Green taxes

Many serious threats to humanity's future (from climate change and ozone
depletion to air pollution and toxic contamination) arise largely from the
economy's failure to value and account for environmental damage. Because those
causing the harm do not pay the full costs, unsuspecting portions of society end up
bearing them (often in unanticipated ways). People in the United States, for
example, annually incur tens of billions of dollars in damages from unhealthy levels
of air pollution, but car drivers pay nothing at the gas pump for their part in this
assault. Similarly, if farmers pay nothing for using nearby waterways to carry off
pesticide residues, they will use more of these chemicals than society would want,
and rural people will pay the price in contaminated drinking water.

Taxation is an efficient way to correct this shortcoming, and a powerful instrument

for steering economies toward better environmental health. By taxing products and
activities that pollute, deplete, or otherwise degrade natural systems, governments
can ensure that environmental costs are taken into account in private decisions
(whether to commute by car or bicycle, for example, or to generate electricity
from coal or sunlight). If income or other taxes are reduced to compensate, leaving
the total tax burden the same, both the economy and the environment can benefit.

Opinion polls show that a good share of the public thinks more should be spent on
protecting the environment, but most people abhor the idea of higher taxes. By
shifting the tax base away from income and toward environmentally damaging
activities, governments can reflect new priorities without increasing taxes overall.

So far, most governments trying to correct the market's failures have turned to
regulations, dictating specifically what measures must be taken to meet
environmental goals. This approach has improved the environment in many cases,
and is especially important where there is little room for error, such as in disposing
of high-level radioactive waste or safeguarding an endangered species. Taxes would
be a complement to regulations, not a substitute.

Environmental taxes are appealing because they can help meet many goals
efficiently. Each individual producer or consumer decides how to adjust to the
higher costs. A tax on air emissions, for instance, would lead some factories to add
pollution controls, others to change their production processes, and still others to
redesign products so as to generate less waste. In contrast to regulations,
environmental taxes preserve the strengths of the market. Indeed, they are what
economists call corrective taxes: they actually improve the functioning of the
market by adjusting prices to better reflect an activity's true cost.

In a minor form, environmental or so-called green taxes already exist in many

countries. A survey by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development turned up more than 50 environmental charges among 14 of its
members, including levies on air and water pollution, waste, and noise, as well as
various product charges, such as fees on fertilizers and batteries. In most cases,
however, these tariffs have been set too low to motivate major changes in
behavior, and have been used instead to raise a modest amount of revenue for an
environmental program or other specific purpose. Norway's charge on fertilizers
and pesticides, for instance, raises funds for programs in sustainable agriculture
(certainly a worthy cause) but is too low to reduce greatly the amount of chemicals
farmers use in the short term.

There are, however, some notable exceptions. In the United Kingdom, a higher tax
on leaded gasoline increased the market share of unleaded petrol from 4 percent in
April 1989 to 30 percent in March 1990. And in late 1989, the U.S. Congress
passed a tax on the sale of ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in order,
to hasten their phaseout, which the nation has agreed to do by the end of the
decade, and to capture the expected windfall profits as the chemicals' prices rise.
The most widely used CFCs are initially being taxed at $3.02 per kilogram ($ 1.37
per pound), roughly twice the current price; the tax will rise to $6.83 per kilogram
by 1995 and to $10.80 per kilogram by 1999. During the first five years, this is
expected to generate $4.3 billion, which multiple effects (a carbon tax for example,
would lower both carbon and sulfur dioxide emissions by discouraging fossil fuel
consumption) and because the taxed activities will decline even before taxes are
fully in place, revenues shown in the table cannot be neatly totaled. But it seems
likely that the eight levies listed here could raise on the order of $ I30 billion per
year, allowing personal income taxes to be reduced about 30 percent.

A team of researchers at the Umwelt und Prognose Institut (Environmental

Assessment Institute) in Heidelberg proposed a varied set of taxes for the former
West Germany that would have collectively raised more than 210 billion deutsche
marks ($ 136 billion). The researchers analyzed more than 30 possible "eco taxes,"
and determined tax levels that would markedly shift consumption patterns for each
item. In some cases, a doubling or tripling of prices was needed to cut consumption
substantially. Halving pesticide use, for example, would require a tax on the order
of 200 percent of current pesticide prices

elecciona la opción correcta.

1. La valoración y el registro incorrecto de los daños al medio ambiente

A. afecta por igual a los distintos sectores de la sociedad.

B. hace surgir serias amenazas en relación al futuro de la vida humana.

C. provoca que todos los sectores de la sociedad paguen los costos.

2. Los gobiernos pueden influir en la toma de decisiones de los ciudadanos con
respecto al medio ambiente a través de
A. gravar actividades y productos que contaminan y acaban con los recursos naturales.

B. la utilización de sus economías como un poderoso instrumento para corregir las deficiencias.

C. la utilización, por ejemplo, de la luz solar en vez de carbón para generar electricidad.

3. Las encuestas de opinión muestran que

A. la gente pagaría con gusto más impuestos para proteger el medio ambiente.

B. la gente piensa que debe gastarse más para proteger el medio ambiente.

C. una minoría piensa que no deben aumentarse los impuestos para proteger el medio ambiente.

4. Muchos gobiernos consideran que

A. que la protección del medio ambiente debe estar regulada.

B. los impuestos ecológicos pueden sustituir las leyes actuales.

C. los fracasos del mercado económico han llevado a leyes más estrictas.

5. Los impuestos ecológicos

A. impondrán cambios en todos los procesos de producción.

B. regularán las fuerzas del mercado.

C. son considerados como impuestos correctivos.

6. La Organización para el Desarrollo y la Cooperación Económica publicó un
estudio en el que informa que
A. cada uno de sus 14 miembros ha establecido más de 50 impuestos "verdes".

B. 14 de sus miembros han establecido más de 50 impuestos ecológicos.

C. los 50 impuestos ecológicos que existen en muchos países se han establecido entre 14 de sus

miembros.

7. El ejemplo de Noruega muestra que el impuesto sobre fertilizantes y

pesticidas que recoge este país
A. se utiliza para programas de agricultura sostenible.

B. ha reducido la cantidad de substancias químicas utilizadas.

C. es muy alto y se dedica a una causa encomiable.

8. En los Estados Unidos en 1989 el impuesto aplicado a la venta de los

cloroflúorocarbonos se aumentó
A. aproximadamente al doble de su precio.

B. un poco más de cuatro veces en relación a su precio.

C. aproximadamente siete veces en relación a su precio.

9. Un grupo de investigadores del Instituto de Evaluación Medioambiental de

Heidelberg
A. propuso que el aumento a los impuestos fuera sobre los diferentes artículos seleccionados.

B. se ha propuesto incrementar los impuestos de la ex Alemania Oriental en 136 billones de

dólares.
 C. propuso impuestos que a la larga modificarían los patrones de consumo de la ex Alemania

Oriental.

