above the water or using instruments with a matrix of liquid sensors
that work in a way similar to human taste sensors with the result that
they are commonly known as “electronic tongues”
• Electronic nose applications in environmental monitoring can be
divided into the following main categories: (I) analysis of parameters
relating to air quality; (II) analysis of parameters relating to water
quality; (III) process control; (IV) verification of efficiency of odor
control systems.
Environmental
Monitoring
• For identification of volatile
organic compounds in air, water
and soil samples
• For environmental protection
• E-nose technologies are
potentially capable of
monitoring all phases of
industrial manufacturing
processes to minimize
production of pollutants and
maintain efficient, clean
production lines. E-nose
devices are also useful in
designing more
environmentally-friendly, clean
technologies for energy
production, various industrial
processes and product-
manufacturing systems.
Food Industry
• Electronic noses and tongues
are used to classify food and
drinks according to their level of
“deliciousness.” The ideal
artificial sensing system for
assessment of food products
should permit any food or drink
to be evaluated for its
organoleptic qualities in a
manner similar to food
assessment as performed by
humans. This implies not just
smell and taste, but other
qualities such as color, texture,
etc. The ultimate food
evaluation system would enable
one to assay food or drinks as
would a human taster but
without day-to-day variations
and subjective errors, and thus
with greater reliability.
Space
Applications
• The electronic nose’s
ability to monitor air
contaminants in the
space shuttle and in the
International Space
Station ensures the
health and safety of the
astronauts aboard and
equipment integrity.
Quality Control
Laboratories
1. Conformity of raw
materials, intermediate
and final products
2. Batch to batch
consistency
3. Detection of
contamination, spoilage,
adulteration
4. Origin or vendor
selection
5. Monitoring of storage
conditions
6. Meat quality monitoring
Detection of
Explosives and
Drugs
• The ability of the electronic
nose to detect odorless
chemicals is ideal for use in
the police force, such as the
ability to detect drug odors
despite other airborne
odors capable of confusing
police dogs. It may also be
used as a bomb detection
method in airports. Through
careful placement of
several or more electronic
noses and effective
computer systems, one
could triangulate the
location of bombs to within
a few metres of their
location in less than a few
seconds.
Gas Leak
Detection
• E-nose devices are ideal
instruments for measuring
and monitoring carbon and
greenhouse-gas emissions
due to their sensitivity to a
wide diversity of volatile
organic compounds
(VOCs).
• Potential pollution-detection
applications of e-noses
range from atmospheric
pollutant (gas-leak)
detection of carbon
emissions from biofuel
production plants and fossil-
fuel production sources in
the oil and gas industry to
VOC-releases from
numerous other industries.
Face Detection
Technology
Reported by: Cereño
The Biometric system
❖ refers to integrated hardware
and software used to conduct
biometric identification
❖ Biometrics – unique measurable

characteristics of a human being
❖ FDT is one of the top 3 methods

of biometric recognition
2
What is a Face Detection Technology?
❖ is an advanced technology that

helps in discerning and identifying
human faces from an image or
video.
❖ analyzes unique shape, pattern, &
positioning of facial features
❖ it compare scans to records stored
in central or local database
3
❖ Each human face

has approximately
80 nodal points.
❖ These nodal points
are measured
creating a numerical
code, called a
faceprint,
representing the
face in the database.
4
❖ Some of these measured by the software are:

• Distance between the eyes
• Width of the nose
• Depth of the eye sockets
• The shape of the cheekbones
• The length of the jaw line
5
2 Types of FDT
❖ VERIFICATION - the system compare the given individual with
who that individual says they are
❖ IDENTIFICATION - the system compare the given individual to

all the other individuals in the database
6
How does it work?
➢ The Vision 3D + 2D ICAO camera is
used to perform enrollment,
verification and identification of 3D
and 2D face images.
➢ Some computers use a software
which follows an algorithm for Face
Detection
7
The Process
Detection Alignment Measurement Representation Matching Verification
8
DETECTION
Acquiring an image
can be accomplished
by digitally scanning
an existing
photograph
9
ALIGNMENT
Once it detects a face,

the system
determines the head's
position, size and
pose.
10
MEASUREMENT
The system then
measures the curves
of the face on a sub-
millimeter (or
microwave) scale and
creates a template.
11
REPRESENTATION
The system translates

the template into a
unique code.
12
MATCHING
Once those
measurements are in
place, an algorithm (a
step-by-step procedure)
will be applied to the
image to convert it to a
2D image.
13
VERIFICATION
In verification, an image
is matched to only one
image in the database.
14
APPLICATIONS
1. Access and Security – for example: instead of using passcodes for

phones, FDT can be used for easy access
2. Criminal Identification – in the US, the FBI currently have a

database which includes half of the national population’s faces.
3. Payments - In 2016, MasterCard launched a new selfie pay app

called MasterCard Identity Check.
15
Common Questions …
1. What if we age and look different?
- Computers have learned what features will not change no matter
how old we get.
2. What if we don’t look the same at the same angle or at the

same time due to lighting?
- Some phone systems will prompt us to move our faces around in
order to look at our faces at different angles.
16
Common Questions …
3. How do we perform FDT for twins?
- We need to increase the number of recognition points, because
twins also have some various features. However, this will reduce the
algorithm performance.
17
REFERENCES
https://www.scienceabc.com/innovation/facial-
recognition-works.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_recognition_sys
1
tem
http://www.face-rec.org/algorithms/
https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/gadgets/high
-tech-gadgets/facial-recognition1.htm
https://us.norton.com/internetsecurity-iot-how-
facial-recognition-software-works.html
Thanks!
19
GAS DETECTION Masion, Pandan, Yap
GAS DETECTION
A method of identifying gaseous
chemicals using an electronic device.
IMPORTANCE OF GAS DETECTION

1. Safety
2. Health Concerns
3. Air Quality Control
TYPES OF GAS TO BE DETECTED
1. Combustible Gas
Gases that are prone to combustion
in high temperature conditions or an
initial combustion. Hydrogen Methane Butane
2. Toxic Gas
Gaseous chemicals that are harmful
to the environment and to the human
body.
Carbon Monoxide Ammonia

TYPES OF GAS DETECTORS
CATALYTIC SENSOR
This is used to detect combustible gases

such as hydrocarbon, and works via
catalytic oxidation. The sensors of this type
of detector are typically constructed from
a platinum (for ammonia) treated wire coil.
As a combustible gas comes into contact
with the catalytic surface, it is oxidized and
the wiring resistance is changed by heat
that is released. A Wheatstone bridge
circuit is typically used to indicate the
resistance change.
INFRARED SENSOR
It works via a system of transmitters

and receivers to detect combustible
gases, specifically hydrocarbon vapors.
Typically, the transmitters are light
sources and receivers are light
detectors. If a gas is present in the
optical path, it will interfere with the
power of the light transmission between
the transmitter and receiver. The
altered state of light determines if and
what type of gas is present. More at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AA8C-RzlkCw
ELECTROCHEMICAL
SENSOR
These are most commonly used in the
detection of toxic gases like carbon
monoxide, chlorine and nitrogen
oxides. They function via electrodes
signals when a gas is detected.
Generally, these types of detectors
are highly sensitive and give off
warning signals via electrical currents.
Various manufacturers produce these
detectors with a digital display. More at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yjQyJjiatl0
METAL OXIDE
SEMICONDUCTORS
These are also used for detecting
toxic gases and work via a gas
sensitive film that is composed of tin or
tungsten oxides. The sensitive film
reacts with gases, triggering the
device when toxic levels are present.
Generally, metal oxide sensors are
considered efficient due to their
ability to operate in low-humidity
ranges. In addition, they are able to
detect a range of gases, including
combustibles. More at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=usEe3spV5vI
THERMOELECTRIC GAS
SENSOR
The sensor senses the gases by
measuring the reaction heat of the
catalytic reaction between a novel
metal catalyst using Cu-Bi thermopiles.
The output of a thermoelectric gas
sensor is a voltage signal that is
proportional to the exothermocity,
generated during oxidation of
reducing gases on a catalyst. This is
used to measure the concentration of
hydrogen and atomic oxygen.
PHOTOIONIZATION
DETECTORS [PID]
This type of gas detector rely on
specific chemical properties of the
volatile organic compounds (VOC).
Instead of absorbing light, a PID uses
a light source (in this case in the
ultraviolet spectrum – wavelengths just
shorter than we can see) to “ionize” or
bump electrons off gas molecules.
More at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZBDhCv_ENZ8

PURPOSE OF GAS DETECTORS IN INDUSTRIES
Although detectors are an essential application for home
and commercial safety, they are also employed in numerous
industrial industries. Gas detectors are used in welding shops
to detect combustibles and toxics and in nuclear plants, to
detect combustibles. They are also commonly used to detect
hazardous vapors in wastewater treatment plants.
Gas detectors are very efficient in confined spaces where
there is no continuous employee occupancy. Such spaces
include tanks, pits, vessels and storage bins. Detectors may
also be placed at a site to detect toxins prior to occupant
entry.
REFERENCES
https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/instruments-controls/How-Gas-Detectors-Work/
https://www.elprocus.com/wheatstone-bridge-working-and-its-applications/
http://s7d9.scene7.com/is/content/minesafetyappliances/08-0015-MC
https://www.mitre.org/sites/default/files/pdf/09_4536.pdf
Z. Awang, M. Hamidon, A. Kaiser, and Z. Yunusa, Sensors & Transducers, Vol. 168,
Issue 4, April 2014, pp. 61-75
G. Hagen, N. Leupold, S. Wiegartner, H. Wittmann, and R. Moos, Temperature
Modulated Thermoelectric Gas Sensors, 2015, pp. 704-707
GYROSCOPE
SENSORS
Gyroscopes are devices that:
• Can measure the angular velocity of an object.

• Can determine the orientation of an object.
TYPES OF GYROSCOPES
■ Mechanical Gyroscope
■ Optical Gyroscope
■ Vibrating Structure Gyroscope
Application:
■ Internal Navigation System
■ Camera Stabilizer
■ Anti Lock Brakes (ABS)
■ And many more..
MECHANICAL GYROSCOPES
■ THE MOST COMMON TYPE OF GYROSCOPE
• THE ROTOR WILL MAINTAIN ITS SPIN

AXIS DIRECTION REGARDLESS OF
THE ORIENTATION OF THE OUTER
FRAME. GIVEN THAT NO FORCE IS
APPLIED
PROPERTIES OF THE MECHANICAL
GYROSCOPE
RIGIDITY
■ The axis of rotation (spin axis) of the gyro
wheel tends to remain in a fixed direction
in space if no force is applied to it.
PRECESSION
■ The axis of rotation has a tendency to
turn at a right angle to the direction of
an applied force.
PRINCIPLES BEHIND THE MECHANICAL
GYROSCOPE
■ The spinning rotor is the main reason why the gyroscope can maintain its
orientation.
■ The angular momentum developed by the spinning motor maintains the balance of
the gyroscope
■ The gimbal parts of the gyroscope has one to two degrees of rotational freedom.
■ An input force to the gyroscope will result to an output force perpendicular to the
direction of the input force.
■ The mechanical gyroscope does not rely on gravity to maintain its orientation
GYROSCOPE
Inertial Navigation System
is a navigation device that uses a computer,
motion sensors (accelerometers) and rotation sensors
(gyroscopes) to continuously calculate by dead
reckoning the position, the orientation, and the
velocity (direction and speed of movement) of a
moving object without the need for external
references.
Used on:
1. Ships (Gyroscope Actuator)
2. Aircraft (Altitude Indicator)
3. Submarines (Gyrocompass)
4. Spacecraft
5. Guided Missiles
GYROSCOPE
Gait Phase Detection Sensor (GPDS)
This system is basically an actuator to human-
muscle used by a paralyzed person.
It consists of a Gyroscope and force meter
Gyroscope placed in a shoe-sole measures the
angular velocity which is processed with sensed data of
force meter to give stimulation to the muscles
GYROSCOPE
ANTI LOCK BRAKES (ABS)
In vehicles equipped with
ABS, you only need to plant
your foot firmly on the brake
pedal, while the ABS pump the
optimum brakes for you so you
can concentrate on steering to
safety.
GAS-BEARING MECHANICAL GYROSCOPE
• The rotor is suspended by
pressurized gas, reducing
the amount of friction
between moving parts.
• The most accurate gyroscope

available
• These types of gyroscopes were used by the
NASA in the development of the Hubble
Telescope. According to NASA, the gas-bearing
gyroscopes are much quieter than other forms of
gyroscopes and also have greater accuracy.
ELECTRIC MECHANICAL GYROSCOPE
■ It uses electricity to turn the rotor of the gyroscope.

