STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

(Review Notes)

Simple Stress Shearing Deformation

VL
a. Normal Stress (σ) δS =
(applied force over cross sectional area) AS G
P Where:
σ= δS = shearing deformation
A V = shearing force acting over As
As = shearing area
b. Tangential Stress or Shear Stress (τ) L = length
(shearing force over sheared area) G = modulus of rigidity (shear modulus)
V
τ= Rotational Deformation
AS
TL
θ=
c. Bearing Stress (σb) JG
(bearing force over bearing area or Where:
contact area) J = polar moment of inertia
Pb T = torque
σb =
Ab
Stress – Strain Diagram
NOTE: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
1 kPa = 1x103 N/m2 Actual Strength
1 MPa = 1x106 N/m2 Ultimate Strength
1 GPa = 1x109 N/m2

Simple Strain
Rupture Strength
Axial Deformation
Stress, Elastic limit
σ=P/A
Hookes Law: Yield Point
σ
E= ; σ = Eε Proportional limit
ε
P δ
= Eε ; ε= 0
Strain, ε=S/L
A L
P δ PL
=E ; δ= Proportional limit – the stress strain diagram is a
A L AE straight line. All theories involving the
Where: behavior of elastic bodies is based upon a
δ = total deformation stress-strain proportionality. It is an
P = applied axial load indication that the proportional limit and not
A = constant cross sectional area the ultimate strength is the maximum stress
L = Length to which a material may be subjected. The
E = modulus of elasticity stress is proportional to the strain:
Note: the stress should not exceed the proportional
limit. σ
E= (Hookes Law)
ε
Stiffness of Rod
E = modulus of elasticity
AE P σ = stress
=
L δ ε = strain
P
K= ; (stiffness) Elastic Limit – the stress beyond which the material
δ will not return to its original shape when
unloaded but will retain a permanent
Flexibility of Rod deformation called permanent set.
δ L
= Yield Point – the point in which there is an
P AE appreciable elongation or yielding of the
δ material without any corresponding increase
= ( flexibility )
P of load, the load might decrease while the
yielding occurs.

Ultimate Strength – the highest ordinate on the

stress-strain curve.

Rupture Strength – the stress at failure

Poisson’s Ratio (μ) Torsion

μ = ration of unit lateral deformation to the unit Shear Stress

longitudinal deformation. Tρ
τ=
1. Uni-axial stress J
Where:
εy ε T = torque
μ=− =− z
εx εx J = polar moment of inertia
ρ = radial distance
2. Biaxial Stress
σx σy 1. Solid Shaft
εx = −μ
E E πD 4
J=
32
σy σx
εy = −μ
E E 16T
τ max =
σy σx πD 3
εz = − −
E E
2. Hollow Shaft
3. Tri-axial Stress π (D 4 − d 4 )
J=
1
εx = [σ x − μ (σ x + σ z )] 32
E
16TD
1
[
ε y = σ y − μ (σ z + σ x )
E
] τ max =
π (D 4 − d 4 )
1
[
ε z = σ z − μ (σ x + σ y )
E
] Where:
D = outside diameter
d = inside diameter
Where:
μ = poisson’s ratio
ε = strain Rotational or angle of twist
σ = stress (P/A)
E = modulus of elasticity
TL
θ=
JG
Shear modulus (G)
Where:
E SS = shearing stress
G= T = torsion
2(1 + μ ) θ = angle of twist in radians
where: L = length of shaft
G = shear modulus G = shear modulus
E = modulus of elasticity J = polar moment of inertia
Μ = Poisson’s ratio
Power
Bulk Modulus or
Modulus of Compression (k) P = T(ω)