10. En relación al consumo de pesticidas, el artículo dice que

A. fue necesario triplicar los precios para reducir a la mitad el uso de éstos.

B. se requeriría el aumento del impuesto en 200% para reducir a la mitad el uso de éstos.

C. es necesario duplicar o triplicar su precio para eliminar su utilización.

Ethical issues in surrogate motherhood

The American Academy of Pediatrics recognizes the current interest in the

reproductive alternative known as surrogate motherhood.
Couples unable to have children through other means may seek surrogacy
arrangements as a way of fulfilling their strong and understandable desire to
become parents. Surrogacy arrangements, however, are subject to abuse, and
surrogating parenting raises specific concerns because of its potential for affecting
the well-being of children and their families.

The surrogacy agreement

A surrogate mother may be _____1_____ as a woman who carries

a_____2_____ for another woman. In the most common arrangement to date, a
married _____3_____ in which the husband is fertile but the wife is unable to
carry a pregnancy, enter into a _____4_____ arranged contract with a fertile
woman. This fertile woman (the _____5_____ mother) agrees to be artificially
inseminated with the sperm of the ____6_____ husband. Alternatively, the
surrogate mother may be impregnated with an embryo _____7_______ by the
wife's or another woman's ovum. In either case, the surrogate
mother_____8______ the pregnancy until delivery, and then, per the
contract,______9______ no parental rights or responsibilities, and relinquishes
the infant to the couple who initiated the _____10______ . These reproductive
arrangements enable one woman _____11______ a child for another, thus
separating genetic, gestational, and rearing parentage. Information on the
prevalence and epidemiology of surrogate _____12_____ arrangements in the
United States is incomplete, but the number of children born from such
contractual _____13_____ appears to be quite low.

The US Congress Office of Technology Assessment ______14______ that by the

beginning of 1988, _____15_____ 600 babies had been born through surrogate
mother arrangements. Although the _____16_______ numbers are low,
surrogate motherhood _____17_____ medical, psychological, ethical,
and______18_____ questions involving procreative privacy and
the______19______ of parenting and family life. Three _____20_____ have
emerged as the basis for judging the ______21_____ of surrogate mothering
relationships:
(1) reproductive ____22______ and the right of parents to procreate and rear a
child,
(2) the _____23______ surrogate mother's ability to provide informed consent,
and
(3) the best interests of all involved.

The desire to have and rear a child who is genetically _______24______ to at

least one parent may make surrogacy a more attractive _______25______ than
adoption for some couples. On the other hand, _____26______ genetic
relatedness as essential to parenting ______27______ the importance of the
psychological and social bonds that characterize _____28______ families,
however created. Every child is entitled to a _____29______ nurturing home.
Confusion or ambiguity about who is the mother, father, _____30_____ or
rearing parent may be a _____31_____ for children resulting from surrogate
arrangements. Potential problems surrounding custody of the child
and______32______ of parenting are similar to _____33______ encountered in
adoption and foster care practices.

Selecciona la opción correcta. Cuando termines, haz clic en el botón Terminar

Examen.

1.
A. designed

B. defined

C. imagined

2.
A. pregnancy

B. disorder

C. condition

3.
A. partner

B. person

C. couple
4.
A. nicely

B. sufficiently

C. privately

5.
A. ideal

B. immature

C. surrogate

6.
A. strong

B. fertile

C. barren

7.
A. aborted

B. produced

C. lost

8.
 A. carries

B. helps

C. favors

9.
A. conceals

B. assumes

C. requires

10.
A. contract

B. business

C. deposit

11.
A. to bear

B. to change

C. to hold

12.
A. childhood

B. motherhood
 C. relative

13.
A. arrangements

B. outlines

C. investments

14.
A. decided

B. knew

C. estimated

15.
A. definitely

B. ultimately

C. approximately

16.
A. different

B. odd

C. total
17.
A. raises

B. sanctions

C. classifies

18.
A. financial

B. irrational

C. legal

19.
A. obligation

B. necessity

C. nature

20.
A. complications

B. principles

C. categories

21.
A. acceptability

B. improbability
 C. reality

22.
A. concern

B. freedom

C. maturity

23.
A. real

B. available

C. potential

24.
A. near

B. friendly

C. related

25.
A. issue

B. option

C. decision
26.
A. viewing

B. rejecting

C. lacking

27.
A. underestimates

B. estimates

C. rejects

28.
A. loving

B. distinct

C. visionary

29.
A. ordered

B. permanent

C. clean

30.
A. unrelated

B. genetic
 C. creative

31.
A. situation

B. problem

C. present

32.
A. probability

B. instability

C. stability

33.
A. parents

B. children

C. issues
Costs and causes of executive alcoholism, drug abuse and
mental illness

Exactly what constitutes mental health or mental illness? It is indeed a difficult

question to answer. Although psychiatry is a respected subspecialty of medicine, a
clear definition of mental illness remains elusive. Many psychiatric disorders overlap
(American Psychiatric Association, 1987) and the reasons for their onset are still
obscure. The cures are even more uncertain. Professional opinions can differ
widely about definitions, etiologies, and treatments. In short, psychiatry is still as
much an art as it is a science. If the professionals cannot agree, where does this
leave the employer who is aware that the troubled senior executives are a problem
and is sincerely motivated to help?

How much are troubled senior executives costing their organizations? No one
knows for sure. Although the costs of mental illness in the population as a whole
and in the hourly employee work force in particular are generally well documented,
data about the costs of troubled senior executives are not available. Many
corporations do not keep separate records about the nature or cost to the firm of
their impaired senior executives, preferring to merge these data with those for
overall employee impairment. As a consequence, it is difficult to be precise in
determining the costs of senior executive alcoholism, drug abuse, or mental illness
within an organization. In addition, many of the costs of senior executive
impairment are not quantifiable and, therefore, cannot be subjected to rigorous
analysis.

Although difficult to measure, the costs of troubled senior executives fall into
several categories. First is the cost of lost productivity, that is, paying substantial
salary and benefits to a troubled senior executive who is not performing. An
executive whose yearly salary is $400,000 and who receives an additional $100,000
a year in benefits but who works at only one fifth of his or her maximum
productive effort loses the firm more than $7,000 a week a good deal more than
the cost of the most expensive psychiatric treatment.

The second category of costs includes sick leave, absenteeism, health care costs,
and disability payments. Troubled senior executives may be absent from the office
for significant periods of time due to illness. If their illness has progressed to the
point of no return, they may become permanently disabled and need to
prematurely retire. Troubled senior executives may run up large health care bills,
for example, for repeated hospitalizations for alcoholic cirrhosis of the liver,
repeated psychiatric hospitalizations for recurrent depressive or psychotic
episodes, and the like.

Termination and replacement costs make up the third category. The cost of
replacing senior executives who must eventually be released can be quite high
when the costs of recruitment, hiring, orientation, and training are included.

