Highway Engineering

UBGMRW-20-M

1
Contents
List of tables, figures and graphs .......................................................................................... 3
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 4
Project description ................................................................................................................ 5
The most critical one kilo meter section of the road ........................................................... 5
Location ................................................................................................................................ 6
Existing condition of the road ................................................................................................ 6
Solutions recommended for the issues that were identified. ................................................ 10
Design criteria ..................................................................................................................... 12
Capacity design .................................................................................................................. 13
Geometric design ................................................................................................................ 21
1. Horizontal alignment design ..................................................................................... 21
2. Vertical alignment design ......................................................................................... 21
3. Chainage design ...................................................................................................... 24
Pavement design ................................................................................................................ 30
Material selection for new design ........................................................................................ 33
Marshall Test (Hot mix design analysis) .......................................................................... 34
Costing ............................................................................................................................... 39
References ......................................................................................................................... 41

2
List of tables, figures and graphs

Table 1.Traffic data Collected ............................................................................................. 11

Table 2.Simplified Traffic data Collected ............................................................................. 16
Table 3.Growth rate of vehicle types (Road note 31)........................................................... 16
Table 4.Traffic that will occur in 15 minute intervals in 20 years. ......................................... 16
Table 5.Table 6.Tabulated traffic that will occur in 15 minute intervals in 20 years .............. 17
Table 6.Stopping sight distance values required for various conditions. .............................. 24
Table 7. Finishing surface chainage and height above mean sea level ............................... 25
Table 8.Granular road base surface chainage and height above mean sea level ................ 27
Table 9.ESA factors 1-Overseas Road note 31 ................................................................... 30
Table 10. ESA factors 2-Overseas Road note 31 ................................................................ 30
Table 11. Effective hourly flows ........................................................................................... 30
Table 12. Standard Axle Load per day ................................................................................ 31
Table 13. ESA values for all vehicle types ........................................................................... 32
Table 14.All design Criteria of materials .............................................................................. 35
Table 15. Va and VMA values ............................................................................................. 36
Table 16.Cost calculation .................................................................................................... 40

Figure 1.Location - Map of the considered road .................................................................... 6

Figure 2. Drains located on some parts of the Mattakkuliya church road that are in functional
conditions.............................................................................................................................. 7
Figure 3. Drains located on some parts of the Mattakkuliya church road that are in non-
functional conditions.............................................................................................................. 7
Figure 4.The section of road with no drains, no shoulder and no pathway along Mattakkuliya
church road ........................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 5.Mattakkuliya main bus stop area (Buses parked beside the road) ........................... 9
Figure 6.The St. Mary's road junction .................................................................................. 11
Figure 7.Longitudinal cross section1 along the considered path (Courtesy-Google Earth) .. 22
Figure 8. Longitudinal cross section 2 along the considered path (Courtesy-Google Earth) 22
Figure 9. Stopping side distance consideration for vertical crest curve ................................ 23
Figure 10.Typical cross section of the highway ................................................................... 25
Figure 11.Cross section profile of the highway .................................................................... 32

Graph 1.Va Vs Pb graph ..................................................................................................... 37

Graph 2.Stability Vs Pb graph ............................................................................................. 37
Graph 3, Gmb Vs Pb graph ................................................................................................. 38
Graph 4.Flow Vs Pb% graph ............................................................................................... 38
Graph 5. VMA) (%) Vs Pb% graph ...................................................................................... 39

3
Introduction

As a developing country the road system of the country can be named as the most crucial
part of the country's transport system as well as the economy. The road system in the
country can be called one of the governing factors that affect the achievement of national
development that is directly deciding the modernization of the country. Roads provide great
services to the mankind that include the mobility and accessibility at the top. The road
system in the country provides access for people to far and wide areas in the country.
Furthermore the road system provides the mobility to people by providing access to the
locations that they should be at regular intervals at a faster phase like offices or workplaces,
homes, educational institutions, medical institutions etc.

For a developing country like Sri Lanka, it is important that the road network is developed
and well maintained at all times. Though in Sri Lanka the road network shows a rapid
development, the maintenance of the road network is at a very poor status. The poor
maintenance practices of the road network reduces the design life of the road network
drastically that intern affects the economy of the country.