E where: ω = angular speed in radians per unit time

k=
3(1 − 2μ )
Helical Spring

Thermal Stress 1. Shear stress

δt = αLΔT
16 PR ⎛ d ⎞
τ= 3 ⎜
1+ ⎟
δt = linear deformation πd ⎝ 4 R ⎠
α = coefficient of linear expansion expressed in units Where:
of meters per meter per degree of τ = max. torsional shearing stress
temperature change P = axial load
ΔT = temperature change R = mean radius of helix
L = length D = diameter of wire
 2. RAM Wahl Formula (accurate) Note:
a. Max. Moment occurs where shear is zero
16 PR ⎡ 4m − 1 0.615 ⎤ b. Point of inflection occurs where moment is
τ= + zero
πd 3 ⎢⎣ 4m − 4 m ⎥⎦
Where: Moving Loads
D 2R
m= = 1. The bending moment under a particular load is a
d d maximum when the center of the beam is midway
between that load and the resultant of all loads
D = mean diameter then on the span:
d = diameter of the wire
R = P1 + P2 (resultant of two moving loads)
3. Spring deflection
64 PR 3 n
δ= CL
Gd 4 P1
R
x/2 x/2 P2
Where: Max. moment
δ = spring deflection occurs here
n = number of coils
L/2-x/2
4. Spring constant L/2 L/2
R1 R2
P
k=
δ
1. Rx = P1S + P2(0) ; S-spacing b/w loads
P1 S
Shear and Moment Diagram x=
R
2.
How to draw the curves for shear and moment
diagrams ∑ MR 1

Load Shear Moment ⎛L x⎞

Diagram Diagram Diagram
R2 L = R1 ⎜ 1 − ⎟
Increasing
⎝ 2 2⎠
Decreasing ⎛L− x⎞
R⎜ ⎟
Increasing 2 ⎠
R2 = ⎝
Decreasing L
Load (increasing) Load (decreasing) ⎛L x⎞
3. Max.M = R2 ⎜ − ⎟
w w ⎝ 2 2⎠

L L 2. Maximum shearing force occurs at, and is equal

R1 R2 R1 R2 to, the maximum reaction. Maximum reaction is
when the load is directly above the reaction, thus,
the left most load is above the left reaction; and
the right most load is above the reaction.

• Position at which R2 is maximum

L-S P1 S P2

Relation of Load, Shear and Moment Diagrams L

R1 R2
Load A1
Diagram
x1 x2
R1 R2
• Position at which R1 is maximum
ΔV=A1 V1 – V2 =A1
Shear (area of L-S P1 S P2
Diagram V1 V2 Mmax load diag.)

ΔM=A1
M2 – M1 =A1
Moment (area of L
R1 R2
shear diag.)
Diagram M1 M2
Stresses in Beams b – width
Q – statical moment of area
Radius of curvature of beams Q = Ay
EI
ρ=
M b
1. Rectangular section
ρ = radius of curvature of beam d/2
3V d/4
M = bending moment τ=
I = moment of inertia 2bd Critical section
for shear

ρ 2. Triangular section h/2

h/3
fb 3V
c τ= Critical
b/2
NA bh h/2
section

3. Circular section
Flexural (or Bending) Stress 4V r
τ=
3A
Mc M Critical
fb = = section
I I
C
I Beams of Different Materials (Reinforced Beam)
; section modulus, S
C
σ S = nσ W ; AW = nAS
M
fb =
S Where:
I ES
S= n= ; modular ratio
C EW
1. For rectangular sections: Combined Stresses
Mc d bd 3
fb = ; c= ; I= P
I 2 12 σ=
( )
Axial loading;
M d A
fb = 2
bd 3 Tρ
Torsional loading; τ=
12 J
6M
fb = 2 Mc
bd Flexural loading fb =
bd 2 I
S= ; section modulus
6 Axial and flexure
CL P CL P CL
2. Circular section with diameter, d
e M
πd 3
S=
32
= +
3. Hollow tube
π
S=
4R
(R 4
− r4 )
R = outer radius M=Pe
r = inside radius P Mc
f =± ±
A I
4. Triangle
bd 3 Mohr’s Circle
S=
24 1. Normal Stress (σ) τ XY = −τ YX
Tension (+)
Shearing Stress Compression (-)
σ X +σY
τ=
VQ 2. Shear Stress (τ) C=
Ib 2
Where Clockwise (+)
V – shear force
I – moment of inertia 3. Rotation
Counterclockwise (+)
Stability & Determinacy of Structures