The fourth category includes the costs of poor professional judgment and bad
business decisions. As noted earlier, troubled senior executives often display poor
business judgment and make bad decisions that may adversely affect the firm as a
whole. The more senior the executive, the greater the impact of the bad decision.

The fifth category includes the costs of lowered morale, negative publicity, and
damage to the corporate image if the inappropriate actions and behaviors of
troubled senior executives become public knowledge or widely known in the
corporate community. Alcoholic executives embezzling corporate funds, manic
executives getting involved in messy extramarital affairs, drug-dependent executives
selling inside information to support their habit, depressed executives committing
suicide, psychotic executives attacking other executives or employees all are
examples that fall within this fifth category.

Last of all are the cots of litigation when the organization has to defend itself
against legal action taken by the terminated executive for wrongful discharge or
discrimination. Legal action can also be initiated by other executives who may have
been emotionally abused or physically harmed by the troubled executive.

Alcoholism and drug abuse and dependency are psychiatric disorders in their own
right (Vailant, 1983; Mirin, 1984). The causes of alcoholism in executives and other
individuals are still not clearly understood. One popular theory is that the causation
of alcoholism is a function of genetic endowment. Family studies clearly show that
relatives of alcoholics have a higher rate of alcoholism than the population as a
whole (Kaplan and Sadock, 1985). Adoption studies conducted in Denmark
concluded that adopted males whose biological parents were alcoholics were more
than four times as likely to become alcoholics as adopted males whose parents
were not alcoholics (Kaplan and Sadock, 1985). They usually developed severe
cases of alcoholism by their early twenties and usually required treatment. Another
theory of etiology is that alcoholism is a function of early childhood experience and
family dynamics. Investigators have discovered that family histories of alcoholics
often reveal childhood environments of marital and family conflict and parental
emotional neglect. The child of an alcoholic is unable to get his or her emotional
needs fulfilled and experiences feelings of anger, depression, and guilt.

A third category of causation is that alcohol acts as a direct toxin on the brain,
destroying vital brain tissue and significantly altering brain function. This results in
the appearance of a variety of other psychiatric illnesses, including several of the
organic mental disorders. There also appears to be a strong relationship between
depression and the extended use of drugs or alcohol. Individuals who were
depressed prior to drug or alcohol abuse frequently turn to drugs or alcohol as a
way to ease their emotional pain. Unfortunately, continued use usually results in
greater levels of depression rather than less because of the toxic effect of the
substances on the brain. The deepening depression in turn results in continued
alcohol or drug use, and the vicious cycle continues.

What about the causes of drug abuse? Because there are so many different types of
drugs to abuse and become dependent on, it is difficult to postulate one
comprehensive theory of causation of drug abuse and dependency (Vaillant,1983;
Mirin, 1984). Also, as with alcohol, there is little agreement within the psychiatric
community as to the definitive origins of drug abuse and dependency. Research
data suggest that drug abuse and dependency are a disease caused by complex
interaction of biological vulnerabilities, psychological issues, and environmental
settings. Drug abusers usually have a history of experimentation with more socially
approved substances like tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana (Kaplan and Sadock,
1985). Recent studies also indicate that drug abusers have problems with poor
impulse control, ego deficits, and an inability to appropriately manage intense
affects, including anger and rage (Kaplan and Sadock,1985). It is thought that some
of these deficits in psychological structures and their associated functioning are in
part a consequence rather than a cause of long-term chronic drug use. Becoming a
drug abuser appears to be a function of the following: the cost, availability, and
status of the drug; the financial condition of the drug abuser; the methods of
initiation and the social supports that encourage continued usage; the psychological
makeup and biological vulnerabilities of the individual; the type and intensity of
current life stressors; the coping skills of the drug abuser; and the unwitting
encouragement of the social or occupational environment. Drug abusers often have
a low frustration tolerance and a need for immediate gratification. They are
motivated to seek to induce and perpetuate a highly pleasurable mental state.
Recent research indicates that certain drugs may impact on the genetically
vulnerable brain to produce biochemical changes that further induce the drug-
seeking and drug-taking behavior (Kaplan and Sadock, 1985).

Working in the world is a demanding, challenging, stressful and sometimes

hazardous activity. Unfortunately, little hard research data are available to shed
light on this important precipitating factor. My clinical experience with many
employees and managers indicates that work can adversely affect one's
psychological balance. Boring, unstimulating work in unpleasant and unattractive
surroundings can contribute to the appearance of psychological distress. At the
other extreme, individuals who experience work overload, or 'burnout', frequently
complain of a variety of somatic and psychological symptoms. Some workers may
become emotionally distressed when they find themselves in a work situation for
which they feel unqualified. Conflicts with superiors over unclear expectations,
performance evaluation, or inconsistent or insufficient guidance and support can
increase the level of psychological distress. Working environments that do not
afford opportunities for developing a sense of accomplishment, personal growth,
creative expression, and personal initiative can retard the development of high self-
esteem and positive self-image. Major and unexpected changes in responsibilities
can also contribute to anxiety and psychological distress. Such events include
promotion or demotion, transfer to another location, retirement, and termination.
Specific events such as mergers, acquisitions, and divestitures can also contribute to
increased levels of emotional distress. Not all individuals experience events in the
work place as emotionally distressing, nor will difficulties in the work place be the
only contributing factor in the development of mental illness. Those individuals who
by reason of their genetic endowment, early childhood experiences, and past
medical and psychiatric history are predisposed to the development of psychiatric
illness may have particular difficulty with the changing demands of the workplace.
Selecciona la opción correcta.

1. Entre los siquiatras existe mucho desacuerdo en relación a la etiología y al

tratamiento de los problemas mentales.
o V
o F

2. Hay registros muy completos sobre el costo que ocasionan a las empresas
los ejecutivos de alto rango que sufren de problemas mentales.
o V
o F

3. Generalmente los datos relacionados con los problemas del personal

ejecutivo se mantienen separados de los del resto del personal.
o V
o F

4. Además de la falta de productividad, los problemas mentales pueden costar

a la empresa más de 7,000 dólares a la semana en tratamientos médicos.
o V
o F

5. La incapacidad total permanente es un ejemplo de la segunda categoría de

costos que esta clase de empleados provocan a la compañía.
 o V
o F

6. El reemplazo de un ejecutivo de alto nivel puede implicar un alto costo para

la empresa al sumar todos los gastos que ésto produce.
o V
o F

7. La quinta categoría se basa en problemas que afectan el prestigio de la

compañía.
o V
o F

8. El personal sano de la empresa puede entablar demandas legales por el daño

emocional que les producen los ejecutivos enfermos.
o V
o F

9. Un estudio realizado en Dinamarca mostró que el tener padres alcohólicos

aumenta el riesgo de padecer esta enfermedad.
o V
o F
10. En el texto se mencionan solamente dos posibles causas de alcoholismo.
o V
o F