■ Used in the turn coordinator of an Airplane
OPTICAL GYROSCOPE
• Also known as Fibre-Optic Gyroscope (FOG)
• The optical gyroscope senses the change
with the use of the Sagnac Effect
• Optical gyroscopes are not based on the
conservation of angular momentum. These
gyroscopes use two coils of fiber optic
cable spun in different orientations.
SAGNAC EFFECT
▪ The Sagnac effect is a
phenomenon encountered in
interferometry that is elicited
by rotation.
■ According to the Sagnac

Effect, when the device is
tilted, the two beams of light
will travel different distances,
which can be measured.
PRINCIPLE BEHIND THE OPTIC
GYROSCOPE
Two beams from a laser are injected into the same fibre
but in opposite directions. Due to the Sagnac effect, the
beam travelling against the rotation experiences a slightly
shorter path delay than the other beam. The resulting
differential phase shift is measured through
interferometry, thus translating one component of the
angular velocity into a shift of the interference pattern
which is measured photometrically.
OPTICAL GYROSCOPES
OPTICAL GYROSCOPES
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
■ It offers higher sensitivity. Hence it ■ Some designs of FOG are sensitive
helps in determining direction of the to vibrations. The impact can be
Earth's poles based on measurements mitigated when multiple-axis FOG is
of angular velocity only. coupled witn accelerometers.
■ Since it is a solid state device with no
moving part nor sealed cavity. It is
■ The FOGs are required to be
highly raliable and offers longer life calibrated
time. Moreover it does not need any ■ Linearity and scale factor stability of
preventive maintenance.
gyroscope are easily deteriorated
■ It offers high performance due to its due to fluctuations in the intensity
inherent low random noise. of incident light on the
■ FOG does not have any dither photodetector.
mechanism. Hence it is perfectly silent
device. It is used for submarine
navigation.
VIBRATING STRUCTURE GYROSCOPE
■ A vibrating structure gyroscope, defined by the IEEE
(Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) as a Coriolis
vibratory gyroscope (CVG)
■ Is a gyroscope that uses a vibrating structure to
determine the rate of rotation. A vibrating structure
gyroscope functions much like the halteres of flies.
■ The physical principle
is that a vibrating object tends to continue vibrating in
the same plane even if its support rotates. The Coriolis
effect causes the object to exert a force on its support,
and by measuring this force the rate of rotation can be
determined.
■ Application:
Inexpensive vibrating structure gyroscopes
manufactured with MEMS technology are widely used
in smartphones, gaming devices, cameras and many
other applications.
TYPES OF VIBRATING STRUCTURE
GYROSCOPES
• Piezo-Electric Gyroscope
• Tuning Fork Gyroscope
• Vibrating Wheel
Gyroscope
MEMS TECHNOLOGY
■ Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems, or MEMS, is a

technology that in its most general form can be defined
as miniaturized mechanical and electro-mechanical
elements (i.e., devices and structures) that are made
using the techniques of microfabrication.
■ Microsensors and microactuators are appropriately
categorized as “transducers”, which are defined as
devices that convert energy from one form to another.
HUMIDITY and
SOUND SENSORS
ME 43 – INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL ENGINEERING
OVERVIEW
HUMIDITY
“
IMPORTANCE OF HYGROMETERS
HUMIDITY ✓Traditional
✓Modern
✓ Environment
✓ Health
2
HUMIDITY
HUMIDITY is the amount of water vapor
present in the air.
✓There is water in the air around us.
✓The water is in the form of water

vapor.
✓The amount of water vapor in the

air; a quantity that represents the
amount of water vapor in the
atmosphere.
3
IMPORTANCE OF HUMIDITY
It affects many properties of air and of
materials with direct/indirect contact with
air.
Water vapor is a key agent in both

weather and climate, and it is an important
atmospheric greenhouse gas. (If there is no
humidity, we would be 31 C colder on
Earth)
A huge variety of manufacturing, storage

and testing processes are humidity-critical. 4
IMPORTANCE OF HUMIDITY
✓ Low humidity allows

germs to spread further.
✓ High humidity degrades

breathing of any
individual.
5
HUMIDITY SENSING INSTRUMENTS
1. HYGROMETERS
✓Instrument used for measuring
the amount of humidity and
water vapor in the atmosphere.
✓Relies on measurements of
some quantities like temperature,
pressure, mass, etc.
6
Traditional Hygrometers
A. METAL-PAPER COIL TYPE HYGROMETERS
✓ Composed of metal or paper coil. In this devices, water
vapor is absorbed by a
salt-impregnated paper
strip attached to a metal
coil, causing the coil to
✓Coil expands or contracts as change shape
humidity changes.
✓Amount of expansion is calibrated

to correspond with the actual amount
of humidity
✓Inaccurate, difference between 10%
to 20%. 7
B. HAIR TENSION HYGROMETER
✓Can use human or animal hair
upon tension.
✓Hair is hygroscopic, therefore its

length changes with humidity. Hair tends to absorb
moistur`e
(hygroscopic), the
length changes with
humidity and that
length change is
magnified by a
mechanism and
indicated on a dial.
8
C. PSYCHROMETER
Wet and dry bulb thermometer.
UTILIZES RELATIVE HUMIDITY – the

amount of water vapor present in air
expressed as a percentage of the amount
needed for saturation at the same
temperature.
One is dry and the other is kept moist with a

wet wick.
9
10
Modern Hygrometers
A. CAPACITIVE SENSORS
✓It measures moisture levels using a humidity-dependent
condenser; suitable for wide RH ranges and condensation
tolerance.
✓It is commonly used in industrial and commercial
environments.
✓The increase in the dielectric permittivity of a capacitive
sensor is directly proportional to the relative humidity of the
ambient space.
11
12
Modern Hygrometers
B. RESISTIVE SENSORS
✓It measures the change in electrical impedance of a
hygroscopic medium such as a conductive polymer, salt, or
treated substrate.
✓The impedance change is typically an inverse exponential
relationship to humidity
✓It usually consists of noble metal electrodes either
deposited on a substrate by photoresist techniques or wire-
wound electrodes on a plastic or glass cylinder
13
14
Modern Hygrometers
C.THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY SENSORS
✓ It measures the absolute humidity by quantifying the
difference between the thermal conductivity of dry air and
that of air containing water vapor.
✓These sensors are suitable for use in environments that have

high temperatures.
15
16
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygrometer
https://www.analogweather.com/-airguide-hygrometer-1950s.html
https://learn.weatherstem.com/modules/learn/lessons/101/10.html
https://www.epluse.com/en/products/humidity-instruments/humidity-sensor/
https://www.ohmicinstruments.com/article-choosing-a-humidity-sensor/
https://www.onetemp.com.au/humidity-sensors
17
Thanks!
18
Instrumentation
Process Control System
Control system - is a system of integrated elements whose function
is to maintain a process variable at a desired value or within a
desired range of values.
Control system input is the stimulus applied to a control system

from an external source to produce a specified response from
the control system.
Control system output is the actual response obtained from a

control system.
Open-Loop Control
System is one in which
the control action is
independent of the
output.
A closed-loop control
system is one in which
control action is
dependent on the
output. Figure 2
shows an example of
a closed-loop control
system.
Feedback is information in a
closed-loop control system about
the condition of a process variable.
This variable is compared with a
desired condition to produce the
proper control action on the
process.
Automatic Control System
An automatic control system is a preset closed-loop control system that requires no
operator action. This assumes the process remains in the normal range for the control
system. An automatic control system has two process variables associated with it: a
controlled variable and a manipulated variable.
A controlled variable is the process variable that is maintained at a specified value or within
a specified range. In the storage tank example, the storage tank level is the controlled
variable.
A manipulated variable is the process variable that is acted on by the control system to
maintain the controlled variable at the specified value or within the specified range. In the
storage tank example, the flow rate of the water supplied to the tank is the manipulated
variable.
Functions of Automatic Control
In any automatic control system, the four basic functions that occur are:
1. Measurement
2. Comparison
3. Computation
4. Correction
In the water tank level control system example, the level transmitter measures the
level within the tank. The level transmitter sends a signal representing the tank level to
the level control device, where it is compared to a desired tank level. The level control
device then computes how far to open the supply valve to correct any difference
between actual and desired tank levels.
Closed-loop control is
referred to as feedback
control.
An automatic controller is an
error-sensitive, self-
correcting device. It takes a
signal from the process and
feeds it back into the
process.
A summing point has only one output A takeoff point is used to allow a signal to
and is equal to the algebraic sum of the be used by more than one block or
inputs. summing point
Note: The block
diagram represents
flowpaths of
control signals, but
does not represent
flow of energy
through the system
or process.
Cooler example
Process Time Lags
Process time lags are caused by three properties of the process. They are: capacitance,
resistance, and transportation time.
Capacitance is the ability of a process to store energy.
Resistance is that part of the process that opposes the transfer of energy between
capacities.
Transportation time is time required to carry a change in a process variable from one
point to
another in the process.
Stability is the ability of a control
loop to return a controlled
variable to a steady, non-cyclic
value, following a disturbance.
Two Position Controller
• It is a device that has two operating conditions: completely on or

completely off.
• This device provides an output determined by whether the error signal
is above or below the setpoint.
• Deviation is the difference between the setpoint of a process variable
and its actual value.
• In the proportional (throttling) mode, the amount of valve movement is
proportional to the amount of deviation. Gain compares the ratio of
amount of change in the final control element to change in the
controlled variable, and offset is the deviation that remains after a
process has been stabilized.
Example system using two-
position controller
Modes of Automatic Control
The mode of control is the manner in which a control system makes corrections relative to
an error that exists between the desired value (setpoint) of a controlled variable and its
actual value.
The mode of control used for a specific application depends on the characteristics of the
process being controlled. For example, some processes can be operated over a wide band
deviation, while others must be maintained very close to the setpoint. Also, some
processes change relatively slowly, while others change almost immediately.
Deviation is the difference between the setpoint of a process variable and its actual value.
Four modes of control commonly used for most applications are:

1. proportional
2. proportional plus reset (PI)
3. proportional plus rate (PD)
4. proportional plus reset plus rate (PID)
In the proportional (throttling) mode, there is a continuous linear relation between value of
the controlled variable and position of the final control element.
Proportional Mode of Control
Proportional band, (also called throttling range), is the change in value of the controlled
variable that causes full travel of the final control element.
The proportional band of a particular instrument is expressed as a percent of full range.
For example, if full range of an instrument is 200oF and it takes a 50oF change in
temperature to cause full valve travel, the percent proportional band is 50oF in 200oF,
or 25%.
Gain, also called sensitivity, compares the ratio of amount of change in the final control
element to amount of change in the controlled variable.
Offset, also called droop, is deviation that remains after a process has stabilized.
The controller has a proportional
band of 100%, which means the
input must change 100% to cause
a 100% change in the output of
the controller.
If the fulcrum setting was changed
so that a level change of 2 in, or
50% of the input, causes the full 4-
in stroke, or 100% of the output,
the proportional band would
become 50%.
The proportional band of a

proportional controller is
important because it determines
the range of outputs for given
inputs.
The purpose of this system is to provide hot
water at a setpoint of 150oF.
• The final control element is throttled to various positions that are dependent on the
process system conditions.
• With proportional control, the output has a linear relationship with the input.
• The proportional band is the change in input required to produce a full range of
change in the output due to the proportional control action.
• The controlled variable is maintained within a specified band of control points

around a setpoint.
TYPES OF MOTION SENSORS
MEMBERS: LAYAN, MONSANTO, PAGARAN
WHAT ARE MOTION SENSORS?
• A motion sensor is a device that notices

moving objects, mainly people. A
motion sensor is frequently
incorporated as a component of a
system that routinely performs a task
or else alert a user of motion in a
region.
HOW MOTIONS SENSORS REACT IN DIFFERENT
SITUATIONS:
• movement in your living room, doors, windows being unbolt or closed
• Activate a doorbell when someone comes close to the front door.

• These sensors give you an alert whenever kids enter into some restricted areas in
the home such as medicine cabinet, the basement or workout room.
• Conserve energy by using this sensor lighting in empty spaces.

5 COMMON TYPES OF
MOTION SENSORS
• Passive Infrared Sensor (PIR)
• Ultrasonic Sensor
• Microwave Sensor
• Tomographic Sensor
• Combined types of Motion Sensors
PASSIVE INFRARED (PIR) SENSOR
• Passive infrared sensors include a thin
Pyroelectric film material, that responds to
IR radiation by emitting electricity. This
sensor will activate burglar alarm
whenever this influx of electricity takes
place. These sensors are economical, don’t
use more energy and last forever. These
sensors are commonly used in indoor
alarms.
Strengths: Weaknesses:
• Petfriendly! Heat sensitivity can be • Range is only about 30 feet
adjusted to prevent false alarms • Ineffective at covering larger
from dogs, cats, or other small spaces.
animals.
• Be careful if installing them yourself.
• Inexpensive,
use very little energy, If angled incorrectly they may not
and extremely durable. cover the right space.
• Perfect for simple home security and • Need line-of-sight with moving
covering small spaces. object to sense motion.
ULTRASONIC SENSOR
• Ultrasonic sensor can be active or passive
and these sensors are very sensitive, but
they are frequently expensive and prone
to fake alarms. Active ones generate
ultrasonic wave (sound wave) pulses and
then determine the reflection of these
waves off a moving object. Passive ones
pay attention to particular sounds like
metal on metal or glass breaking.
• No “dead zones” in its area of • Expensive and have a short
coverage operating life
• Most sensitive type of motion • Most prone to false alarms
detector • Pets like dogs, cats, or fish
may be
• Good for indoor spaces with many able to hear the high frequency
barriers and objects (office spaces, waves and be irritated.
restrooms, etc.)
MICROWAVE SENSOR
• Also known as Radar, RF or Doppler

sensors. They sense movement by
sending out microwaves. The sensor
then records how the waves bounce off
objects which shows if they are moving
or not.
• Longer range than PIR sensors (400- • Prone to false alarms. Cars, pets,
1500 feet). even large insects—any moving
object can trigger the highly
• Microwavescan sense movement
sensitive motion detector.
through most walls and around
corners. • Does not run constantly. The sensor
uses a lot of power, so it only sends
• Not affected by harsh environmental
out signals in intervals.
conditions.
• Does not penetrate metals. This
creates “dead zones” behind metal
objects.
TOMOGRAPHIC SENSOR
• Tomographic motion detectors are
arguably the most effective option, but
may be overkill for many situations. First,
many nodes need to be installed around
the entire area you want covered. Each
node uses radio waves to scan the entire
area. Once installed, a sort of mesh
covers every inch of the space. Overall,
this is a fool-proof option for air-tight
security.
• Complete coverage of an area up • Cost effective only for larger
to 5,000 feet. Great for factories or spaces.
warehouses.
• Detects motion through walls and
obstructions
• Almost no chance of false alarms
COMBINED TYPES OF MOTION SENSORS
• Combines an Infrared sensor with either a
microwave or ultrasonic sensor. To set off a
combined sensor, both types of sensors
need to be triggered.
• This lowers the probability of a false
alarm since heat and light changes may
trip the PIR but not the microwave, or
moving tree branches may trigger the
microwave but not the PIR. If an intruder is
able to fool either the PIR or microwave,
however, the sensor will not detect it.
• Minimizesfalse alarms by requiring • Greater risk of not being triggered
both sensors to be triggered. by intruder (intruder may trigger
one sensor but not the other).
• Effectivein many different spaces
and locations.
• Uses less energy than a microwave
or ultrasonic motion detector. The
Infrared sensor needs to be tripped
before the others are activated.
NEWLY INTRODUCED TYPE OF SENSOR
Gesture detector
• Photodetectors and infrared lighting elements can
support digital screens to detect hand motions and
gestures with the aid of machine learning algorithms
KEY APPLICATIONS OF MOTION SENSORS
• Intruder alarms
• Automatic ticket gates
• Entryway lighting
• Security lighting
• Hand dryers
• Automatic doors
• Ultrasonic sensors are used for triggering the security camera at home and for wildlife photography.
• Active infrared sensors used To indicate the presence of products on conveyor belts
REFERENCES
• 5 Types of Motion Detectors. (2017, October 20). Retrieved from http://central-
alarm.com/2017/10/20/5-types-of-motion-detectors/
• Agarwal, T., Agarwal, T. A. T., Agarwal, T., Saif, Davenport, C., Edgefx Technologies Pvt Ltd,
& Bharti. (2017, May 22). Home. Retrieved from https://www.edgefx.in/types-of-motion-
sensors-working-and-applications/
• Different Types of Motion Sensors And How They Work. (2016, September 27). Retrieved
from https://www.elprocus.com/working-of-different-types-of-motion-sensors/
• Motion detector. (2019, March 7). Retrieved from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_detector
Nanotechnology
What is nanotechnology?
• Nanotechnology refers broadly to a field of applied science and technology
whose unifying theme is the control of matter on molecular level in scales
smaller than 1 micrometre, normally 1 to 100 nanometers and the fabrication
of devices.
• Nanotechnology as defined by size is naturally very broad, including fields of
science as diverse as surface science, organic chemistry, molecular biology,
semiconductor physics, energy storage, microfabrication, molecular
engineering and many other more. The associated research are equally
diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional device physics to
completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, from
developing new materials with dimensions on the nanoscale to direct control
of matter on the atomic scale.
Two major approaches in nanotechnology
• Top-down approach • Bottom-up approach