Beams

1. r < c+3 ; unstable where:

2. r = c+3 ; stable and determinate r = unknown reaction elements
3. r > c+3 ; stable and indeterminate c = no. of equations of condition
= 1.0 hinge, internal connection
= 2.0 roller, internal connection
= 0 without internal connection

Frames

1. 3b+r < 3j+c ; unstable Where:

2. 3b+r = 3j+c ; stable & determinate b = no. of bars
3. 3b+r > 3j+c ; stable & indeterminate j = no. of joints

Trusses

1. b+r < 2j ; unstable

2. b+r = 2j ; stable & determinate
3. b+r > 2j ; stable & indeterminate

Three Moment Equation

M1L1 ⎡ L L ⎤ M L 6A a 6A a ⎡h h ⎤
+ 2M 2 ⎢ 1 + 2 ⎥ + 3 3 + 1 1 + 2 2 = 6⎢ 1 + 3 ⎥
E1I1 ⎣ E1I1 E2 I 2 ⎦ E2 I 2 L1E1I1 L2 E2 I 2 ⎣ L1 L2 ⎦
When EI is constant

6 A1 a1 6 A2 b2 ⎡h h ⎤
M 1 L1 + 2M 2 [L1 + L2 ] + M 3 L2 + + = 6 EI ⎢ 1 + 3 ⎥
L1 L2 ⎣ L1 L2 ⎦

Where:
h1 & h2 – is positive when measured upward
6 Aa
- moment of area of M-diag. resulting from carrying the applied loads on a simple span of the
L
length as equivalent beam segment

6 Aa 6 Ab
Types of Loading
L L
P
a b
L
(
Pa 2
L − a2 ) Pa 2
L
(
L − a2 )
L

w N/m
wL3 wL3
L 4 4

w N/m
wL3 wL3
L 4 4
Moment Distribution Method
(Hardy Cross Method)

Absolute stiffness: Relative Stiffness:

4 EI 4 EI
k= k= when E is constant
L L
• let I = LCM of the span

Distribution Factor:

k
DF = ; DF= 1.0 for hinge or roller
∑k
DF = 0 for fixed end

Fixed End Moment

P
Ma Mb
a b Pab 2 Pab 2
A B MA = + 2 ; MA = + 2
L L L

w N/m
Ma Mb
wL2
A B MA = + ;
L 12
wL2 Pab 2
MA = + MA = + 2
12 L
w N/m
Ma Mb
wL2 Pab 2
A B MA = + ; MA = + 2
L 30 L

Ma Mb
L
A B 6 EIΔ Pab 2
Δ MA = + ; MA = +
L2 L2

Beam Deflection

Double Integration Method

d2y
EI 2 = M
dx
dy
dx ∫
EI = Mdx + C1 ; Slope equation

EIy = ∫∫ Mdx(dx ) + C1 ( x ) + C 2 ; Deflection equation

Where:
dy/dx - slope/tangent on the elastic curve

y - deflection
EI - flexural rigidity
C1 & C2 - constant of integration
M - moment equation
Area – Moment Method

Theorem I:
The change of slope between tangents drawn to the elastic curve at any two points A and B is
equal to the product of (1/EI) multiplied by the area of moment diagram between these two points
A and B

1
θ AB = [areaMD]AB
EI
Theorem II:
The deviation of any point B relative to a tangent drawn to the elastic curve at any point A, in a
direction perpendicular to the original position of the beam, is equal to the product of (1/EI)
multiplied by the moment of area about B of that part of the moment diagram between points A
and B

1
tB / A = [areaMD]AB ⋅ x B
EI

Tangent @ A Any Loading Tangent @B

C B
A θA θB
δC

tC/A tB/A
Elastic θAB
curve

Sign convention

1. Slope
A θAB (-)
B A
B
θAB (+)

2. Deviation

tB/A (-)
A B A
B
tB/A (+)

Other Methods (for beam deflection)

1. Method of superposition
2. Virtual work method or Unit Load Method (beams, frames and trusses)
3. Slope Deflection Method
4. Castiqlianos Theorem
Problems