11. Una teoría sobre el alcoholismo indica que el alcohol actúa como una toxina
para el cerebro y es la causa de problemas mentales orgánicos.
o V
o F

12. Un gran número de trastornos serios de depresión son producidos por el

consumo frecuente de alcohol.
o V
o F

13. La investigación sobre el abuso y la dependencia a las drogas muestra que

son provocados por diversos factores que interactúan.
o V
o F

14. Estudios recientes afirman que la falta de habilidad para manejar emociones
como la ira puede ser consecuencia del abuso crónico de las drogas.
o V
o F
15. Entre los factores que pueden dar origen a un drogadicto se encuentra la
manera en que una persona se enfrenta a los problemas diarios.
o V
o F

16. El trabajar en un ambiente poco estimulante puede dar por resultado la

aparición de malestar psicológico.
o V
o F

17. Una carga excesiva de trabajo puede producir problemas psicológicos

pero no físicos.
o V
o F

18. Los trastornos psicológicos sólo son causados por problemas que afectan a
los individuos en particular, no a la empresa en general.
o V
o F

19. La carga genética de algunos individuos puede hacerlos propensos a

desarrollar enfermedades mentales en ambientes de trabajo muy exigentes.
 o V
o F

roductivity and self- esteem

Why do some people earn more than others? And what can be done to enhance
an individual's or a group's productivity and earning power?

Economists pondering these _____1_______ have focused on the importance

of_____2_______ in human capital in the form of education, training, and
work_____3_______ .

In a study in a recent _____4_______ of Economic Inquiry, economists Arthur H.

Goldsmith of Washington & Lee University, Jonathan R. Veum of the Bureau
of_____5_______ Statistics, and William A. Darity Jr. of the University of North
Carolina add another _____6_______ to the wage equation: psychological capital.

"Everyone _____7_______ that psychological variables such as attitudes

and_____8_______ can affect productivity," says Goldsmith,
"but _____9_______have generally shied away from studying
their _____10_______ on wages on the grounds that they are difficult
to _____11_______ ." He and his colleagues got around
this _____12_______ by analyzing a nationwide _____13_______ of several
thousand young workers that included a widely _____14_______psychological
test measuring self-esteem.
The _____15_______ were striking. Predictably, the researchers found that
human _____16_______ : schooling basic skills, and work experience had
a_____17_______ impact on wages. But their statistical _____18_______ also
indicated that roughly 10% of this _____19_______ was really due to self-esteem,
which highly _____20_______ with human capital.
In terms of _____21_______ the researchers found both that self-
_____22_______ affected the acquisition of human capital and that human capital
and its payoff via higher wages _____23_______ to enhance self-esteem.
Moreover, _____24_______ (as reflected in relative wages) was
more_____25_______ to changes in self-esteem than to _____26_______ in
human capital. At the margin, says Goldsmith, "a 10% _____27_______ in self-
esteem boosted wages more than a 10% increase in _____28_______ or work
experience."

Such findings have many implications. They _____29_______ , for example, that a
subtle effect of rising _____30_______ inequality may be to erode the self-esteem
and productivity of those who feel they have fallen behind. More significantly, since
much of self-esteem is acquired in childhood, the results underscore the
importance of parents and teachers acting to enhance this aspect of "psychological
capital" in addition to fostering youngsters' acquisition of basic skills.

Selecciona la opción correcta. Cuando termines, haz clic en el botón Terminar

Examen.

1.
A. suits

B. questions

C. efforts
2.
A. including

B. reducing

C. investing

3.
A. force

B. load

C. experience

4.
A. issue

B. surplus

C. system

5.
A. Care

B. Family

C. Labor

6.
 A. expression

B. variable

C. stability

7.
A. intends

B. adopts

C. knows

8.
A. method

B. personality

C. opposition

9.
A. economists

B. workers

C. solicitors

10.
A. style

B. impact
 C. devise

11.
A. exploit

B. measure

C. bend

12.
A. problem

B. achievement

C. research

13.
A. analogy

B. hardship

C. survey

14.
A. cheap

B. accepted

C. amazing
15.
A. results

B. conditions

C. qualifications

16.
A. code

B. capital

C. view

17.
A. smooth

B. small

C. big

18.
A. analysis

B. topic

C. policy

19.
A. stregth

B. attitude
 C. effect

20.
A. gathered

B. acquainted

C. correlated

21.
A. modernity

B. causality

C. regularity

22.
A. esteem

B. control

C. care

23.
A. pretended

B. treated

C. tended
24.
A. sensibility

B. productivity

C. responsibility

25.
A. flexible

B. sensitive

C. firm

26.
A. distributions

B. changes

C. distinctions

27.
A. claim

B. rise

C. decrease

28.
A. improvement

B. research
 C. education

29.
A. stimulate

B. suggest

C. deny

30.
A. income

B. loans

C. expense
Who killed the newspaper?

The most useful bit of the media is disappearing. A cause for concern,
but not for panic.
"A GOOD newspaper, I suppose, is a nation talking to itself," mused Arthur Miller
in 1961. A decade later, two reporters from the Washington Post wrote a series of
articles that brought down President Nixon and the status of print journalism
soared. At their best, newspapers hold governments and companies to account.
They usually set the news agenda for the rest of the media. But in the rich world
newspapers are now an endangered species. The business of selling words to
readers and selling readers to advertisers, which has sustained their role in society,
is falling apart.

Of all the "old" media, newspapers have the most to lose from the internet.
Circulation has been falling in America, Western Europe, Latin America, Australia
and New Zealand for decades (elsewhere, sales are rising). But in the past few
years the web has hastened the decline. In his book "The Vanishing Newspaper",
Philip Meyer calculates that the first quarter of 2043 will be the moment when
newsprint dies in America as the last exhausted reader tosses aside the last
crumpled edition. That sort of extrapolation would have produced a harrumph
from a Beaverbrook or a Hearst, but even the most cynical news baron could not
dismiss the way that ever more young people are getting their news online. Britons
aged between 15 and 24 say they spend almost 30% less time reading national
newspapers once they start using the web.

Advertising is following readers out of the door. The rush is almost unseemly,
largely because the internet is a seductive medium that supposedly matches buyers
with sellers and proves to advertisers that their money is well spent. Classified ads,
in particular, are quickly shifting online. Rupert Murdoch, the Beaverbrook of our
age, once described them as the industry's rivers of gold, but, as he said last year,
"Sometimes rivers dry up." In Switzerland and the Netherlands newspapers have
lost half their classified advertising to the internet.

Newspapers have not yet started to shut down in large numbers, but it is only a
matter of time. Over the next few decades half the rich world's general papers may
fold. Jobs are already disappearing. According to the Newspaper Association of
America, the number of people employed in the industry fell by 18% between 1990
and 2004. Tumbling shares of listed newspaper firms have prompted fury from
investors. In 2005, a group of shareholders in Knight Ridder, the owner of several
big American dailies, got the firm to sell its papers and thus end a 114-year history.
This year Morgan Stanley, an investment bank, attacked the New York Times
Company, the most august journalistic institution of all, because its share price had
fallen by nearly half in four years.