Two major approaches in nanotechnology
• Bottom-up approach • Top-down approach

• Bottom-up technique refers to methods • Top down approach refers to slicing
where devices create themselves by self- or successive cutting of bulk material
assembly. Chemical synthesis is a good
example. Bottom-up should, broadly to get nano-sized particiles. There
speaking, be able to produce devices in are two types of process to achieve it,
parallel and much cheaper than top-down attrition and milling
methods, but getting control over methods is
difficult when things becomes larger and
bulkier than what is nor m al l y m ade by
chemical synthesis. Of course, nature has a
har d t i m e t o ev ol v e and opt i m i z e se l f -
assembly processes that can do wonders.
Type of sensor that uses Nanotechnology:
• Chemical Sensors
Chemical Sensor
- It is a device that transforms chemical information

(composition, presence of a particular element or ion,
concentration, chemical activity, partial pressure) into an
analytically useful signal.
- Chemical sensors fall into several important catagories;
Calorimetric sensors (measuring the heat evolved from a reaction),
Electrochemical sensors (measures voltage, current or
conductivity) and Biological sensors (chemical sensors used for
biological applications).
Biological Sensors
-A biological sensor or
biosensor in short is a
device designed to detect or
quantify a biochemical
molecule, such as a
particular DNA sequence or
a particular protein.
-Biosensors can be
classified by their
biotransducer type
Types of Nanotechnology-enabled transducers
• Electro/Chemical
• Electromagnetic
• Spectroscopic
• Magnetic
• Mechanical
• Transducer- is a device that converts energy from one form to

another. Usually a transducer converts a signal in one form of
energy to a signal in another
Types of Nanotechnology-enabled transducers
• Electrochemical
• - A device which uses a chemical change to measure the
input parameter; the output is varying electrical signal
proportional to the measurand
• Electrochemical Research Needs
• Single-molecule sensing has been achieved for very few
compounds and remains a challenge for several important
compounds. Sample handling for both air and liquid samples is
inefficient and time-consuming. also, sensors can give false-
positive responses for these samples. Because transducers do
not adequately identify analytes in a complex mixture, seperation
technology is required. Label free detection has been achieved
under lab conditions, but it needs to be extended to real world
applications.
• Electromagnetic
• - is the self generating type inductive type transducer in
which voltage signal is generated because of relative
motion of conductor and magnetic field
• Electromagnetic Research needs
• The current state-of-the art technologies are limited by several
features. There is a lack of mass-fabrication processes for
nanophotonic materials/structures such as photonic crystals and
substrates for SERS. Relatively narrow-band and nontunable,
most of readout circuits are discrete electronics with noise and
limited pixel-pitch resolution. Focal plane array-based sensors
very expensive because the read-out circuitry and the sensors are
fabricated on seperate substrates. Many sensors must be
operated at low temperatures to overcome the noise generated at
room temperature.
• Spectroscopic Transducer
• -is a transducer that involves probing a sample with a
beam of light. The reflected or absorb light provides
signatures characteristic of the species in the sample.
These methods don't require contact with the sample.
• Spectoscopic Transducer Research Needs
• Current technical problems and challenges that exist for
spectroscopic transducers include unstable dyes, broad
spectral emission, instability of nanoparticle systems,
difficulty in integrating chemically synthesized
nanoparticles and top-down nanofabricated structures,
multiscale modeling, and materials limitations for
plasmonics in certain frequency bands (mid and far-
infrared, blue and ultraviolet)
APPLICATION:
1. NATIONAL SECURITY
-detection of chemical vapors such as explosives,
flammable and hazardous materials, and/or illegal drugs
2. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
• AIR POLLUTION - detects

harmful chemicals floating in
the air.
• WATER POLLUTION - can
detect toxic chemicals present
in the water.
• LAND POLLUTION - can
detect poisonous chemicals
on the surface and
underground.
3. AGRICULTURE AND FOOD INDUSTRIES
-detection of unsafe
chemicals and/or
contaminants on processed
food, naturally grown
crops/vegetation, and
livestock
4. HOME AND WORKPLACE SAFETY
-detection of gas leaks in the

house and other hazardous
chemicals present
-detection and configuration

if workplace atmosphere is
harmful to workers' health
5. HEALTH & WELLNESS MONITORING
- breath-analyzer for drivers,

students, and employees to
detect possible intoxication
before going to work/class
-detection of chemicals and

toxins in the body if it is
within natural range to
assess wellness
6. MANUFACTURING & INDUSTRIAL PROCESS
- ensure processed products meet the

standard quality
-tracking of shipped packages

References
• Nanotechnology Enabled Sensing (May 2009)

https://www.nano.gov/sites/default/files/NNI-Nanosensors-
stdres.pdf?fbclid=IwAR28o5yKEYSQ24nDjY8C5yPJnJkjeT21Ale
OWi_h9rx749wlDVzSknRXAbk#targetText=The%20use%20of%2
0nanoscale%20materials,to%20selectively%20identify%20specifi
c%20analytes
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transducer
• https://www.britannica.com/technology/nanotechnology/Overview-
of-nanotechnology
VIBRATION/NVH
BY: MIGUEL ANTONIO GONZALES
NICKY TRIZTAN NUDALO
JOHN NICO RIVERA
What is (NVH)?
It is the study and modification of the noise and
vibration characteristics of vehicles, particularly
cars and trucks.
3 Environmental Disturbances
• Noise is unwanted sound or unwanted disturbance in an electronic signal.
Acoustic noise is energy transmitted to the air that causes audible
disturbance. Tools such as acoustic intensity mapping and
combustion/mechanical noise separation can be used to identify the best
method of noise reduction.
• Vibration is oscillation that causes noise and disturbance. Vibration is
generally of concern due to the physical effects which can cause
disturbance to people, disruption in electrical systems, and failure or
breakdown in mechanical systems. Shakers and controllers are techniques
used to test vibration issues.
• Harshness is generally used to describe the severity and discomfort
associated with both vibration and noise. It is a qualitative system based on
desired characteristics rather than on quantifiable measurements.
Sources of (NVH)
• Aerodynamics (e.g. wind , cooling fans of HVAC)
• Mechanical (e.g. engine , driveline , brakes)
• Electrical (e.g. noise and vibration from actuators, alternator

or traction motor in electric cars)
Instrument used to measure NVH
• Sound level meter
• Accelerometers
• Force Gauges
• Semi-anechoic chambers
• Dynamometer
Sound level meter
It is a instrument
used to measure
sounds in the air.
Accelerometers
It is an
electromechanical
device used to
measure
acceleration
forces
Force-Gauges
It is a measuring
instrument used
to measure forces.
Semi-anechoic chambers
It is a room
designed to
completely absorb
reflections of
either sound or
electromagnetic
waves.
Dynamometer
It is a device for
simultaneously
measuring the
torque and speed
of an
engine,motor or
other rotating
prime mover.
Noise
What is it?
To define • Sounds are vibrations that travel through the air
or another medium and can be heard when
Noise, we they reach a person’s or animal's ear. When an
object vibrates, it causes slight changes in air
must first pressure. These air pressure changes travel as
define Sound waves through the air and produce sound.
• To illustrate, imagine striking a
drum surface with a stick. The
drum surface vibrates back and
forth. As it moves forward, it
pushes the air in contact with
the surface. This creates a
positive (higher) pressure by
compressing the air. When the
surface moves in the opposite
direction, it creates a negative
(lower) pressure by
decompressing the air. Thus, as
the drum surface vibrates, it
creates alternating regions of
higher and lower air pressure.
These pressure variations travel
through the air as sound
waves.
• Table 1 lists the
approximate velocity of
sound in air and other
media. In gases, the
higher the velocity of
sound, the higher the
pitch will be
Now what exactly is Noise?
• Noise is unwanted sound judged to be unpleasant, loud or disruptive to hearing.

From a physics standpoint, noise is indistinguishable from sound, as both are
vibrations through a medium, such as air or water. The difference arises when the
brain receives and perceives a sound. The difference between sound and noise
depends upon the listener and the circumstances. Rock music can be pleasurable
sound to one person and an annoying noise to another. In either case, it can be
hazardous to a person's hearing if the sound is loud and if he or she is exposed long
and often enough.
Measurement
• Sound is measured based on the amplitude and frequency of
a sound wave. Amplitude measures how forceful the wave is.
The energy in a sound wave is measured in decibels (dB), the
measure of loudness, or intensity of a sound; this
measurement describes the amplitude of a sound wave.
Decibels (dB) are expressed in a logarithmic scale. On the
other hand, pitch describes the frequency of a sound and is
measured in hertz (Hz).
• The main instrument to measure sounds in the air is
the Sound Level Meter. There are many different
varieties of instruments that are used to measure
noise - Noise Dosimeters are often used in
occupational environments, noise monitors are used
to measure environmental noise and noise
pollution, and recently smartphone-based sound
level meter applications (apps) are being used to
crowdsource and map recreational and community
noise.
• A-weighting is applied to
a sound spectrum to
represent the sound that
humans are capable of
hearing at each
frequency. Sound
pressure is thus
expressed in terms of
dBA. 0 dBA is the softest
level that a person can
hear. Normal speaking
voices are around 65 dBA.
A rock concert can be
about 120 dBA.
Noise
Pollution
• Also known as Environmental Noise, is the accumulation of all noise present in a
specified environment. The principal sources of environmental noise are surface
motor vehicles, aircraft, trains and industrial sources. These noise sources expose
millions of people to noise pollution that creates not only annoyance, but also
significant health consequences such as elevated incidence of hearing loss and
cardiovascular disease. There are a variety of mitigation strategies and controls
available to reduce sound levels including source intensity reduction, land-use
planning strategies, noise barriers and sound baffles, time of day use regimens,
vehicle operational controls and architectural acoustics design measures.
Constant exposure to loud noises can damage ear drums and loss of
hearing. It also reduces sensitivity of ear drums to pick up small
sounds.
It can affect health and shows signs of aggressive behavior, sleep

disturbance, increase in stress level, fatigue
What are It can create hamper sleeping pattern (it is recommended to take
effects of sound sleep and not noise sleep :p)
Noise It can increase blood pressure, heart beat, headache
Pollution?
It affects not only on humans but also on pets. They can behave more
aggressively if exposed to loud noises for longer duration
Interference or disturbance in conversions and it can create

misunderstanding
• Turn off Appliances at Home and offices.
• Shut the Door when using noisy Machines.
• Use Earplugs.
• Lower the volume.
Noise • Stay away from Noisy area.
Pollution • Follow the Limits of Noise level.
• Control Noise level near sensitive areas.
Control • Go Green by planning trees.
• Create Healthy noise to eliminate unwanted noise.
• Use Noise absorbents in noisy machineries.
• Use Proper Lubrication and Better maintenance.
VIBRATION MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
Vibration
✓Any motion that repeats itself after an interval of time is called vibration or
oscillation
✓The vibration of a system involves the transfer of its potential energy to kinetic
energy and of kinetic energy to potential energy, alternately.
✓A vibratory system, in general, includes a means for storing potential energy

(spring or elasticity), a means for storing kinetic energy (mass or inertia), and a
means by which energy is gradually lost (damper)
Vibration Measuring Instruments
➢Displacement measuring instrument (Vibrometer)
➢Velocity measuring instrument (Velometer)
➢Acceleration measuring instrument (Accelerometer)