1. Determine the outside diameter of a hollow steel tube that will carry a tensile load of 500 kN at a stress of
150 MN/m2. Assume the wall thickness to be one-tenth of the outside diameter. (ans. 109mm)

2. An aluminum tube is rigidly fastened between a Bronze Aluminum Steel

bronze rod and a steel rod as shown. 1000mm2
20kN 700mm2 800mm2 10kN
Determine the stress in each material. 15kN
15kN
(ans. σb=28.57MPa; σa=5MPa; σs=12.5MPa)
0.50m 0.60m 0.70m

3. The following data were recorded during a

tensile test of a 14.0 mm diameter mild steel Stress Strain
rod. The gage length was 50 mm. Find the Load Elongation P δ
(a) proportional limit, (b) modulus of (N) (mm) σ= ε=
A L
elasticity, (c) elastic limit, (d) yield point, (e)
0 0 0 0
ultimate strength and (f) rapture strength.
6310 0.010 40.99 40.99 0.0002
(ans. a. 246.2MPa; b. 205167 MPa; c.
12600 0.020 40.86 81.85 0.0004
260.49MPa;d. 270.24MPa; e. 448.23MPa; f.
18800 0.030 40.28 122.13 0.0006
399.51 MPa)
25100 0.040 40.92 163.05 0.0008
31300 0.050 40.28 203.33 0.001
37900 0.060 42.87 246.20 0.0012
40100 0.163 14.27 260.49 0.0033
41600 0.433 270.24 0.0087
46200 1.25 300.12 0.025
.
52400 2.50 340.40 0.05
58500 4.50 380.02 0.09
68000 7.50 441.74 0.15
69000 12.50 448.23 0.25
67800 15.50 440.44 0.31
65000 20.00 422.25 0.40
61500 fracture 399.51 fracture
4. Determine what force is required to punch a
15mm hole in a mild steel pipe 5mm thick, when an ultimate shear stress of the plate is 500 MPa? What
will then be the compressive stress in the punch?
(ans. V = 118kN; σ = 667MPa)

5. During a stress-strain test the unit deformation at a stress of 62 MPa was observed to be 160x10-6 m/m
and at a stress of 150 MPa the unit deformation was observed to be 600x10-6 m/m. Find the value of its
modulus of elasticity and the strain corresponding to a stress of 80 MPa. (ans. E=200GPa; ε=250x10-6)

6. A short concrete column 300 mm square in cross-section is reinforced with six symmetrically placed steel
bars each has an area of 400 mm2. If the column carries a load 1000kN and Es=200GPa (steel);
Ec=14GPa (concrete), find the stress of concrete and steel. (ans. σs=117MPa; σc=8MPa)

7. The beam shown is supported by dissimilar

members. The bar is rigid but is not constrained
to remain horizontal. What are the reactions in
the vertical members? (ans. Pc=554kN; Aa=300mm2 Ab=200mm2 1000kN Ac=100mm2
Pb=614kN; Pa=169kN) Ea=400GPa Eb=300GPa Ec=200GPa
2m

4m 6m

8. A steel wire 10 m long hanging vertically supports a tensile load of 2kN. Neglecting the weight of the wire,
determine the required diameter if the stress is not to exceed 140 MPa and the total elongation is not to
exceed 5mm. Use E = 200 GPa. (ans. 5.05mm)

9. A steel block with dimensions shown is 100kN

150kN
subjected to the tri-axial forces indicated. Using
E=200GPa and μ=0.30, determine (a) εx; (b) εy;
300mm 100mm
(c) εz; (d) change in volume. (ans. a. 1.85x10-5; b. 120kN 500mm 120kN
-1.4x10-5; c. 5.5x10-6; d. 150mm3)

100kN
150kN
10. A steel rod is stretched between two rigid walls and carries a tensile load of 600N at 20oC, using
 α=11.7x10-6/oC and E=200GPa. Find the required minimum diameter of the rod if the allowable stress is
not to exceed 140MPa at -25oC. (ans. 15mm)

11. A steel marine propeller is to transmit 4.5 MW at 3 rev/sec without exceeding a shearing stress of 50
MN/m2 or twisting through more than 1o in a length of 25 diameter. Compute the diameter if G=83GPa.
(ans. 351mm)

12. A hollow steel tube having an outside diameter of 220mm and inside diameter of 200mm, which of the
following gives the maximum torque that it could carry if the allowable shearing stress is 75.5 MPa.