Having ignored reality for years, newspapers are at last doing something. In order
to cut costs, they are already spending less on journalism. Many are also trying to
attract younger readers by shifting the mix of their stories towards entertainment,
lifestyle and subjects that may seem more relevant to people's daily lives than
international affairs and politics are. They are trying to create new businesses on
and offline. And they are investing in free daily papers, which do not use up any of
their meagre editorial resources on uncovering political corruption or corporate
fraud. So far, this fit of activity looks unlikely to save many of them. Even if it does,
it bodes ill for the public role of the Fourth Estate.

In the future, as newspapers fade and change, will politicians therefore burgle their
opponents' offices with impunity, and corporate villains whoop as they trample
over their victims? Journalism schools and think-tanks, especially in America, are
worried about the effect of a crumbling Fourth Estate. Are today's news
organisations "up to the task of sustaining the informed citizenry on which
democracy depends?" asked a recent report about newspapers from the Carnegie
Corporation of New York, a charitable research foundation.

Nobody should relish the demise of once-great titles. But the decline of
newspapers will not be as harmful to society as some fear. Democracy, remember,
has already survived the huge television-led decline in circulation since the 1950s. It
has survived as readers have shunned papers and papers have shunned what was in
stuffier times thought of as serious news. And it will surely survive the decline to
come.

That is partly because a few titles that invest in the kind of investigative stories
which often benefit society the most are in a good position to survive, as long as
their owners do a competent job of adjusting to changing circumstances.
Publications like the New York Times and the Wall Street Journal should be able to
put up the price of their journalism to compensate for advertising revenues lost to
the internet, especially as they cater to a more global readership. As with many
industries, it is those in the middle, neither highbrow, nor entertainingly populist,
that are likeliest to fall by the wayside.

The usefulness of the press goes much wider than investigating abuses or even
spreading general news; it lies in holding governments to account-trying them in
the court of public opinion. The internet has expanded this court. Anyone looking
for information has never been better equipped. People no longer have to trust a
handful of national papers or, worse, their local city paper. News-aggregation sites
such as Google News draw together sources from around the world. The website
of Britain's Guardian now has nearly half as many readers in America as it does at
home.
In addition, a new force of "citizen" journalists and bloggers is itching to hold
politicians to account. The web has opened the closed world of professional
editors and reporters to anyone with a keyboard and an internet connection.
Several companies have been chastened by amateur postings of flames erupting
from Dell's laptops or of cable TV repairmen asleep on the sofa. Each blogger is
capable of bias and slander, but, taken as a group, bloggers offer the searcher after
truth boundless material to chew over. Of course, the internet panders to closed
minds; but so has much of the press.

For hard-news reporting, as opposed to comment, the results of net journalism

have admittedly been limited. Most bloggers operate from their armchairs, not the
frontline, and citizen journalists tend to stick to local matters. But it is still the early
days. New online models will spring up as papers retreat. One non-profit group,
New Assignment Net, plans to combine the work of amateurs and professionals to
produce investigative stories on the internet. Aptly, $l0,000 of cash for the project
has come from Craig Newmark, of Craigslist, a group of free classified
advertisement websites that has probably done more than anything to destroy
newspapers' income.

In the future, argues Carnegie, some high-quality journalism will also be backed by
non-profit organisations. Already, a few respected news organisations sustain
themselves that way, including the Guardian , the Christian Science
Monitor and National Public Radio. An elite group of serious newspapers available
everywhere online, independent journalism backed by charities, thousands of fired-
up bloggers and well informed citizen journalists: there is every sign that Arthur
Miller's national conversation will be louder than ever.

(The Economist Group Limited. (2006). Who killed the newspaper?. 7 de

agosto de 2017, de The Economist Sitio web:
http://www.economist.com/node/7830218)
Selecciona la opción correcta.

1. Según el texto, una función de los periódicos es ___________ a los

sectores públicos y privados.
A. pedir cuentas

B. imponer una agenda

C. vender ideas nuevas

2. La baja en el número de lectores de periódicos

A. ocurre ahora en todo el mundo.

B. comenzó hace muy pocos años.

C. se aceleró con las noticias en línea.

3. Quienes publicitaban en periódicos los están abandonando, porque creen

que anunciar en Internet es más
A. barato.

B. eficiente.

C. sencillo.

4. Como resultado de las dificultades

A. varios periódicos famosos han tenido que cerrar.

B. los dueños están vendiendo sus acciones.

C. el número de empleados está disminuyendo.

5. Muchos periódicos tratan de revertir su caída
A. con medidas económicas y editoriales.

B. reforzando su papel de crítica social.

C. con más activismo que planeación.

6. Según el texto, la democracia

A. depende de periódicos fuertes.

B. requiere de ciudadanos informados.

C. sufrió con el auge de la televisión.

7. Entre las acciones necesarias para la sobrevivencia de un periódico ahora

está
A. mantener los precios iguales.

B. publicar más noticias generales.

C. saber adaptarse a los cambios.

8. Según el texto, una de las ventajas del uso de Internet para el público es que
A. ahora es más fácil comunicarse con el gobierno.

B. esto ha hecho que los gobiernos se vuelvan más responsables.

C. existen muchas más fuentes de información que antes.

9. En el contexto del párrafo 10, el significado más cercano a "is itching to" es
A. ansioso de empezar algo.
 B. reacio a hacer algo.

C. indeciso ante algo.

10. Hacer posible la participación de cualquier persona con acceso a Internet en

la labor periodística ha
A. provocado mucha resistencia entre los periodistas profesionales.

B. favorecido a la publicación de opiniones más que reportajes.

C. propiciado que lo que se publica sea menos tendencioso.

11. El autor menciona algunos problemas del periodismo en línea para

ejemplificar
A. la necesidad de crear nuevos modelos de trabajo.

B. el limitado espacio ocupado por los periodistas profesionales.

C. la falta de fondos para sostener nuevos proyectos.

12. Al final del artículo, el autor se expresa en un tono _____________ acerca

del futuro del periodismo.
A. consternado

B. negativo

C. positivo

Yesterday's papers: The future of journalism

Is Rupert Murdoch right to predict the end of newspapers as we know
them?
"I believe too many of us editors and reporters are out of touch with our readers,"
Rupert Murdoch, the boss of News Corporation, one of the world's largest media
companies, told the American Society of Newspaper Editors last week. No wonder
that people, and in particular the young are ditching their newspapers. Today's
teens, twenty- and thirty-somethings "don't want to rely on a god-like figure from
above to tell them what's important," Mr. Murdoch said, "and they certainly don't
want news presented as gospel." And yet, he went on, "as an industry, many of us
have been remarkably, unaccountably, complacent."