In Sri Lanka the road network shows centralization at the capital city Colombo and spreading
out in to the country. This is a positive fact due to Colombo being the commercial capital of
Sri Lanka. And the rapid development of the road system clearly facilitates the spreading out
of the road network.

In different countries the road network is classified in different methods. In Sri Lanka the
road network can be mainly classified in to five main categories as below according to their
given features.

1. Class A roads: (Maximum speed limit is 70 km/h [1]) Acts as main arteries or long
distance roads that serves the purpose of moving traffic between major cities of the
country
2. Class B roads: (Maximum speed limit is 60 km/h [1]) feed the A class roads and acts
as distributers of traffic between residential areas of the country.
3. Class C roads: Serves the purpose of collection and distribution of traffic in any zone
of the area that finally feeds the traffic to A and B class roads.
4. Class D roads: Serves the purpose of providing access to the people up to
settlements and villages
5. Class E roads: (Maximum speed limit is 50 km/h) Considered as expressways

4
The stretch of the highways in a country can be taken as an indication of its development
.According to the national statistics the grand total of the national highways that the Sri
Lankan government owns runs up to a stretch of 12,333 km with the addition of class A,
class B and class E roads. The C and D class roads runs up to a stretch of 16,000 km and
the total of expressways runs up to a stretch 159.78 km in Sri Lanka.

Project description

Colombo is consists of 15 sections and Colombo 15 is one of them. Colombo 15 belongs to

the western province, Colombo district, Sri Lanka. Colombo 15 can be considered as one of
the most congested areas of Sri Lanka. Apart from the congestion, this area is densely
populated and shows signs of rapid development.

The most critical one kilo meter section of the road

The one kilo meter span stretching from Northshore College of Business and Technology
main entrance through Mattakkuliya church road to Ferguson’s road up to Vystwyke road
junction is considered the most critical one kilo meter span of the seven kilo meter span that
the PQR company has been awarded.

This considered one kilo meter span is critical due to the traffic that is attracted by the
buildings and structures in the area including higher educational institutes like Northshore
college of business and technology and Institute of higher national diploma in engineering,
several schools like St. John Vianney Seminary, several religious places like St. Mary's
Church, major retail shops like Cargills Food City, many minor retail shops, public
playgrounds like Modera Street playground, workplaces including People's Bank,
Construction sites, Mattakkuliya Police Station and newly brought up apartments.

Apart from these, the newly commenced construction sites in the considered one kilo meter
span and storage yards attract a very high amount of traffic to this road. Especially the
freight vehicles that the storage yards attract and the heavy vehicles that the construction
sites attract have critically affected the traffic in this one kilo meter span at the recent times.

Furthermore, one section of the road stretching from Northshore College of Business and
Technology through Mattakkuliya church road to St. Mary's road junction that is included in
the critical one kilo meter gets congested due to the highly active Mattakkuliya main bus stop
located in front of Northshore College of Business and Technology. This main bus stop is
populated by 178 Mattakkuliya Narahenpita, 155 Mattakkuliya Soysapura and 145
Mattakkuliya Gangarama – Slave Island buses. This bus stop is most of the time populated

5
by four to seven buses of the above mentioned bus types which results in the decrease of
average speed of vehicles passing through to about 20-25Km/h.

Location

From the sections awarded to PQR Company the most critical 1km section to be
rehabilitated spans from the main entrance of Northshore College of Business and
Technology through Mattakkuliya church road to Ferguson’s road up to Vystwyke road
junction. This road is consisting of two lanes throughout the span and can be assumed as a
class 1 road.

The considered road section can be divided as Mattakkuliya church road and the Ferguson’s
road. This is a critical road that facilitates its users in many ways as discussed above.

Figure 1.Location - Map of the considered road

Existing condition of the road

The existing condition of the 1km stretch that is considered is in a very unsatisfactory state.
This section of the road has two functional lanes that stretch up to a width of approximately

6
6.6m. But the road does not have a shoulder to be observed. The drain system is also
discontinuous. The drain system of width of approximately 0.45m is observed clearly at
some places but at most of the other places the drains are either covered by mud or
discarded material or have been completely neglected at construction. These observations
are evident in the below figure.