Vibration Measuring Instruments
• it is well known that the dynamic forces in a vibratory system depend
on the displacement, velocity and acceleration components of a
system:
Vibrometer
• An instrument that is used to measure the ground motion in
earthquakes and sometimes to measure vibration in machines.
Accelerometer Types
✓Piezoelectric (PE)
✓Integral electronics piezoelectric (IEPE);
✓Piezoresistive (PR)
✓Variable capacitance (VC)
✓Servo force balance
Seismic Accelerometer Principle
• The basic physical principle behind Mass Spring system
accelerometers used for measuring acceleration is that of a simple
mass spring system
Piezoelectric (PE)
• These sensors use the

piezoelectric effects of the
sensing element to produce a
charge output.
• is the ability of certain
materials to generate an
electric charge in response to
applied mechanical stress.
Integral Electronics Piezoelectric (IEPE)
✓defines a class of accelerometer
that has built in electronics
✓Both the input supply current
and output signal are carried
over the same two-wire cable.
The low-impedance output of
the IEPE design provides
relative immunity to the effects
of poor cable insulation
resistance, and stray signal
pickup
Piezoresistive
➢A piezoresistive material's
resistance value decreases
when it is subjected to a
compressive force and
increases when a tensile force
is applied.
➢is a change in the electrical
resistivity of a semiconductor
or metal when mechanical
strain is applied
Variable Capacitance
• It is composed of an oscillator or any
stationary component that has the
ability to store capacitance. When
these components move or are
moved, the generated capacitance or
energy is sensed by the capacitive
accelerometer's native sensors. The
sensors, in turn, are connected to an
electrical circuitry, which measures the
intensity and magnitude of the
acceleration with respect to the
electrical current.
Servo (Force Balance)
• The servomechanism was
primarily based on
electromagnetic principles.
Force is usually provided by
driving current through coils on
the mass in the presence of a
magnetic field. In the pendulous
servo accelerometer with an
electromagnetic rebalancing
mechanism, the pendulous mass
develops a torque proportional
to the product of the proof mass
and the applied acceleration.
3 Principal means of improving NVH
• reducing the source strength, as in making a
noise source quieter with a muffler, or
improving the balance of a rotating
mechanism;
• interrupting the noise or vibration path,
with barriers (for noise) or isolators (for
vibration); or
• absorption of the noise or vibration energy,
as for example with foam noise absorbers,
or tuned vibration dampers.
Odor Detection
Masion | Pandan | Yap
What is Odor?
It refers to smells, can be utilized as a marker to identify certain problems or
sources of interest. These include air pollution, environmental contamination,
disease diagnostics, and as noted above, human identification in crime
investigations. Odor consists of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that
typically have relative molecular masses between 30 and 300 g/mole.
Why odor must be detected?
Odor can be pleasant or unpleasant to human nose. It is always preferable to
have a pleasant odor, but when unpleasant odor is present, the comfort of the
surroundings can be affected.
In the food industries, odor is the biggest factor because it serves as a stimulant
for taste. Therefore odor of the surroundings must be maintained in order to
have a better quality of the product.
Types of Odor Detectors
• Chemical Sensors
• Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Sensors
• Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM) Sensors
• Metal Oxide Sensors
Chemical Sensors
• Chemical sensors detect odor molecules based on the reaction between the odor
molecules and the target sensing materials on the sensor surface. This reaction
triggers a certain change in mass, volume, or other physical properties. The change
is then converted to an electronic signal by a transducer. There are different types of
transducers for chemical sensors: optical, electrochemical, heat-sensitive, and
mass-sensitive. In this report, several of the most common chemical sensors will
be reviewed: surface acoustic wave sensor, quartz crystal microbalance sensor,
metal oxide semiconductor sensor, and polymer composite-based sensor. E-
noses, which are a sensor array, have drawn much attention since it is the most
promising approach so far for mimicking the biological nose for sensing. Therefore,
it will be discussed as well
Types of chemical censors
• surface acoustic wave sensor
• quartz crystal microbalance sensor
• metal oxide semiconductor sensor
• polymer composite-based sensor
surface acoustic wave sensor
• The SAW sensor transducer is mass sensitive. The sensor is composed of a

substrate of quartz that is cut at a crystalline angle to support a surface wave, as well
as a chemically sensitive thin film that is coated on the quartz surface. Since the
quartz is a piezoelectric material, it converts surface acoustic waves to electric
signals. When the chemically sensitive thin film adsorbs specific molecules, the mass
of the film increases, thus causing the acoustic waves to travel more slowly. This
change can be detected by the sensor microelectronics once the acoustic wave is
converted to an electric signal. Since the oscillation frequency of a quartz substrate
typically falls within a certain range, it is expected that the sensor will only be able to
detect very limited numbers of target molecules.
surface acoustic wave sensor
The SAW mini-CAD from MSA is a portable sensor system that can be designed for chemical warfare
agent detection. The system was developed and calibrated to detect a few target chemicals, and thus
appears limited in its use for detecting other VOCs. To enhance the capability of identifying VOCs, the
Department of Energy‘s (DOE) Sandia National Laboratories developed a SAW sensor array that can
identify 18 different VOCs over a wide range of concentrations with a 95-percent success rate [19].
However, the system needs to be operated in a temperature-controlled environment to ensure
identification accuracy
quartz crystal microbalance sensor
• Quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) is another type of microbalance mass
sensor. Similar to the SAW sensor, the transducer for the QCM sensor is also
mass-sensitive. The major difference between SAW and QCM is that the
former employs a surface acoustic wave sensor while the latter uses a bulk
acoustic wave sensor. Its sensing mechanism is based on the shift in the
quartz crystal (QC) resonant frequency due to the adsorption of gas
molecules onto the sensing films
quartz crystal microbalance sensor
• Film-coated QCM sensors have enabled the detection of a variety of individual pollutants and the sensing of
VOCs . The sensors used for the latter are typically coated with PVC blended lipids, syndiotactic
polystyrene (s-PS) semi crystalline , carbon nanotubes , and molecular imprinted polymers. These
films can collect target Figure: The SAW mini-CAD system. Venting Gas inlet Alarm and reporting 13 VOC
molecules and trigger a shift in the QC resonance frequency. Recently, modifications in film composition
have been reported to improve the sensitivity and specificity in gas identification. Figure shows a diagram of
gas detection using a QCM system . The operation of the sensor requires temperature and humidity control
because the QC resonant frequency is affected by variation in temperature and humidity, and thus affects
how the frequency shifts during gas molecule collection. Therefore the robustness of QCM sensor systems
could be an issue for real-time detection of VOCs. There have been commercial QCM sensor systems out
on the market. Most of them are for moisture and inorganic gas detection; for example, the Model 3050
Moisture Analyser from Ametek is for moisture trace detection. There are some reports demonstrating the
detection of VOCs using QCM sensor systems. The detection sensitivity for VOCs typically falls in the range
of 10 to 103 ppm, which is not high enough for trace level detection.
metal oxide semiconductor sensor
• Metal oxide sensors are devices that translate a change in the concentration
of chemical vapors into electrical signals. As shown in Figure 5, the device
has a metal oxide semiconductor sensing surface with an insulating layer
underneath, a heater, and a circuit for measuring the resistance of the metal
oxide sensor. When VOC molecules are collected on the metal oxide Figure :
Schematic diagram of the gas testing system for VOCs .
• Surface, they are oxidized by the metal oxide at an elevated temperature, typically 250 to 450ºC. The reaction
results in electron transfer from the VOC molecules to the metal oxide structure. A change in the
conductivity is registered as a consequence. Since detection occurs at high temperature the environmental
humidity and temperature are not interfering factors. However, the power consumption caused by the high
operating temperatures is a challenge, especially for hand-held and portable systems. To address this issue,
work has been undertaken within the last decade to develop systems with lower power consumption. Several
types of micro-machined hotplates have been adopted to reduce the power consumption down to a range of
a few hundred to tens of mW, for a typical operating temperature of 400ºC. Recently, the development of
ultra-low-power consumption metal oxide sensors with micro-machined hotplates have been reported. These
sensors are also able to detect VOCs at the ppb-level, and thus has the capability for VOC trace detection.
During the last few decades, one major effort in metal oxide sensor development has been in developing
suitable sensor fabrication technologies to increase VOC detection sensitivity. Another major focus during
the past decade has been in improving VOC detection specificity using an array of metal oxide sensors.
references
• https://www.mitre.org/sites/default/files/pdf/09_4536.pdf
• https://www.nanoscience.com/techniques/quartz-crystal-microbalance/
A P R E S E N TAT I O N B Y
pH/Resistivity E R N E STO E VA R I STO A N D
ROLANDO G. GIRONELLA, III

pH
M E T H O D S , TO O L S A N D
A P P L I C AT I O N S
Introduction
❑What is pH?
◦ pH or Potential of Hydrogen
◦ pH is defined as the decimal logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion activity, aH+, in a solution.
◦ is a scale used to specify how acidic or basic a water-based solution is.

◦ At 25 °C, solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic.
◦ The neutral value of the pH depends on the temperature, being lower than 7 if the temperature increases.
◦ The pH value can be less than 0 for very strong acids, or greater than 14 for very strong bases.
pH Indicators
❑It is a halochromic chemical
compound
❑Added in small amounts to a

solution
❑Allows the visual detection of the

pH of the solution, whether it is
acidic or basic
❑Range is 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic)

pH Indicators
SIMPLE INDICATORS UNIVERSAL PH METER NATURALLY

INDICATORS OCCURRING
INDICATORS
Litmus
Simple
Indicators
Nitrazine
Litmus
❑It is a water-soluble mixture of different dyes extracted from
lichens.
❑It is often adsorbed onto filter paper to produce one of the

oldest forms of pH indicator
❑It was used for the first time about 1300 AD

by Spanish physician Arnaldus de Villa Nova.
❑Litmus can be found in different species of lichens such as

the Parmelia sulcata.
Litmus Paper
❑Blue Litmus Paper turns red
under acidic conditions ( pH
below 4.5)
❑Red Litmus Paper turns blue

under alkaline conditions ( pH
above 8.3)
❑Neutral Litmus paper is purple,

turns red for acid, and blue for
alkaline
Litmus Paper
INEXPENSIVE EASY TO USE DOES NOT PROVIDE

DETAILED INFORMATION
Nitrazine or
phenaphthazine
❑It is a pH indicator dye.
❑It is often used in medicine.
❑It is more sensitive than

litmus,
❑It indicates pH in the range

of 4.5 to 7.5.
Applications of Nitrazine Paper
❑Tests for premature rupture of membranes (PROM) in vaginal fluids during pregnancy. The strips will
turn blue if the pH is greater than 6.0. A blue strip means it's more likely the membranes have
ruptured.
❑To perform a fecal pH test for diagnosing intestinal infections or other digestive problems
❑In civil engineering, to determine the carbonatation spread in concrete structures and therefore
assess the state of the rebar's passivation film.
These tests may produce false positives.
Where pH is higher than normal. Usually due
Note for to:
PROM Tests ◦ Blood
◦ Infection
◦ Semen
Universal
Indicators
❑Are pH indicators made of a solution of several compounds
❑Exhibit several smooth colour changes over a wide range

pH values
❑Commercially available, though most are a variation of a

formula patented by Yamada in 1933.
❑Composed of water, propan-1-ol, phenolphthalein sodium

salt, sodium hydroxide, methyl red, bromothymol blue
monosodium salt, and thymol blue monosodium salt.
Universal Indicators
Paper Fluid
Paper
◦ Is a strip of coloured paper which changes
colour to red if the solution is acidic and to
blue if the solution is basic.
Universal
Fluid
Indicators ◦ The main components of a universal
indicator, in the form of a solution, are
thymol blue, methyl red, bromothymol
blue, and phenolphthalein.
Universal Indicators
SMOOTH COLOUR WIDE RANGE OF PH VALUES FLUID UI USED IN A DEPENDENT ON VISUAL

TRANSITION COLOURLESS SOLUTION TO OBSERVATION
INCREASE THE ACCURACY
OF INDICATION.
pH Meter
❑is a scientific instrument that measures the
hydrogen-ion activity in water-based solutions
❑measures the difference in electrical potential

between a pH electrode and a reference electrode
❑is sometimes referred to as a "potentiometric pH

meter"
Beckman Model M pH Meter, 1937

pH Meter
❑Digital pH Meter
❑Analog pH Meter
❑Battery-powered
❑Line-powered
❑Specialized
pH Meter
A pH Meter is typically composed of 3 main parts,
namely
◦ Electronic Amplifier
◦ Pair of Electrodes (Glass Electrode and Reference
Electrode), or Combination Electrode
◦ Display, voltmeter, displays voltage in pH units
Electrodes
Details of the fabrication and resulting
microstructure of the glass membrane of the
pH electrode are maintained as trade secrets
by the manufacturers.
Glass is a solid electrolyte, for which alkali-

metal ions can carry current.
The pH-sensitive glass membrane is generally

spherical to simplify manufacture of a uniform
membrane.
These membranes are up to 0.4 millimeters in

thickness, for more durable probes.
Types of Electrodes
❑Ion-selective electrodes
❑ISFET pH electrode
❑Quinhydrone electrode
❑Saturated calomel electrode
❑Silver chloride electrode
❑Standard hydrogen electrode

Silver Chloride Electrode
is a type of reference electrode, commonly used in
electrochemical measurements.
For environmental reasons it has widely replaced the

saturated calomel electrode.
the silver chloride electrode is the most commonly used

reference electrode for testing cathodic protection corrosion
control systems in sea water environments.
simple to manufacture and provides high reproducibility.