The speech –astonishing not so much for what it said as for who said it- may go
down in history as the day that the stodgy newspaper business officially woke up to
the new realities of the internet age. Talking at times more like a pony-tailed,
newage technophile than a septuagenarian old-media god-like figure, Mr. Murdoch
said that news "providers" such as his own organization had better get web-savvy,
stop lecturing their audiences, "become places for conversation" and "destinations"
where "bloggers" and "podcasters" congregate to "engage our reporters and
editors in more extended discussions."

Mr. Murdoch's argument begins with the fact that newspapers worldwide have
been -and seem destined to keep on- losing readers, and with them advertising
revenue. In 1995-2003, says the World Association of Newspapers, circulation fell
by 5% in America, 3% in Europe and 2% in Japan. In the 1960's, four out of five
Americans read a paper every day; today only half do so. Philip Meyer, author of
"The Vanishing Newspaper: Saving Journalism in the Information Age", says that if
the trend continues, the last newspaper reader will recycle his final paper copy in
April 2040.
Gotcha!
The decline of newspapers predates the internet. But the second –broadband-
generation of the internet is not only accelerating it but is also changing the
business in a way that previous rivals to newspapers –radio and TV- never did.
Older people, whom Mr. Murdoch calls "digital immigrants", may not have noticed,
but young "digital natives" increasingly get their news from web portals such as
Yahoo! or Google, and from newer web media such as blogs. Short for "web logs",
these are online journal entries of thoughts and web links that anybody can post.
Whereas 56% of Americans have heard of blogs, and only 3% read them daily,
among the young they are standard fare, with 44% of online Americans aged 18-29
reading them often, according to a poll by CNN/USA Today/ Gallup.

Blogs, moreover, are but one item on a growing list of new media tools that the
internet makes available. Wikis are collaborative web pages that allow readers to
edit and to contribute. This, to digital immigrants, may sound like a recipe for
anarchic chaos, until they visit, for instance, wikipedia.org, an online encyclopedia
that is growing dramatically richer by the day through exactly this spontaneous
(and surprisingly orderly) collaboration among strangers. Photoblogs are becoming
common; videoblogs are just starting. Podcasting (a conjunction of iPod, Apple's
iconic audio player, and broadcasting) lets both professionals and amateurs produce
audio files that people can download and listen to.

It is tempting, but wrong, for the traditional mainstream media to belittle this sort
of thing. It is true, for instance, that the vast majority of blogs are not worth
reading and, in fact, are not read (although the same is true of much in traditional
newspapers). On the other hand, bloggers play an increasingly prominent part in
the wider media drama. The most popular bloggers now get as much traffic
individually as the opinion pages of most newspapers. Many bloggers
are windbags, but some are world experts in their fields. Matthew Hindman, a
political scientist at Arizona State University, found that the top bloggers are more
likely than top newspaper columnists to have gone to a top university, and to have
an advanced degree, such as a doctorate.

Another dangerous cliché is to consider bloggers, intrinsically parasitic on (and,

thus, ultimately, no threat to) the traditional business news. True, many thrive on
debunking, contradicting or analyzing stories that originate in the old media. In this
sense, the blogosphere is, so far, mostly an expanded op-ed medium. But there is
nothing to suggest that bloggers cannot also do original reporting. Glenn Reynolds,
whose political blog, Instapundit.com, counts 250,000 readers on a good day, often
includes eyewitness accounts from people in Afghanistan or Shanghai, whom he
considers "correspondents" in the original sense of the word.

"The basic notion is that if people have the tools to create their own content, they
will do that, and that this will result in an emerging global conversation," says Dan
Gillmor, founder of Grassroots Media in San Francisco, and the author of "We the
Media" (O'Reilly, 2004), a book about, well, grassroots journalism.

With so many new kinds of journalists joining the old kinds, it is also likely that new
business models will arise to challenge existing ones. Some bloggers are allowing
Google to place advertising links next to their posting, and thus get paid every time
a reader of their blog clicks on them. Other bloggers, just like current providers of
specialist content, may ask for subscriptions to all, or part, of their content. Tip-jar
systems, where readers click to make small payments to their favorite writers, are
catching on.
The tone in these new media is radically different. For today's digital natives, says
Mr. Gillmor, it is anathema to be lectured at. Instead, they expect to be informed
as part of an online dialogue. They are at once less likely to write a traditional
letter to the editor, and more likely to post a response on the web –and then to
carry on the discussion. A letters page pre-selected by an editor makes no sense to
them; spotting the best responses using the spontaneous voting systems of the
internet does.

Even if established media groups – such as Mr. Murdoch's- start to respond better
to these changes, can they profit from them? Mr. Murdoch says that some media
firms, at least, will be able to navigate the transition as advertising revenue switches
from print-based to electronic media. Indeed, this is one area where news
providers can use technology to their advantage, by providing more targeted
audiences for advertisers, both by interest group and location. He also thinks that
video clips, which his firm can conveniently provide, will be crucial ingredients of
online news.

But it remains uncertain what mix of advertising revenue, tips and subscriptions will
fund the news providers of the future, and how large a role today's providers will
have. What is clear is that the control of news –what constitutes it, how to
prioritize it and what is fact- is shifting subtly from being the sole purview of the
news provider to the audience itself. Newspapers, Mr. Murdoch implies, must learn
to understand their role as providers of news independent of the old medium of
distribution, the paper.

Selecciona la opción correcta. Cuando termines, haz clic en el botón Terminar

Examen.

1. La actitud que Rupert Murdoch percibe en las generaciones actuales hacia la

prensa escrita puede describirse como:
A. positiva
 B. complaciente

C. indiferente

D. negativa

2. Con base en el segundo párrafo podemos decir que el Sr. Murdoch es:
A. una persona mayor en contra de la tecnología.

B. un joven entusiasta de las nuevas tecnologías.

C. una personalidad conocida e innovadora en el ámbito periodístico.

D. un reportero crítico del poder actual de los medios electrónicos.

3. De acuerdo a las estadísticas mencionadas podemos afirmar que durante los

últimos 50 años el número de lectores de periódicos en Estados Unidos ha
disminuido:
A. ligeramente

B. drásticamente

C. medianamente

D. imperceptiblemente

4. La diferencia que el autor hace entre "nativos" e "inmigrantes" se basa en

todos los siguientes aspectos EXCEPTO:
A. el país donde residen.