13. Three wheel loads roll as a unit across a 10m span. The loads are A=60kN; B=50kN, 3m to the right of A,
and C=90kN, 4m to the right of B. Find maximum shear and moment. (ans. V=138kN; M=257.66kN-m)

14. Give the maximum shear and moment of the 50kN/m 20kN/m
beam shown. (ans. V=90kN; M=81kN)

2m 2m 2m

15. A simply supported beam, 60mm wide by 100mm high and 4m long is subjected to a concentrated load of
800N at a point 1m from one of the supports. Determine the maximum flexural stress and the stress
developed in a fiber located 10mm from the top of the beam at midspan. (ans. 6MPa; 3.20MPa)

16. A timber beam 150mm by 300mm is reinforced on the bottom only, with a steel strip 75mm wide by 10mm
thick. Determine the maximum resisting moment of the beam if the allowable stress of steel and wood are
120MPa and 8MPa, respectively. Use n=20. By what amount is the moment increased by the
reinforcement? (ans. 25.77 kN-m; 7.77 kN-m)

17. For the beam shown, determine the maximum 80mm

stress in each material when the section is Steel 20mm
resisting a bending moment of 70 kN-m.
Es=200GPa (steel), Ea=70GPa (aluminum),
Ew=10GPa (wood). (ans. σs=249MPa;
σa=112MP, σw=10MPa) wood 150mm

aluminum 150mm

18. A cross section of the beam is built-up of two

40mm by 120mmwood planks, securely spiked
together to act as a single unit. It is used as a
simple span 3m long supporting a load of 200
N/m including its own weight. Calculate the
maximum bending stress in the beam. (ans.
1.03MPa)

19. At certain point in a stressed body, the principal stresses are σx=80MPa, and σy=-40MPa. Determine the
normal stress and shear stress on the plane whose normal is at +30o with the x-axis. (ans. σz=50MPa,
τ=51.96MPa) y
80MPa
20. If a point is subjected to the state of stresses
50MPa
shown , determine the principal stresses and the
maximum shearing stress. (ans. σ: 58 & -98MPa; 50MPa
τ=78MPa) 40MPa 40MPax

80MPa
21. A beam has a rectangular cross section P P
100mm wide by 200 mm deep. What is the
maximum safe value of P if the allowable
30kN/m
flexural stress is 10 MPa and the allowable
shearing stress of 1.5 MPa? (ans. 2kN) 0.6m 3m 0.6m

P 300 N

22. From the given beam, find the value of P 1m 2m B

that will cause the tangent to the elastic A 2m
curve over the support B to be horizontal.
(ans. 1350kN)

23. Find the deflection and the rotational B 10 kN/m C D E

deflection at point C. E = 70 GPa and I = A 1m 6m 1m 2m
10.57 x106 mm4. (ans. δ=257mm;
θ=0.2433rad)

20kN
B 10 kN/m C D
24. Find the reactions of the beam shown. (ans. A E
Ma=83kN-m) 1m 6m 1m 2m

25. Analyze the beam shown. (ans.

Rb=18.61kN, Rc=9.03kN, Rd=27.36kN)
10 kN/m
5 kN 5 kN
6 kN/m
A
B C D E
1m 4m 1m 2m 1m 3m

200kN
26. Determine the deflection at midspan of the
given beam. Use any method. (ans. A 20 kN/m B C D
EIy=8107) 4m 2m 2m

100kN
27. Determine the support reactions. (ans.
Rb=126kN, Rc=134kN, Mc=182.5kN-m) 3m 3m
20 kN/m
A C
2m B

28. Analyze the beam shown. (ans. Ra=0.775, Rb=2.855, Rc=11.17)

900 N/m 6 kN 3 kN
800 N/m

A
B C D
4m 1m 1m 1m 5m