❑is a reference electrode based on the reaction
between elemental mercury and mercury(I) chloride.
It has been widely replaced by the silver chloride
Saturated electrode
❑has a reputation of being more robust

calomel ❑is used in pH measurement, cyclic voltammetry and
electrode general aqueous electrochemistry.
❑contains mercury, which poses much greater health

hazards than the silver metal used in the Ag/AgCl
electrode.
Maintenance
THE CLEANLINESS OF THE PROBES IS PROBES ARE GENERALLY KEPT MOIST WHEN PROBE MANUFACTURERS PROVIDE
ESSENTIAL FOR ACCURACY AND PRECISION. NOT IN USE WITH A MEDIUM APPROPRIATE INSTRUCTIONS FOR CLEANING AND
FOR THE PROBE, WHICH IS TYPICALLY AN MAINTAINING THEIR PROBE DESIGNS.
AQUEOUS SOLUTION AVAILABLE FROM
PROBE MANUFACTURERS.
Calibration of
pH Meter
❑The pH meter is calibrated with
solutions of known pH, typically
before each use, to ensure
accuracy of measurement.
From
http://coolperiodictable.com/resou
rces/acids-and-bases/pH-of-
some-common-substances.php
Application of pH Indicators
ANALYTICAL BIOLOGY MEDICINE AGRICULTURE FOOD AND

CHEMISTRY BEVERAGE
Other Applications
SOIL TESTING WATER QUALITY ENVIRONMENTAL BREWING

AND CONTROL REMEDIATION
Resistivity
A P P L I C AT I O N , A F F E C T I N G
FA C TO R S , M E T H O D S ,
C O N F I G U R AT I O N ,
INSTRUMENTS
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

Introduction
Electrical resistivity is
It is denoted by the
the measure of how
symbol ρ and
much a material
has SI units of ohm
resists carrying an
meter (Ωm).
electrical current.
Applications
Groundwater Detection
Applications
Mineral Identification and Detection
of Cavities
Applications
Waste Exploration
Applications
Oil Identification
corrosion
hydraulic permeability
Factors moisture content
Affecting
Resistivity concentration of dissolved electrolytes
temperature and phase of pore fluid
amount and composition of colloids (clay content)

Schematic
Current Flow
in Soil Sample
Methods
4 point method:
◦ four point method uses a 4-pole ground resistance
meter and probes (stakes).
◦ For the resistivity test to be done the four probes must
be inserted into the test area of the test site.
pH measurement:
◦ pH indicates the acidity or the alkalinity of a particular
soil.
◦ Experimental evidences show that extremely high
alkalinity lowers soil resistivity and increases soil
corrosivity whereas mild alkalinity withstands corrosion
for a longer time.
Configuration
and Electrode
Spacing
Wenner Array
In the Wenner Array, the
spacing between each of the
four electrodes is the same.
The amount of spacing can
be changed depending on
the depth of the survey.
Schlumberger
Array
Schlumberger array, only the
outer two electrodes (the
electrodes supplying and
receiving the current) are
moved. The advantage of this
is that it is muchfaster because
only two electrodes have to be
moved rather than the 4 with
the Wenner array.
Gradient
Array
The spacing of the outer two
electrodes is kept constant
while the two inner electrodes
(the potential electrodes) are
moved
Dipole-Dipole
Array
Dipole-Dipole array consists
of two sets of electrodes, the
current (source) and potential
(receiver) electrodes.
Pole-Dipole
Array
pole-dipole array contains 4
collinear electrode. One of
the current (source)
electrodes is installed at an
“effective infinity” distance
while the other electrode is
placed in the vicinity of two
potential (receiver)
electrodes.
Methods of Electric
Resistivity
Vertical Electric Sounding: VES is one of the more
commonly used and cost effective resistivity survey
methods. Current is moved through the subsurface
from one current electrode to the other and the
potential as the current moves is recorded. From
this information, resistivity values of various layers
is acquired and layer thickness can be identified.
Methods of
Electric
Resistivity
Electric profiling: electric profiling
seeks to determine resistivity
variations on a horizontal scale.
the electrode spacing is kept
constant and the entire survey is
moved along a line or a "profile" to
measure horizontal changes in
resistivity.
Methods of
Electric
Resistivity
Electric Imaging: Electric imaging is
able to survey both vertical and
horizontal changes in resistivity.
This method essentially combines
the other two methods. Electrode
spacing is increased and the survey
is moved along a profile in order to
measure both vertical and
horizontal resistivity.
Instruments
RM85 Resistance Meter: ideally
suited or for rapid near surface area
measurements. The instrument also
includes pre-programmed arrays for
pole-pole, Double- Dipole, Wenner
Schlumberger and Gradient.
Instruments
OhmMapper: Fast resistivity
measurements without probes.
The Geometrics OhmMapper is
a capacitively coupled
resistivity meter that measures
the electrical properties of
rocks and soil without
cumbersome ground stakes
used in traditional resistivity
surveys.
Instruments
Syscal Kid: Specifically designed
for very shallow, high resolution
resistivity sounding and profiling,
the Kid is the most compact of the
Syscal range whilst retaining the
well-known reliability and
measurement accuracy of its
counter parts.
Instruments
VIP Transmitters: VIP series of
Electrical transmitters are
purposely designed for deep
Induced Polarisation or Resistivity
sounding investigations.
Predominantly used as part of
mineral exploration studies the
VIP series includes four systems
with different power specifications.
Instruments
Syscal WiConnect: The
WiConnect device allows a
wireless connection from your
tablet, smartphone or laptop.
Perform a Rs-Check, choose
your sequence and start, stop,
pause the acquisition or check
the data quality from the
confort of any shelter located
around your Syscal/Elrec.
References
Mettler-Toledo AG. (n.d.). Guide to pH measurement: the theory and practice of laboratory pH
applications. Langacher Greifensee.
pH. (2019, September 22). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH.
pH indicator. (2019, September 22). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_indicator.
Universal indicator. (2019, September 22). Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_indicator.
Electrical resistivity and conductivity. (2019, September 22). Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity
THANK YOU,
GOD BLESS
AND GOOD
LUCK
Proximity Sensors
{ Group 5 – PINERO, MATHEW
- CUENCA, ROBERT
- PENKIAN, PAOLO
- ESTOR, JEHU
What is a Proximity sensor?
are used across a broad range of industrial and

manufacturing applications. They’re used to sense the
presence of objects or materials and then either initiate some
action or simply flag their presence or absence. Key to their
operation is that they don’t require physical contact with the
target or object being sensed. This is why they’re often called
non-contact sensors.
Types of Proximity sensors
1) Inductive sensors
2) Capacitive sensors
3) Photoelectric sensors
- Through beam
- Retro reflective
- Diffuse
4) Ultrasonic sensors
Inductive sensors
- These non-contact proximity sensors detect ferrous targets, ideally
mild steel thicker than one millimeter.
- They consist of four major components: a ferrite core with coils,
an oscillator, a Schmitt trigger, and an output amplifier.
• The oscillator creates a
symmetrical oscillating
magnetic field
• When a ferrous target
enters this magnetic field
• Small electrical current
will induced on the
metal’s surface
• It will reduce the
amplitude of magnetic
field
• The Schmitt trigger
responds to these
amplitude changes
• Output will adjusts the
sensor output
Capacitive sensors
- Capacitive proximity sensors can detect both metallic and non-
metallic targets in powder, granulate, liquid, and solid form. This,
along with their ability to sense through nonferrous materials,
makes them ideal for sight glass monitoring, tank liquid level
detection, and hopper powder level recognition
Have the same parts with

Inductive sensor
Note: the difference between

the inductive and capacitive
sensors: inductive sensors
oscillate until the target is
present and capacitive
sensors oscillate when the
target is present.
Photoelectric sensors
- All photoelectric sensors consist of a few of basic components: each has an
emitter light source (Light Emitting Diode, laser diode), a photodiode or
phototransistor receiver to detect emitted light, and supporting electronics
designed to amplify the receiver signal. The emitter, sometimes called the
sender, transmits a beam of either visible or infrared light to the detecting
receiver.
- If output is produced when no light is received, the sensor is dark-on.
Output from light received, and it’s light-on.
Consists of Three
(3) types:
-Through – Beam
-Retro-reflective
-Diffuse
Through Beam
- The most reliable photoelectric sensing is with through-beam sensors.
Separated from the receiver by a separate housing, the emitter provides
a constant beam of light; detection occurs when an object passing
between the two breaks the beam. Despite its reliability, through-beam
is the least popular photoelectric setup. The purchase, installation, and
alignment
Applications for Through Beam:
- Through-beam photoelectric sensors have commercial and
industrial applications. At home, for example, they detect
obstructions in the path of garage doors; the sensors have saved
many a bicycle and car from being smashed. Objects on industrial
conveyors, on the other hand, can be detected anywhere between the
emitter and receiver, as long as there are gaps between the monitored
objects, and sensor light does not “burn through” them.
Retro-reflective
-Operating similar to through-beam sensors without reaching the same sensing
distances, output occurs when a constant beam is broken. But instead of separate
housings for emitter and receiver, both are located in the same housing, facing
the same direction. The emitter produces a laser, infrared, or visible light beam
and projects it towards a specially designed reflector, which then deflects the
beam back to the receiver. Detection occurs when the light path is broken or
otherwise disturbed.
Applications for Retro-reflective
-One reason for using a retro-reflective sensor over a through-
beam sensor is for the convenience of one wiring location; the
opposing side only requires reflector mounting. This results in
big cost savings in both parts and time.
Diffuse
-As in retro-reflective sensors, diffuse sensor emitters and receivers are located in
the same housing. But the target acts as the reflector, so that detection is of light
reflected off the disturbance object. The emitter sends out a beam of light (most
often a pulsed infrared, visible red, or laser) that diffuses in all directions, filling a
detection area. The target then enters the area and deflects part of the beam back
to the receiver. Detection occurs and output is turned on or off (depending upon
whether the sensor is light-on or dark-on) when sufficient light falls on the
receiver.
Applications:
-Diffuse sensors can be found on public washroom sinks, where
they control automatic faucets. Hands placed under the spray
head act as reflector, triggering (in this case) the opening of a
water valve.
Ultrasonic sensors
• Ultrasonic proximity sensors are used in many automated
production processes. They employ sound waves to detect
objects, so color and transparency do not affect them
• This makes them ideal for a variety of applications, including

the long-range detection of clear glass and plastic, distance
measurement, continuous fluid and granulate level control, and
paper, sheet metal, and wood stacking
• The most common configurations are the same as in

photoelectric sensing: through beam, retro-reflective, and
diffuse versions
Position Indicators
What is Position
Indicators
position detection devices provide a
method to determine the position of
a valve or control rod.
The three types of position
indicators
1. Limit Switches
2. Reed Switches
3. Linear Variable Differential
Transformers (LVDTS)
Limit Switches
A limit switch is an electromechanical device that
consists of an actuator mechanically linked to a set of
contacts. When an object comes into contact with the
actuator, the device operates the contacts to make or
break an electrical connection.
An example of a limit switch is the switch that detects

the open position of a car door, automatically
activating the cabin light when the door is opened.
A typical limit switch design uses a lever with
a roller tip to make contact with the moving part. The
screw terminals on the switch body provide
connection points with the NC and NO contacts
inside the switch.
Advantages
•Works in almost all environments
•accuracy
•consume little electrical energy
Disadvantages
•moving mechanical parts can wear out
•restricted to equipment working in very
slow speed
Reed Switches
The reed switch is an electrical
switch operated by an applied
magnetic field. it consists of a pair
of ferromagnetic flexible metal
reeds contacts in a hermetically
sealed glass envelope
Reed switches come in two main varieties called normally open (normally
switched off) and normally closed (normally switched on).
The key to understanding how they work is to realize that they don't just
work as an electrical bridge but as a magnetic one as well: magnetism
flows through them as well as electricity.
Benefits or advantages of Reed Switch
Following are the benefits or advantages of Reed Switch:
➨Additional components are not needed except a magnet for its operation.
➨It can switch both AC as well as DC.
➨It can switch voltages up to 200 V in certain cases. Some variants are capable of
switching 500 mA.
➨It can be used by magnet in open or closed state indefinitely without any
power consumption.
➨It's performance is not affected due to dust or dirt unlike optical switch.
➨It can be activated through nonmagnetic materials such as plastic or paper.
Drawbacks or disadvantages of Reed Switch

Following are the drawbacks or disadvantages of Reed Switch:
➨It requires separate magnet for its operation. Moreover it does not work
satisfactorily when magnet is more than few millimetres away from the switch
part.
➨Reed switch can not be miniaturized similar to any other surface mount chips.
➨Glass envelope can easily be damaged.
➨Arcing may occur between contacts.
➨Only ferrous object can be used for sensing an object which comes between
switch and magnet.
➨It can be activated accidently by other magnetic fields.
➨It must be denounced when connected with controller/logic chip.
Linear Variable Differential
Transformers (LVDTS)
The linear variable differential
transformer is a type of electrical
transformer used for measuring linear
displacement. A counterpart to this
device that is used for measuring rotary
displacement is called a rotary variable
differential transformer.
The coil assembly is typically mounted to a stationary form,
while the core is secured to the object whose position is being measured.
The coil assembly consists of three coils of wire wound on the hollow
form. A core of permeable material can slide freely through the center of
the form. The inner coil is the primary, which is excited by an AC source
as shown. Magnetic flux produced by the primary is coupled to the two
secondary coils, inducing an AC voltage in each coil.
Advantages
The LVDT has low power consumption.

It has higher sensitive.
It has ruggedness.
It has wide range.
It has low hysteresis.
Disadvantages:
It has large primary voltage produce distortion in output.
Temperature affects the performance.
Sensitive to stray magnetic field.
What is RADAR
RADAR stands for Radio Detection and
Ranging System. It is basically an
electromagnetic system used to detect the
location and distance of an object from the
point where the RADAR is placed. It works by
radiating energy into space and monitoring
the echo or reflected signal from the objects
A Basic RADAR System
• A Transmitter: It can be a power amplifier like a Klystron, Travelling Wave
Tube or a power Oscillator like a Magnetron. The signal is first generated
using a waveform generator and then amplified in the power amplifier.
• Waveguides: The waveguides are transmission lines for transmission of the

RADAR signals
• Antenna: The antenna used can be a parabolic reflector, planar arrays or

electronically steered phased arrays.
• Duplexer: A duplexer allows the antenna to be used as a transmitter or a

receiver. It can be a gaseous device that would produce a short circuit at the
input to the receiver when transmitter is working.
• Receiver: It can be super heterodyne receiver or any other receiver which

consists of a processor to process the signal and detect it.
• Threshold Decision: The output of the receiver is compared with a threshold

to detect the presence of any object. If the output is below any threshold, the
presence of noise is assumed.
Radars can be classified into the following two
types based on the type of signal with which
Radar can be operated.
• Pulse Radar
• Continuous Wave Radar

Pulse Radar
The Radar, which operates with pulse

signal is called the Pulse Radar. Pulse Radars
can be classified into the following two types
based on the type of the target it detects.
• Pulse Doppler Radar
• Moving Target Indication

Radar
Pulse Doppler RADAR: It transmits high pulse
repetition frequency to avoid Doppler ambiguities.
The transmitted signal and the received echo signal
are mixed in a detector to get the Doppler shift and
the difference signal is filtered using a Doppler filter
where the unwanted noise signals are rejected.
Moving Target Indicator RADAR: It transmits low pulse repetition
frequency to avoid range ambiguities. In a MTI RADAR system, the
received echo signals from the object are directed towards the mixer,
where they are mixed with the signal from a stable local oscillator
(STALO) to produce the IF signal. This IF signal is amplified and then
given to the phase detector where its phase is compared with the phase
of the signal from the Coherent Oscillator (COHO) and the difference
signal is produced. The Coherent signal has the same phase as the
transmitter signal. The coherent signal and the STALO signal are mixed
and given to the power amplifier which is switched on and off using the
pulse modulator.
Continuous Wave RADAR
The continuous wave RADAR doesn’t

measures the range of the target but rather the
rate of change of range by measuring the
Doppler shift of the return signal. In a CW
RADAR electromagnetic radiation is emitted
instead of pulses. It is basically used for speed
measurement.
The RF signal and the IF signal are mixed in the mixer stage to generate
the local oscillator frequency. The RF signal is the transmitted signal and
the received signal by the RADAR antenna consists of the RF frequency
plus the Doppler shift frequency. The received signal is mixed with the
local oscillator frequency in the second mixture stage to generate the IF
frequency signal. This signal is amplified and given to the third mixture
stage where it is mixed with the IF signal to get the signal with Doppler
frequency. This Doppler frequency or Doppler shift gives the rate of
change of range of the target and thus the velocity of the target is
measured.
RADAR Applications in 5 Areas:
Military Applications:
• In air defence it is used for target detection, target
recognition and weapon control (directing the weapon
to the tracked targets).
• In missile system to guide the weapon.