B. la edad que tienen.

C. su familiaridad con la cibernética.

D. su fuente de información noticiosa.

5. La forma más utilizada por los jóvenes para mantenerse al tanto de las
noticias es:
A. la prensa impresa

B. la televisión

C. los blogs

D. la radio

6. De acuerdo con el autor de este artículo, la principal característica de los

wikis es que son:
A. caóticos

B. auditivos

C. enciclopédicos

D. participativos

7. La palabra windbags en el párrafo 6 tiene una connotación:

A. negativa

B. positiva

C. sarcástica

D. humorística

8. En este artículo se menciona que "los blogeros" más reconocido tienen

___________ preparación académica que sus homólogos columnistas.
 A. peor

B. mejor

C. la misma

D. menos

9. De acuerdo con el autor del texto, los blogeros pueden ser considerados
como:
A. corresponsales

B. parásitos

C. inofensivos

D. empresarios

10. ¿Cuál de los siguientes aspectos sería menos atractivo para los "digitales
nativos"?
A. diálogo en línea

B. carta al editor

C. votación electrónica

D. discusión en la red

11. ¿Cómo describirías las implicaciones para los medios tradicionales que se
mencionan en el penúltimo párrafo?
A. imperceptibles

B. improbables

C. positivas
 D. negativas

12. El último párrafo se refiere principalmente a:

A. cómo se financiarán

B. cómo se distribuirán los periódicos

C. quién proveerá las noticias

D. quiénes serán los lectores

Team Approach with Diabetes Patients

The team approach is optimal for working with patients with diabetes. Assessing
the psychological and physiological effects of stress, stress management, and
biofeedback on blood glucose control are necessary. In addition to a physician with
special expertise in diabetes, the team consists of at least a certified biofeedback
practitioner, a certificate diabetes practitioner, a certified diabetes educator, and
the patient. The team works together in evaluating the effects of treatment on the
physiological and psychological aspects of glycemic control. Most biofeedback
practitioners do not have expertise in diabetes education and management.
However, when they treat patients with diabetes, they need to know the basic
physiology of diabetes and the fundamentals of diabetes management.

The psychologist practitioner carries out an initial interview with the diabetic to
determine stress -related physical and emotional symptoms. One assesses the
patient's perception of the effects of the stress on his or her blood glucose and his
or her perceived capabilities and management strategies. Psychological testing also
may be used to assess the person's level of depression, anxiety, anger, and current
stress.
The practitioner also conducts a psychophysiological assessment. Practitioners
differ on the specifics of this assessment but often monitor multiple modalities.
These often include muscle tension, skin conductance, and blood flow in the hands
(via skin temperature), heart rate, and breathing during the resisting baseline, and
during and after various standard office stressors. Our laboratory measures frontal
electromyography (EMG), heart rate, blood pressure, and finger temperature while
patients sit quietly with their eyes closed. The practitioner provides biofeedback,
relaxation therapies, and stress management. Relaxation and biofeedback can help
patients feel more in control of their physiology, psychological state, and their
illness. Furthermore, decreased plasma levels of stress hormones and sympathetic
activity mediate lowered arousal and diminished hyperglycemia.

The diabetes educator (and or physician) can interpret blood glucose values
because he or she understands the effects of hypoglycemic medications, diet, and
exercise on blood glucose. This person also obtains information about the person's
diabetes care regime.

The diabetes educator studies:

History

1. Family history of diabetes

2. Other medical problems
3. Use of prescription and nonprescription medication
Medical Treatment Regimen for Diabetes, Knowledge, and Management
 1. Diet: usual caloric intake, restrictions , time of meals , types and amounts
of food eaten, meal- planning skills, , compliance problems
2. Activity /exercise. Types.
Acute / Chronic Complications of Diabetes, Knowledge and Management

1. Hypoglycemia: frequency of episodes , signs and symptoms , and usual

causes

With this information, one identifies the patient's knowledge, current self,
management, self - care deficits and problems, and capabilities to make appropriate
decisions and manage his or her disease. This information provides the basis for
instructing the patient about diabetes care and addressing problems with daily
management during later session

Starting at the time of diagnosis, patients with diabetes need to adjust their life-
style and behavior significantly. They must incorporate diabetes management
behavior into their daily routine. Psychological adjustment to IDDM and NIDDM
often is problematic. Therefore, counseling and supportive psychotherapy can be
useful during the early weeks and months after diagnosis. However, beginning a
biofeedback -assisted relaxation program may not be appropriate. Adding the clinic
appointment for biofeedback and home practice requirements necessary to learn
relaxation techniques might overload the resources of the patient. Furthermore, it
would be difficult to attribute improving in glycemic control to the biofeedback and
relaxation because the patient is starting multiple new behaviors concurrently.

Another reason for deferring biofeedback during the fist year after diagnosis is the
so -called diabetic "honeymoon period". This phenomenon is the partial or
complete remission of the signs and symptoms of diabetes soon after the onset of
IDDM when the pancreas temporarily produces insulin. The blood glucose level
may stabilize at close to normal, and the need for exogenous insulin may decrease
significantly or completely. This period may last one, several, or, rarely, 12 months
(Krall&Baser, 1989). One could mistakenly attribute a decrease need for
exogenous insulin to the biofeedback and stress management treatment instead of
to temporary pancreatic insulin production. When the honeymoon period ends
and the patient's beta cells are not longer capable of producing insulin, the patient
could misattribute the renewed need for exogenous insulin as a total failure of the
self-regulation process.

Within a stepped -care model consider starting more conservative relaxation

therapy or office-based biofeedback -assisted relaxation sooner than 12 months
after diagnosis for selected patients. For example, one could start with audio
cassette relaxation instructions and printed patient education about relaxation. The
material should include information to avoid misattributions about the honeymoon
period.

Patients must at least partially accept the idea that stress can negatively impact on
glycemic control. Increased average blood glucose, a wider range of values, an
increase in fasting blood glucose, and sometimes more frequent hypoglycemia are
common stress effects reported by patients. If a patient is unaware of or rejects the
correlation between stress and blood glucose, then perhaps stress is not affecting
that person's blood glucose. However, if he or she does not understand stress and
is unaware of the potential or its effects, the person may misunderstand its impact.
In this case, educate the patients about stress and its relationship to blood glucose.
This can improve the chance for treatment to help normalize blood glucose levels.
The goals of biofeedback-assisted are to:

1) Increase the person's ability to perceive and effectively manage stress.

2) Decrease the neural and endocrine systems' effect s on blood glucose and
insulin.
3) Reduce average blood glucose and increase the percentage of fasting blood
glucose values at target range.
4) reduce dosage of hypoglycemic medication if blood glucose levels are well
controlled at entry.

Relaxation therapies involve slow, diaphragmatic breathing, meditation, autogenic

phrases, and/or progressive muscle relaxation. One also may use "positive imagery"
with other relaxation therapies. Measure the person's blood glucose before and
after at least the first relaxation session. In our program, most sessions include
instruction and practice of autogenic phrases. About one -fourth of the sessions
include progressive relaxation.

There are no long term follow-up studies with diabetic population treated with
biofeedback or relaxation. However, we suggest periodic refresher sessions as is
common practice when treating other chronic disorders. The practitioner and the
patient determine the timing of the follow-up office sessions. One periodically
evaluates control described earlier.