• Identifying enemy locations in map.
Air Traffic Control:

• The RADAR has 3 major applications in Air Traffic control:
• To control air traffic near airports. The Air Surveillance RADAR is used to detect
and display the aircraft’s position in the airport terminals.
• To guide the aircraft to land in bad weather using Precision Approach RADAR.
• To scan the airport surface for aircraft and ground vehicle positions
RADAR Applications in 5 Areas:
Remote Sensing:
RADAR can be used for observing weather or observing planetary positions
and monitoring sea ice to ensure smooth route for ships.
Ground Traffic Control:

RADAR can also be used by traffic police to determine speed of the vehicle,
controlling the movement of vehicles by giving warnings about presence of
other vehicles or any other obstacles behind them.
Space:
• To guide the space vehicle for safe
landing on moon
• To observe the planetary systems
• To detect and track satellites
• To monitor the meteors
Ends
RADIATION
DETECTION/ACTINOMETERS
By: Cagumbay, Val Kristian

Dacanay, Rubyen
Gargantos, Elvene
2
RADIATION
➢ Is the emission or transmission of energy in the form

of waves or particles through space or through a
material medium.
➢ Ionizing or non-ionizing depending on the energy.

3
DETECTION
➢ The action or process of identifying the presence of

something concealed.
4
TYPES OF IONIZING RADIATIONS
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
PARTICLES
5
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
X-RAYS GAMMA RAYS

6
PARTICLES
ALPHA BETA NEUTRON

7
WHY DETECT RADIATION?
➢ Environmental Safety
➢ Power regulation in nuclear reactors
➢ Research application
➢ Personal protection of occupational workers
➢ Estimation of radiation dose in treatment of patients
8
TYPES OF DETECTOR
➢ GAS-FILLED DETECTORS
➢ SOLID-STATE DETECTORS
➢ CHARGED COUPLED DETECTORS

GAS FILLED -
DETECTORS
10
IONIZATION CHAMBER
➢ Widely used for the detection and measurement of certain types of ionizing radiation: X-
Rays, Gamma Rays and Beta Rays.
➢ Used exclusively to describe those detectors which collect all the charges created by
direct ionization within the gas through the application of an electric field.
➢ PRINCIPLE: Gas molecules get ionized when energetic charged particles propagated
through a gas.
➢ CONSTRUCTION: A metallic cylinder filled with a suitable gas at atmospheric pressure.

A metal rod which is fixed along the axis of cylinder connected to a counter through
amplifier.
11
12
CHAMBER TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION
➢FREE-AIR CHAMBER
➢VENTED CHAMBER
➢SEALED LOW PRESSURE CHAMBER
➢HIGH PRESSURE CHAMBER
➢RESEARCH AND CALIBRATION CHAMBER
13
ADVANTAGES:
➢ Accurate and Precise
➢ Recommended for beam calibration
➢ Instant readout
DISADVANTAGES
➢ Connecting cables required
➢ High voltage supply required
14
PROPORTIONAL COUNTER
➢ It is an ion collection based detector which is used to detect the nuclear particles.
➢ PRINCIPLE: When a particle of low specific ionization passes through an ionization

chamber the pulse produced is too small to be detected.
➢ CONSTRUCTION: A cylindrical tube containing a mixture of argon and methane with a

ratio of 9:1 at one atmospheric pressure. A fine tungsten (anode) were fixed along the
axis of the tube (cathode): Amplifier and Discriminator
15
GAS MULTIPLICATION FACTOR (M)
𝑛
M=
(1−𝑛𝑝)
Where:
n = number of secondary electrons produced by the primary electrons
p = the probability of production of photoelectrons
16
USES
➢ The proportional counter permits both the counting and energy
determination of particles even the very low energy
➢ It can be used as a spectrometer
➢ Used for detection of neutrons, fission fragments etc.
DISADVANTAGE
➢ This counter is that the amplification factor depends on the applied voltage
➢ The applied voltage must be maintained constant within the narrow limit because
a slight change in voltage changes the gas amplification
17
GEIGER MULLER COUNTER

➢ Detects ionizing radiation particles such as alpha, beta and gamma rays using
the ionization effect produced in a Geiger-Muller tube.
➢ PRINCIPLE: The electrons produced by ionization, if accelerated by a high

potential can cause further ionization of gas molecules thereby generating a
large number of more electrons.
➢ The ionization is considerably amplified within the tube by the Townsend

Discharge Effect to produce an easily measured detection pulse.
➢ The large pulse from the tube makes the G-M Counter cheap to manufacture,
as the subsequent electronics is greatly simplified. Electronics generate high
voltage estimated from 400 to 600 volts.
18
GEIGER MULLER COUNTER

➢ CONSTRUCTION: it consists of hollow cylindrical tube of length about 15 – 50
cm and is made of copper (GM tube). The GM tube is filled with some inert
gas (generally argon) to which high voltage is applied. Tube briefly conducts
electrical charge when a particle or photon of incident radiation makes the gas
conductive by ionization.
19
AVALANCHE
➢ In gas amplification, the number
of ions increases exponentially.
This process is cumulative.
➢ In a proportional counter, many

electrons (10 - 10,000) reach the
anode for each primary ion pair
produced in the gas. The reason
is that the electron of each
primary ion pair creates further
"secondary" ion pairs as it gets
close to the anode.
20
DEPENDENCY OF AVALANCHE
➢RADIUS OF ANODE WIRE
➢RADIUS OF TUBE
➢APPLIED VOLTAGE
21
2 TYPES: READOUT
➢ COUNT PER SECOND

Normally used when alpha or beta particles are being detected.
➢ ABSORBED DOSE
Normally used for gamma or x-ray dose rates.
22
APPLICATION
➢ For the detection of alpha and beta particles

➢ To check for environmental levels of radioactivity
➢ For fire and police first responders to analysis for making an initial
determination of radiation disk
SOLID
STATE
DETECTOR
24
DETECTORS
An instrument responsible
for detection of ionizing radiations
by interacting with matter or to
measure radiation or to do both.
25
TYPES OF DETECTORS:
❑Gas Filled Detector
❑Solid State Detector

26
SOLID STATE DETECTOR
❑This consists of the solid materials

with fluorescence, phosphorescence,
and semiconducting properties.
❑Also called as Semiconductor

Radiation Detector
27
TYPES OF SOLID STATE DETECTORS
❑Scintillation Detector
❑Thermoluminescent Dosimeter
❑Semiconductor Detector
28
SCINTILLATION DETECTOR
Scintillation detectors are used for the

determination of the high-energy part
of the X-ray spectrum. In scintillation
detectors the material of the detector
is excited to luminescence (emission
of visible or near-visible light photons)
by the absorbed photons or particles.
29
TYPE OF SCINTILLATION DETECTOR

Inorganic Crystals
• High atomic number and high density materials (NaI, CsI, Lithium glasses, Zns)
• Commonly used for gamma-ray detection
• High light yield (60,000/ Mev)
• Can’t be used in liquid form
• Low decay time about 1 microsecond
30
TYPE OF SCINTILLATION DETECTOR
Organic Crystals
• Low atomic number and relatively low density materials

• Commonly used for Beta particles detection (Anthracene, Naphthalene, etc.)
• Low light yield (1,000 photons/ Mev) – power signal
• Can be used both in liquid and solid form
• Fast decay time about 10 nanosecond
• Economic
31
SCINTILLATION COUNTER
scintillation counter is an instrument

r detecting and measuring ionizing
diation by using the excitation effect
incident radiation on a scintillating
aterial, and detecting the resultant
ht pulses.
32
SCINTILLATION COUNTER PRINCIPLE
gy atomic radiations are incident on a surface coated with some

al, then flashes of lights are produced. The scintillations are detected
photomultiplier tube that gives rise to an equivalent electric pulse.
33
SCINTILLATION COUNTER APPLICATION

34
THERMOLUMINESCENT DOSIMETER
❑ A Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD) is a type of radiation dosimeter.
❑ A TLD measures ionizing radiation exposure by measuring the intensity

of visible light emitted by a crystal inside the detector when the crystal is
heated. The intensity of light emitted is dependent upon the radiation
exposure.
35
36
❑ The two most common types of TLDs are calcium fluoride and
lithium fluoride, with one or more impurities to produce trap
states for energetic electrons.
❑ LiF is the most widely used because it is relatively sensitive

and can measure as low as 5 mRad with accuracy.
37
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
• Must be calibrated before use

• Material must be annealed to remove residual effect
• Should be worn at chest position
• Changed in every 3 months
• Should be stored away from light, radiation, and dust
when not used.
38
SEMICONDUCTOR DETECTOR
❑ Detector of very high resolution energy measurement
❑ Response that varies linearly with the energy

deposited in the detector and doesn’t depend upon
the type of radiation that deposits the energy
❑ Negligible absorption of energy
❑ Small detector size
❑ Common materials of choice: Silicon and Geranium

39
P-N JUNCTION
40
P-N JUNCTION
The basic principle of usage of a PN junction in which particles interact via these
three phenomena; the photo-electric effect, compton scattering, and pair-production.
The simplest planar silicon sensor consists of a P doped substrate and an N-implant
at one side.
A p–n junction is a boundary or interface between two types of semiconductor

materials, p-type and n-type, inside a single crystal of semiconductor. The "p"
(positive) side contains an excess of holes, while the "n" (negative) side contains an
excess of electrons in the outer shells of the electrically neutral atoms there. This
allows electrical current to pass through the junction only in one direction. The p-n
junction is created by doping, for example by ion implantation, diffusion of dopants,
or by epitaxy (growing a layer of crystal doped with one type of dopant on top of a
layer of crystal doped with another type of dopant).
41
P-N JUNCTION
42
SILICON DRIFT
Silicon drift detectors (SDDs) are X-ray radiation detectors used in x-ray
pectrometry (XRF and EDS) and electron microscopy. Their chief
haracteristics compared with other X-ray detectors are:
high count rates

comparatively high energy resolution (e.g. 125 eV for Mn Kα
wavelength)
Peltier cooling
43
SILICON DRIFT
44
SOLID STATE DETECTORS
es: Disadvantages:
ange of elements and wavelengths • Smaller signals, mainly because of the much
aneous analysis of different spectral smaller surface area of the light sensitive region
• Higher noise, chiefly counting noise
aneous analysis of signal and • Poorer signal to background ratios, particular for
ound radiation short acquisition time
• Slower response time
ct design of optics • Speed usually limited by the need to integrate to
overcome counting noise
• Smaller dynamic range of intensities
CHARGED
COUPLED
DETECTORS
46
INTRODUCTION
➢ Is an integrated circuit made of crystalline silicon. Highly sensitive photon

detector.
➢ Forms images from visible light
➢ CCD’s are dynamic devices that move charge along a predetermined paths
under control of clock pulses
47
2 TYPES
➢ INDIRECT
Have a scintillator that first converts X-rays into visible light. That light
is then converted into an electric charge by means of photodetectors such as
amorphous silicon photodiode arrays or CCDs. Thin-film transistor (TFT)
arrays may be used in both direct- and indirect-conversion detectors.
➢ DIRECT
Have an X-ray photoconductor, such as amorphous selenium, that
directly converts X-ray photons into an electric charge.
48
2 TYPES
49
IMAGE SCANNING
50
ASPECTS OF CCD BEHAVIOR
➢ QUANTUM EFFICIENCY
➢ WAVELENGTH RANGE
➢ DYNAMIC RANGE
➢ LINEARITY
➢ NOISE
➢ POWER
51
ADVANTAGES
➢ Relatively Simple
➢ Cheaper to replace if failure
➢ Detector costs simple
➢ No chemical processing is needed
DISADVANTAGES
➢ Demagnification is a major issue
➢ Vary with application
➢ Very expensive
52
APPLICATION
➢ ASTRONOMICAL IMAGING
➢ SIGNAL PROCESSING
➢ DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY
➢ MEDICAL FLUOROSCOPY
ACTINOMETER
54
ACTINOMETER
➢ A device that is used to measure the intensity of

solar radiation
➢ A system device that determines the number of
photons by measuring the rate of change of photo-
induced responses in a chemical system.
55
WORKING PRINCIPLES OF ACTINOMETERS
➢ The gas of interest is filled into a photolysis reactor.