(Elaboró Leticia Martinek y Carlos Moguel)

Selecciona la opción correcta.

1. Los miembros del equipo que participaron en este estudio
A. se han certificado como expertos en endocrinología.

B. realizan diferentes funciones acorde a sus conocimientos.

C. profundizan en los fundamentos fisiológicos de la diabetes.

2. Uno de los miembros del grupo que realice la retroalimentación al paciente

A. debe percibir los efectos fisiológicos que produce y agrava la enfermedad en el paciente.

B. valora los diferentes estados emocionales del paciente antes de proporcionar el medicamento

adecuado.

C. evalúa la percepción que tiene el paciente sobre los efectos de la tensión en su enfermedad.

3. La relajación con apoyo de la retroalimentación

A. favorece la reducción de los niveles plasmáticos de las hormonas del stress y la glicemia.

B. incluye siempre el estudio pormenorizado de las mismas modalidades fisiológicas

C. se lleva a cabo con el paciente en estado basal durante varias e intensas sesiones.

4. El educador en diabetes
A. debe, dentro de sus funciones y en primer lugar, educar al paciente en todos los aspectos de

su enfermedad y manejo diario.

B. analiza la enfermedad en forma global en relación al paciente, indaga sobre sus conocimientos

de la enfermedad y lo instruye en su manejo.

C. debe recibir un curso que lo instruya sobre la enfermedad antes de poder evaluar los

problemas que pueda presentar el paciente.

5. En el párrafo 5 el autor dice que en algunos casos iniciar un programa de
relajación asistida puede no ser apropiado para el paciente.
A. debido a que el médico no sabría asignar el valor debido a las diferentes terapias que recibe el

paciente que tendría saturada su capacidad de adaptación.

B. porque este programa entraría en conflicto con la psicoterapia de apoyo que se aplica durante

las primeras semanas o meses después del diagnóstico.

C. por la serie de dificultades que se presentan, pues el paciente debe incorporar su

entendimiento y manejo de su diabetes a la rutina diaria.

6. La utilización de la relajación asistida durante los primeros meses después

del diagnóstico
A. evita la remisión parcial o completa de los síntomas del paciente durante el periodo llamado

"luna de miel".

B. interfiere con la disminución de la necesidad de insulina exógena del paciente diabético.

C. puede enmascarar la producción de la insulina pancreática temporal del periodo "luna de miel".

7. La expresión a stepped-care model significa:

A. empezar poco a poco con el plan de relajación terapéutica.

B. tomar medidas más enérgicas para continuar con el modelo de atención.

C. dar los pasos necesarios para que el paciente adquiera la información necesaria.

8. Es esencial que el paciente conozca

 A. el tratamiento médico que le ayude a normalizar sus valores glicémicos.

B. la relación que existe entre las situaciones tensas y los niveles de glucosa.

C. el impacto del aumento de la glucosa en el organismo y el manejo de la diabetes.

9. Parte de los objetivos de la relajación

A. es aminorar los efectos de los sistemas endócrino y nervioso en la glucosa y en la insulina.

B. es reducir la medicación hipoglicémica del paciente de acuerdo a controles establecidos de

antemano.

C. incrementar la habilidad del paciente para tratar de reducir su medición de glucosa en ayunas.

10. La terapia de relajación involucra, entre otras cosas,

A. la relajación muscular y el uso de videos con imágenes agradables.

B. la medición de la glucosa en sangre antes y después de cada sesión.

C. la respiración diafragmática y una serie de frases auto-concebidas.

11. La terapia de relajación

A. ha sido estudiada en poblaciones de diabéticos crónicos desde hace mucho tiempo.

B. y sus sesiones de seguimiento se realizan de mutuo acuerdo entre el médico y el paciente.

C. para diabéticos se practica por largos periodos puesto que la enfermedad es crónica.

Genetics: The Beginnigs

In 1865, Gregor Mendel presented two lectures in the Brno Natural Science
Society that summarized the results of his experiments on heredity in the garden
pea, Pisum sativum. Until the rediscovery of his work in 1900, the material basis of
inheritance was thought to be fluid in nature, and terms such as "true blood" and
"half blood" were thought to be scientifically correct. One result was a general
perception that ___1___ materials that were mixed could not be
separated.___2___ was thought to alter the hereditary units or genes.

Mendel's major intellectual ___3___ was his demonstration that the

material___4___ of inheritance was a particulate and that mixing did not alter
genes. His___5___ in support of this conclusion was based on the second
generation reappearance of ___6___ present in one of the grandparental peas
used for his___7___ . For example, he crossed round peas and wrinkled peas
to ___8___ a progeny generation that consisted entirely of round peas.
The ___9___characteristics were not seen in the children. The grandchild peas
were, however, both ___10___ and wrinkled. The results (round children and
round and wrinkled___11___ ) were clearly at variance with the ___12___ of a
fluid basis of inheritance that suggested that the ___13___ and grandchildren
should have been sort of wrinkled and sort of round - fluid ___14___ of both
parents' characteristics.

Today we can ___15___ a reasonably complete explanation of Mendel's results

with peas, ___16___ , and the inheritance of characters controlled by single genes,
in general. The ___17___ of wrinkled peas in the second generation meant that
the ___18___ (gene deoxyribonucleic acid [DNA]) to produce wrinkles
was___19___ in the first generation plants, but was not ___20___ . Since it was
expressed in the second generation plants, the information or DNA
was___21___ unchanged. The genetic information was shown to be particulate
rather than fluid. It is the particulate unchanging ___22___ of the DNA molecule
that allows DNA fingerprint.
(Elaboró Leticia Martinek y Carlos Moguel)

Selecciona la opción correcta. Cuando termines, haz clic en el botón Terminar

Examen.

1.
A. domineering

B. hereditary

C. characteristic

2.
A. Mixing

B. Melting

C. Growing

3.
A. behaviour

B. contribution

C. pattern

4.
A. equivalent

B. norm

C. basis
5.
A. evidence

B. technique

C. experience

6.
A. responses

B. characteristics

C. relationships

7.
A. studies

B. sequences

C. series

8.
A. avoid

B. repeat

C. produce

9.
 A. flat

B. wrinkled

C. inconsistent

10.
A. round

B. harsh

C. distinct

11.
A. twins

B. sibilings

C. grandchildren

12.
A. hypothesis

B. system

C. sequence

13.
A. parents

B. children
 C. relatives

14.
A. mixtures

B. figures

C. patterns

15.
A. avoid

B. persuade

C. provide

16.
A. for instance

B. in particular

C. for example

17.
A. vanishing

B. reappearance

C. fading
18.
A. election

B. probability

C. information

19.
A. present

B. connected

C. possible

20.
A. rejected

B. distinguished

C. expressed

21.
A. transmitted

B. combined

C. supported

22.
A. supply

B. inheritance
C. nature