➢ The actinometer is exposed to heat radiation.
➢ The photochemical rate is measured.
56
APPLICATIONS OF ACTINOMETER
Are used in meteorology to measure solar radiation transmitted by the

sun, reflected by the earth or scattered by the atmosphere. They are
used in photochemical experiments that involve complex irradiation
geometry. In addition, actinometers serve as a first choice for
calibrating photochemical detectors used for radiation measurements.
57
TYPES OF ACTINOMETER
➢ PYRANOMETER – Used to measure broadband solar irradiance

on a planar surface.
– A sensor that is designed to measure the flux
density.
58
TYPES OF ACTINOMETER
➢ PYRHELIOMETER – An instrument for measurement of direct solar

irradiance.
– Used with a solar tracking system to keep the
instrument aimed at the sun.
59
SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF
PYRANOMETER & PYRHELIOMETER
60
TYPE OF ACTINOMETER
➢ NET RADIOMETER – Used to measure net radiation at the

earths surface for meteorological applications.
– It measures the difference between
downward/incoming and upward/outgoing
radiation from Earth .
A mechanical device that is
sensitive to smoke or particular
material in the air that transmits a
signal to the measuring
instrument, typically as an
indicator of fire.
2 types:
Ionization Smoke Detector
Photoelectric Smoke Detector
Type of smoke detector that uses an ionization chamber
and a source of ionizing radiation to detect smoke.
It is more common because it is inexpensive and better at
detecting the smaller amounts of smoke produced by
flaming fires.
The ionization smoke detector consists of an alpha particle
producing a radioactive source (americium-241), a smoke
chamber, and charged detector plates.
The alpha source causes the air within the smoke chamber
to become ionized and conductive
Sensing Chamber
Photoelectric Smoke Detector
The photoelectric type detector utilizes light as a
detection mechanism.
A photoelectric, or optical, smoke detector
contains a source of infrared, visible, or ultraviolet
light, a lens, and a photoelectric receiver (typically
a photodiode).
There are two types of photoelectric smoke

detectors:
• Light sensing(scattering)
• Light obscuring(blocking)
Light Scattering Photoelectric Smoke Detector
• Works using a photoelectric sensor and a light source
• Light scattering smoke detector depend on the ability of

small airborne particles to scatter light.
• The light emitted from the light source is not detected by the
photo sensor.
• When smoke particles enter in the chamber increases, more

light is scattered toward the sensor.
• When the concentration of particles reach the threshold, an

alarm sound is produced.
Light Obscuring Photoelectric Smoke Detector
• Beam smoke detectors are line-type photoelectric

detectors consisting of a separate light source and
photosensitive receiver.
• These devices are usually installed in large open areas

where there is an unobstructed line of sight between
the light source and the receiver and where the use of
spot-type detectors would be economically unfeasible
due to the number of detectors required.
Advantages
• Detects invisible products of combustion. It can detect fires that are in the incipient stage
or detect other aerosol-type smoke products
• Quick acting -- Provides for earlier detection than other types of smoke detectors or
thermal detectors
Disadvantages
• May provide false detection if used where volatile solvents, conductive material dusts, or
high humidity are present
• Detects the presence of smoke only, not toxicity
• Has a potential for high false alarm rate

Advantages
• Sensitive to visual particles of smoke

• Detects smoldering low heat fires
• Provide early warning
Disadvantages
• Early contamination by dust causing reduced sensitivity

• Detects presence of smoke, not toxicity
• Must be cleaned on a regular basis
• Has a potential for high false alarm rate
Advantages
• Cover a large area economically
• Quick acting
Disadvantages
• Unobstructed Loss between the light source and the
receiver
• Correct alignment needs to be maintained
• Typical locations or hazards for beam detectors:
High atriums
Manufacturing spaces
Ionization smoke alarms tend to respond faster to the
smoke produced by flaming fires than photoelectric smoke
alarms.
Photoelectric smoke alarms tend to respond faster to the

smoke produced by smoldering fires than ionization smoke
alarms.
存在不足之处 successful project
 Early warning or life safety
 Most efficient when flaming fires are expected

Photoelectric Smoke Detector (spot type)
Most efficient when smoldering fires are expected or where the
smoke has to travel a distance before reaching the detector
Photoelectric Smoke Detector (beam type)

Used in high ceiling environments such as churches, atriums and
warehouses
Photoelectric Smoke Detector (air sampling type)

Used in high value applications such as computer rooms
Also used in high airflow areas and some rack storage
application
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
diNjgcwSW2o
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z
RzOk1gKE5c
SOUND
by: Carlisle Joy Tagam, Geryck Joseph Colico & Gabriel Amatong
What is Sound?
a vibration that typically propagates as an
audible wave of pressure, through a
transmission medium such as a gas, liquid or
solid.
2
SOUND
▪ A sound waveform has the same characteristics as that of an

electrical waveform which are Wavelength (λ), Frequency (ƒ)
and Velocity (m/s). Both the sounds frequency and wave
shape are determined by the origin or vibration that
originally produced the sound but the velocity is dependent
upon the medium of transmission (air, water etc.) that
carries the sound wave.
3
SOUND
The relationship between wavelength, velocity

and frequency is given below as:
4
SOUND
Louder sounds produce larger Higher pitch sounds produce more

vibrations. frequent vibrations.
5
The Speed of Sound
The speed of sound depends on the medium through

which the waves are passing, and is often quoted as a
fundamental property of the material. In general, the
speed of sound is proportional to the square root of
the ratio of the elastic modulus (stiffness) of the
medium to its density. Those physical properties and
the speed of sound change with ambient conditions.
6
The Speed of Sound
For example, the speed of sound in gases depends on

temperature. In air at sea level, the speed of sound is
approximately 343 m/s, in water 1482 m/s, and in steel
about
5960 m/s (at 20 °C). The speed of sound is also slightly
sensitive (a second-order effect) to the sound amplitude,
which means that there are nonlinear propagation
effects, such as the production of harmonics and mixed
tones not present in the original sound. 7
Nature of Sound
Sound waves are produced by longitudinal vibrations of

molecules in gases and other media.
This means that as a wave travels through a medium,
the molecules of the medium oscillate to and from.
The energy of this vibration is carried by the involved
waves, which is brought to our brains for interpretation
sound.
8
Signals are converted from time or space domain to the frequency
domain usually through the Fourier transform. The Fourier
transform(s) describe a decomposition of a function in terms of a sum
of sinusoidal functions (basis functions) of different frequencies that
can be recombined to obtain the original function.
9
Kinds of Sound Waves
Audible Sound Waves

▪ Sound waves that can be detected by human ear.
A sound waves with frequencies in the range of 20
to 20,000 Hz can be detected by human ear. This
range varies from one individual to another.
10
Ultrasonic Waves
▪ Sound waves with a frequencies above 20,000Hz .
▪ These waves can also reach human ear but are not
detected. This ultrasonic sound can be detected by some
animals. Dogs can hear sounds as high as 50,000 Hz,
while bats can hear as high as 100,000 Hz
11
Infrasonic Waves
▪ Sound waves with frequencies below 20 Hz.
▪ Common source of this waves are vibrating
heavy machines, earthquake, thunder, and
volcanic eruption.
▪ These waves are audible but can cause damage
to the human body.
12
13
Sound Sensors
What is Sound Sensor?
a small board that combines a microphone and

some processing circuitry. It provides not only an
audio output, but also a binary indication of the
presence of sound, and an analog representation
of it's amplitude.
15
Sound sensors
16
Sound Sensors
▪ Audio Sound Transducers or Sensors include both input sensors, that

convert sound into and electrical signal such as a microphone, and
output actuators that convert the electrical signals back into sound
such as a loudspeaker. Sound sensors have a thin piece of material
called a diaphragm that vibrates when hit by sound waves (similar to
how your eardrum vibrates when hearing sound). The vibration of
the diaphragm is converted by the sensor into an electrical signal.
This signal is an “electrical image” representing the characteristics of
the acoustic waveform. Generally, the output signal from a
microphone is an analogue signal either in the form of a voltage or
current which is proportional to the actual sound wave.
17
Microphone
▪ Microphone: acoustic sensors for air waves in the audible range

▪ Hydrophone: acoustic sensor for liquid waves
▪ Microphone / hydrophone are pressure sensors with a wide dynamic range...
▪ A microphone / hydrophone is a pressure transducer, adapted for the
transduction of sound /
▪ liquid waves.
▪ All microphones / hydrophones have a moving diaphragm and a
displacement tranducer that converts this motion into an electric signal.
▪ Microphones / hydrophones differ by : sensitivity, direction characteristics,
frequency bandwidth, dynamic range 18
Condenser microphones / Capacitive Microphones
▪ A capacitive microphone linearly converts a distance

between plates into an electric voltage.
▪ The device requires a source of electric charge (q)
whose magnitude directly determines the microphone
sensitivity.
▪ Many capacitive / condenser microphones are
fabricated of silicon diaphragms that convert the
acoustic pressure of the sound wave into a (distance) 19
displacement.
20
Crystal Microphones
Crystals which demonstrate the

piezoelectric effect produce voltages
when they are deformed. The crystal
microphone uses a thin strip of
piezoelectric material attached to a
diaphragm. The two sides of the crystal
acquire opposite charges when the
crystal is deflected by the diaphragm.
The charges are proportional to the
amount of deformation and disappear
when the stress on the crystal
21
disappears.
Sound Level Meters
▪ A sound level meter is used for

acoustic measurements. It is
commonly a hand-held
instrument with a microphone.
The diaphragm of the
microphone responds to
changes in air pressure caused
by sound waves. That is why the
instrument is sometimes
referred to as a Sound Pressure 22
Level Meter.
23
Speed Sensors
Speed sensors
• Speed sensors use magnets or optical sources to capture
rotational or linear speed. Typically, they are used as
gear-tooth speed sensors or are incorporated into
stroboscopes or tachometers.
• Speed is measured using different kinds of sensors
operating on different principles.
Sensing Principles
1. Variable Reluctance based
2. Hall Effect based
3. Eddy Current based
4. Radar Doppler based
5. Accelerometer based
6. Pitot tube based
7. Pitometer based
Variable Reluctance Sensors
• Variable Reluctance (VR) sensors convert mechanical
motion to electric energy without direct contact when
positioned near a gear, shaft, rotor, or other regularly
moving device. The output signal can be fed electronic
circuit.
• The sensor provides an uncomplicated, accurate,
reliable, inexpensive transducer for highly sophisticated
control systems.
Variable Reluctance Sensors
Application:
• Sensing speed of Gear tooth (in Crankshaft, Camshaft)
• Sensing the turbine speed of a jet engine.
Variable Reluctance Sensor
Hall Effect Sensors
• Hall Effect speed sensor uses a Hall Effect transducer element
between the magnet and the target. The target material can be either
ferrous or magnetic.
• It functions by passing a current through a semiconductor material.
When a magnetic field is applied perpendicularly to the surface of
the semiconductor, a voltage is developed. This Hall voltage is
proportional to the applied field intensity, driving the magnetic
speed sensor.
• Hall Effect speed sensors can detect targets moving at arbitrarily
slow speeds, or even the presence or absence of non-moving
targets. It supports zero speed sensing.
Hall Effect Sensors
• Applications:
• Vehicles (Wheel Speed Sensor)
• Crankshaft or camshaft
Hall Effect Sensors
Eddy Current Speed Sensors
• Eddy current sensors are primarily used for displacement and
position measurement of electrically conductive targets. They
are generally used for measuring ferromagnetic and non-
ferromagnetic materials. They are suitable for applications in
harsh industrial environments due to their superior tolerance
for oil, dirt, dust, moisture and magnetic interference fields.
• Eddy currents are loops of electrical current induced within
conductors by a changing magnetic field in the conductor
according to Faraday's law of induction.
• Applications:
• Measure vibrations of actuators in steel galvanising plants
• Cylinder movements in an internal combustion engine
• Measure thickness of sheet metals in roller gap
• Measure movement of hydraulic cylinders
• Used in airplanes to measure movement of door lock
switches and landing gear flaps
Radar Doppler Speed Sensors
• Echo of a radar signal sent toward a moving target will
have its frequency shifted and the shift in the frequency
is related to the velocity of the moving target. This
occurs due to Doppler Effect.
Radar Doppler Speed Sensors
Accelerometer
• An accelerometer is an electromechanical device used to
measure acceleration forces. Such forces may be static, like the
continuous force of gravity or, as is the case with many
mobile devices, dynamic to sense movement or vibrations.
• The most commonly used device is the piezoelectric
accelerometer. As the name suggests, it uses the principle of
piezoelectric effect. The device consists of a piezoelectric
quartz crystal on which an accelerative force, whose value is
to be measured, is applied.
Accelerometer
Applications:
• Measure Vehicle acceleration
• Report the vibration and its changes in time of shafts at
the bearings of rotating equipment such as turbines,
pumps, fans, rollers, compressors, or bearing fault.
Piezoelectric Accelerometer
• A piezoelectric accelerometer utilizes the piezoelectric
effect of certain materials to measure dynamic changes
in mechanical variables, such as mechanical shock,
vibration and acceleration.
Accelerometer
Pitot Tubes
• Pitot tubes are single point sensors with velocity
pressure output for indication of air and liquid flow rate.
• It is widely used to determine the airspeed of an aircraft,
water speed of a boat, and to measure liquid, air and gas
flow velocities in certain industrial applications.
Pitot Tubes
Applications:
• Measure air flow in pipes, ducts, and stacks, and liquid
flow in pipes, weirs, and open channels.
Pitot Tubes
Pitometers
• These are devices used to measure a ship's speed relative
to the water. They are used on both surface ships and
submarines. Data from the pitometer log is usually fed
directly into the ship's navigation system.
Pitometers
Selection of Speed Sensors:
1. Application Scenario
• Though selection of a speed sensor depends upon number of factors, it is primarily dependent upon the application.
2. Type of Output
• One of the factors may be the output format; digital or analog.
3. Target Details(for sensors operating on principle of magnetic field)
• The output of a speed sensor is highly dependent upon application details such as the size, shape and material of the target.
4. Operational temperature range.
• Selected sensor must be able to operate in the complete operating range

Technical Explanation for Proximity Sensors
CSM_Proximity_TG_E_6_2
Overview
What Is a Proximity Sensor?
Sensors
"Proximity Sensor" includes all sensors that perform non-contact detection in comparison to sensors, such as limit switches, that
detect objects by physically contacting them. Proximity Sensors convert information on the movement or presence of an object
into an electrical signal. There are three types of detection systems that do this conversion: systems that use the eddy currents
that are generated in metallic sensing objects by electromagnetic induction, systems that detect changes in electrical capacity
Switches
when approaching the sensing object, and systems that use magnets and reed switches.
The Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) define proximity sensors in JIS C 8201-5-2 (Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear, Part
5: Control circuit devices and switching elements, Section 2: Proximity switches), which conforms to the IEC 60947-5-2 definition
of non-contact position detection switches.
JIS gives the generic name "proximity switch" to all sensors that provide non-contact detection of target objects that are close by
Safety Components
or within the general vicinity of the sensor, and classifies them as inductive, capacitive, ultrasonic, photoelectric, magnetic, etc.
This Technical Explanation defines all inductive sensors that are used for detecting metallic objects, capacitive sensors that are
used for detecting metallic or non-metallic objects, and sensors that utilize magnetic DC fields as Proximity Sensors.
Features
1. Proximity Sensors detect an object without touching it, 5. Proximity Sensors can be used in a wide temperature
Relays
and they therefore do not cause abrasion or damage to range.
the object. Proximity Sensors can be used in temperatures ranging
Devices such as limit switches detect an object by contacting from −40 to 200°C.
it, but Proximity Sensors are able to detect the presence of the
6. Proximity Sensors are not affected by colors.
object electrically, without having to touch it.
Control Components
Proximity Sensors detect the physical changes of an object,
2. No contacts are used for output, so the Sensor has a so they are almost completely unaffected by the object's
longer service life (excluding sensors that use magnets). surface color.
Proximity Sensors use semiconductor outputs, so there are
7. Unlike switches, which rely on physical contact,
no contacts to affect the service life.
Proximity Sensors are affected by ambient
Automation Systems
3. Unlike optical detection methods, Proximity Sensors temperatures, surrounding objects, and other Sensors.
are suitable for use in locations where water or oil is Both Inductive and Capacitive Proximity Sensors are
used. affected by interaction with other Sensors. Because of this,
Detection takes place with almost no effect from dirt, oil, or care must be taken when installing them to prevent mutual
water on the object being detected. Models with fluororesin interference. (Refer to the Precautions for Correct Use in
cases are also available for excellent chemical resistance. the Safety Precautions for All Proximity Sensors.)
Motion / Drives
Care must also be taken to prevent the effects of
4. Proximity Sensors provide high-speed response, surrounding metallic objects on Inductive Proximity
compared with switches that require physical contact. Sensors, and to prevent the effects of all surrounding
For information on high-speed response, refer to objects on Capacitive Proximity Sensors.
Explanation of Terms on page 3.
8. There are Two-wire Sensors.
Energy Conservation Support /

Environment Measure Equipment
The power line and signal line are combined. If only the
power line is wired, internal elements may be damaged.
Always insert a load. (Refer to the Precautions for Safe Use
in the Safety Precautions for All Proximity Sensors.) Power Supplies /
In Addition
Others
Common
1
Operating Principles
Sensors
Detection Principle of Inductive Proximity Sensors Detection Principle of Capacitive Proximity Sensors
Inductive Proximity Sensors detect magnetic loss due to eddy
currents that are generated on a conductive surface by an
external magnetic field. An AC magnetic field is generated on
the detection coil, and changes in the impedance due to eddy
currents generated on a metallic object are detected. Sensing
Sensor
Switches
object
Other methods include Aluminum-detecting Sensors, which
detect the phase component of the frequency, and All-metal
Sensors, which use a working coil to detect only the changed
Capacitive Proximity Sensors detect changes in the
component of the impedance. There are also Pulse-response
capacitance between the sensing object and the Sensor. The
Sensors, which generate an eddy current in pulses and detect
Safety Components
amount of capacitance varies depending on the size and
the time change in the eddy current with the voltage induced
distance of the sensing object. An ordinary Capacitive
in the coil.
Proximity Sensor is similar to a capacitor with two parallel
(Qualitative Explanation) plates, where the capacity of the two plates is detected. One
The sensing object and Sensor form what appears to be a of the plates is the object being measured (with an imaginary
transformer-like relationship. ground), and the other is the Sensor's sensing surface. The
changes in the capacity generated between these two poles
Relays
are detected.
Sensing
object
Sensor The objects that can be detected depend on their dielectric
constant, but they include resin and water in addition to
metals.
Control Components
Detection Principle of Magnetic Proximity Sensors
The transformer-like coupling condition is replaced
by impedance changes due to eddy-current losses.
The impedance changes can be viewed as changes in the

resistance that is inserted in series with the sensing object. Magnet
(This does not actually occur, but thinking of it this way makes
Automation Systems
it easier to understand qualitatively.)
The reed end of the switch is operated by a magnet. When the

reed switch is turned ON, the Sensor is turned ON.
Classification
Motion / Drives
Selection by Detection Method
Items requiring
Inductive Proximity Sensors Capacitive Proximity Sensors Magnetic Proximity Sensors
confirmation
Metallic objects (iron, aluminum, Metallic objects, resins, liquids,
Sensing object Magnets
brass, copper, etc.) powders, etc.

Affected by positional relationship of power lines and signal lines, grounding of
cabinet, etc.
Electrical noise CE Marking (EC Directive compliance) Almost no effect.
Sensor covering material (metal, resin).
Easily affected by noise when the cable is long.
DC, AC, AC/DC, DC with no polarity, etc.
Power supply
Connection method, power supply voltage.
Power Supplies /
In Addition
Current Depends on the power supply, i.e., DC 2-wire models, DC 3-wire models, AC, etc.
consumption DC 2-wire models are effective for suppressing current consumption.
The sensing distance must be selected by considering the effects of factors such as the temperature, the sensing object,
Sensing distance surrounding objects, and the mounting distance between Sensors. Refer to the set distance in the catalog specifications
to determine the proper distance. When high precision sensing is required, use a Separate Amplifier model.
Ambient Temperature or humidity, or existence of water, oils, chemicals etc.
environment Confirm that the degree of protection (refer to the Degree of Protection) matches the ambient environment.
Others
An extra margin must be provided in the sensing distance when selecting Sensors for use in environments subject to
Physical vibration,
vibration and shock.
shock
To prevent Sensors from vibrating loose, refer to the catalog values for tightening torque during assembly.
Effects of tightening torque, Sensor size, number of wiring steps, cable length, distance between Sensors, surrounding
objects.
Assembly
Check the effects of surrounding metallic and other objects, and the specifications for the mutual interference between
Common
Sensors.
2
Explanation of Terms
Standard Sensing Object Response Time
A sensing object that serves as a reference for measuring • t1: The interval from the point when the standard sensing
Sensors
basic performance, and that is made of specified materials object moves into the sensing area and the Sensor
and has a specified shape and dimensions. activates, to the point when the output turns ON.
• t2: The interval from the point when the standard sensing
Standard sensing object
object moves out of the Sensor sensing area to the point
when the Sensor output turns OFF.
Switches
Within range
d Specified sensing
object: Proximity Sensor Outside
Proximity Sensor Sensing
• Material of range
• Shape area
d • Dimensions ON
t • Speed, etc.
Safety Components
Output
OFF
Sensing
object
Sensing Distance
t1 t2
The distance from the reference position (reference surface)
to the measured operation (reset) when the standard sensing
object is moved by the specified method. Response Frequency
• The number of detection repetitions that can be output per
OFF ON
second when the standard sensing object is repeatedly
Relays
Sensing
surface
Proximity Sensor
brought into proximity.
Sensing
object
• See the accompanying diagram for the measuring method.

Output
Output
Reference
Control Components
position
f=
t1 + t2
Sensing Proximity Sensor
distance
Reset distance t1 t2 t3
2M 1
M (Sensing distance)
2
Automation Systems
Set Distance Standard sensing object
M
The distance from the reference surface that allows stable
use, including the effects of temperature and voltage, to the Non-metal
(standard) sensing object transit position. This is Shielded
approximately 70% to 80% of the normal (rated) sensing
• With a Shielded Sensor, magnetic flux is concentrated in
distance.
front of the Sensor and the sides of the Sensor coil are
Motion / Drives
Rated sensing covered with metal.
distance
• The Sensor can be mounted by embedding it into metal.
Set distance
Proximity Sensor
Proximity Sensor

Output
Sensing
surface
Output
Sensing
object
Sensing object
Unshielded
Hysteresis (Differential Travel)
• With an Unshielded Sensor, magnetic flux is spread widely
Power Supplies /
With respect to the distance between the standard sensing

In Addition
in front of the Sensor and the sides of the Sensor coil are
object and the Sensor, the difference between the distance at
not covered with metal.
which the Sensor operates and the distance at which the
• This model is easily affected by surrounding metal objects
Sensor resets.
(magnetic objects), so care must be taken in selecting the
mounting location.
Others
OFF ON
Sensing Proximity Sensor
Proximity Sensor
distance
Sensing
object
Reset Output
distance Output
Common
Hysteresis Sensing object
3
Expressing the sensing distance

When measuring the sensing distance of a Proximity Sensor, the reference position and the direction of approach of the sensing
Sensors
object are determined as follows:
Cylindrical/Rectangular Sensors
Horizontal sensing distance
Perpendicular sensing distance
and sensing area diagram
(Sensing
Switches
Reference axis Reset
distance) (OFF)
(Hysteresis) Operate
Reset (ON)
(OFF) Sensing object
(Hysteresis)
Operate
Safety Components
(ON) Sensing (Sensing
object Reference
Reference distance)
axis Reference
plane
plane
Proximity Sensor
Proximity Sensor
Expressed as the measured distance from the reference surface when Expressed as the measured distance from the reference axis when the
the standard sensing object approaches from the radial direction standard sensing object is moved parallel to the reference surface
(perpendicular to the sensing surface). (sensing surface).
Relays
This distance depends on the transit position (distance from the
reference surface), so it can be expressed as an operating point track.
(Sensing Area Diagram)
Output configuration
Control Components
NPN transistor output PNP transistor output Non-polarity/non-contact output
Automation Systems
A general-use transistor can be directly Primarily built into machines exported to A 2-wire AC output that can be used for both
connected to a Programmable Controller or Europe and other overseas destinations. AC and DC Sensors. Eliminates the need to be
Counter. concerned about reversing the polarity.
Take the following points into account when selecting a DC 2-wire model (polarity/no-polarity). (For details, refer to the Precautions
for Correct Use in the Safety Precautions for All Proximity Sensors.)
• Leakage current: A maximum current of 0.8 mA flows to the load current even when the output is OFF. Check that the
Motion / Drives
load will not operate with this current.
• Output residual voltage: When the output is ON, voltage remains in the Sensor, and the voltage applied to the load decreases.
Check that the load will operate with this load voltage.
Output configuration

NO (normally open) NC (normally closed) NO/NC switchable
NO NC NO/NC switching
When there is an object in the sensing area, When there is no object in the sensing area, NO or NC operation can be selected for the
the output switching element is turned ON. the output switching element is turned ON. output switching element by a switch or other
means. Power Supplies /
In Addition
Others
Common
4
Further Information
Interpreting Engineering Data
Sensors
Influence of Sensing Object Size and Material
Sensing Area
Sensing Distance vs. Display Values Refer to the Precautions for Correct Use in the
Refer to Explanation of Terms on page 4.
Safety Precautions for All Proximity Sensors.
E2E-XE/-XY/-XF1 E2C-EDR6-F E2E-X3D/-X3T1
Distance X (mm)
Display value (digital)
12 4000 4.0
Distance X (mm)
@d
t=1 mm
Switches
E2E-X10 3.5
10 X
3000 3.0 Iron

Y
8 X 2.5 Stainless
steel
FP setting at 2.0
Safety Components
6 2000 (SUS304)
E2E-X5 0.9 mm
E2E-X2 1500 1.5 Brass
4 Aluminum
1000 1.0 Copper
E2E
2 -X1R5
FP setting at 0.5
0.3 mm
0 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2
Sensing distance (mm) Side length (one side) of sensing object: d (mm)
Distance Y (mm)
Relays
• This graph shows engineering data from • This type of graph is used with Separate • Here, the horizontal axis indicates the size
moving the sensing object parallel to the Amplifier Proximity Sensors. It shows the of the sensing object, and the vertical axis
sensing surface of the Proximity Sensor. values when executing FP (Fine indicates the sensing distance. It shows
• Refer to this graph for Proximity Sensor Positioning) at specified distances. FP changes in the sensing distance due to the
Control Components
applications, such as positioning. When a settings are possible at any desired size and material of the sensing object.
high degree of precision is required, use a distance, with a digital value of 1,500 as a Refer to this data when using the same
Separate Amplifier Proximity Sensor. reference for the E2C-EDA. Sensor to detect various different sensing
• The above graph shows numerical objects, or when confirming the allowable
examples when Fine Positioning is leeway for detection.
executed at the three points of 0.3, 0.6, and
0.9 mm.
Automation Systems
Leakage Current Characteristics Residual Voltage Characteristics
Refer to the Precautions for Correct Use in the Refer to the Precautions for Correct Use in the
Safety Precautions for All Proximity Sensors. Safety Precautions for All Proximity Sensors.
• In contrast with contact-type limit switches, • Similar to leakage current characteristics,
which have physical contacts, leakage residual voltage is something that occurs
current in a 2-wire Proximity Sensor is due to electrical switches that are comprised
related to an electrical switch that consists of transistors and other components. For
Motion / Drives
of transistors and other components. This example, whereas the voltage in a normally
graph indicates the leakage current open switch should be 0 V in the ON state,
characteristics caused by transistors in the and the same as the power supply voltage in
output section of the Sensor. the OFF state, residual voltage refers to a
• Generally speaking, the higher the voltage, certain level of voltage remaining in the
the larger the leakage current. Because switch. Be careful of this factor when

leakage current flows to the load connected replacing a limit switch, micro-switch, or
to the Proximity Sensor, care must be taken other switch with a Proximity Sensor.
to select a load that will not cause the
Sensor to operate from the leakage current.
• Be careful of this factor when replacing a
limit switch, micro-switch, or other switch
with a Proximity Sensor.
Power Supplies /
In Addition
Others
Common

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Accelerometers and Gyroscopes

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• THE ROTOR WILL MAINTAIN ITS SPIN

• The most accurate gyroscope

■ It uses electricity to turn the rotor of the gyroscope.

■ According to the Sagnac

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Carbon Monoxide Ammonia

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More at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZBDhCv_ENZ8

• Can measure the angular velocity of an object.

• THE ROTOR WILL MAINTAIN ITS SPIN

• The most accurate gyroscope

■ It uses electricity to turn the rotor of the gyroscope.

■ According to the Sagnac

• Tuning Fork Gyroscope

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A huge variety of manufacturing, storage

✓ Low humidity allows

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✓Coil expands or contracts as change shape

✓Amount of expansion is calibrated

✓Hair is hygroscopic, therefore its

UTILIZES RELATIVE HUMIDITY – the

One is dry and the other is kept moist with a

✓These sensors are suitable for use in environments that have

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Control system output is the actual response obtained from a

Capacitance is the ability of a process to store energy.

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Four modes of control commonly used for most applications are:

The proportional band of a

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• A motion sensor is a device that notices

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• Also known as Radar, RF or Doppler