Figure 2. Drains located on some parts of the Mattakkuliya church road that are in functional
conditions.

Figure 3. Drains located on some parts of the Mattakkuliya church road that are in non-
functional conditions.

7
Figure 4.The section of road with no drains, no shoulder and no pathway along Mattakkuliya
church road

The demand for road rehabilitation of some of the selected roads was raised With respect to
a mega scale project. The main concentrations that the PQR Company will have regarding
the selected areas of the road to be developed can be discussed through the below existing
conditions.

 Poor road conditions and maintenance.

The existing road in the considered area does not display any maintenance. The
cracks and damages to the pavement are clearly visible even from a long distance.
Apart from that rutting and water collection during rain in mud pits on the surface of
the road also displays some serious issues. This affects the highway efficiency as
well as the health and safety of the users directly.
 The road does not have the designed width consistently at most of the places.
The road is only consist of two lanes at most of the places and due to the absence of
any type of walking area or path ways for the pedestrians, a congestion will occurs
at a situation where vehicles travelling in both directions and pedestrians walking
alongside the road meets at a same location. This also reduces the safety levels of
the pedestrians and drivers.
 Condition in drainage structure.
At most of the sections of this area there is an absence of drainage system. At
certain points on the road only drains are positioned. Even the available drains are

8
 subjected to deterioration and are not properly enclosed. This raises the safety
issues like pedestrians falling in to the drains. And the sharp edges created by
damages to the drains by deterioration further increases the damage if a pedestrian
falls in to them.
 Traffic demand status.
The traffic demand of this section of the road is mainly consist of vehicles travelling in
and out of Colombo from outside. Apart from that, traffic demand is affected by the
bus services running through this section of the road that includes 178 Mattakkuliya
Narahenpita, 155 Mattakkuliya Soysapura and 145 Mattakkuliya Gangarama – Slave
Island buses. The traffic demand shows a rapid growth with the growth of the city of
Colombo. But due to the undeveloped status of the considered section of the road
traffic congestion can be observed in the rush hours.
 Misuse of the road by the pedestrians, sales men and drivers
The Mattakkuliya bus stop does not have a separated area for the buses to stop.
Therefore the buses are parked by drivers beside the road which increases the traffic
congestion. The area has a tradition of selling goods in pushcarts that are placed
beside the road that further adds up to the congestion. Due to the unavailability of
pathways, pedestrians miss use the road to travel.

Figure 5.Mattakkuliya main bus stop area (Buses parked beside the road)

 Geometry of the road

9
 The geometry of the considered section of the road is mainly flat terrain. But a crest
curve can be observed from the sub post office Mattakkuliya junction to Vystwyke
road junction. Though this section of the road is consisting of few junctions no
horizontal curves can be observed.

 Road safety status.

1. The open drain system and the sharp edges created by damages to the drains by
deterioration further increases the safety issues specially to Pedestrians and
motorists’ as well as to other drivers
2. The area shows a lack of visible road signs that reduces the safety of the road users.
Even the available roads signs show deterioration and low visibility to the drivers.
3. The unavailability of proper maintenance and cleaning system of the road section
gathers garbage along the road that gives out a bad smell affecting the health of the
users. This piling up of garbage beside the road further reduces the space available
for the vehicles to travel increasing traffic congestion.
4. Misuse of the road by the pedestrians, sales men and drivers also imposes a critical
safety issue. The Mattakkuliya bus stop not having a separate area for the buses to
stop and selling goods in pushcarts that are placed beside the road forces the
pedestrians to use the road to travel that increases the risk of accidents.

Solutions recommended for the issues that were identified.

 The solution for the high traffic congestion is widening the road. The above
mentioned road design can be followed in order to do that.
 The inconsistent road sections existing at the present should also be corrected
during the rehabilitation process.
 Rutting and mud pits that can be observed at present should be repaired following
technical procedures based on the extent of damage.
 A road maintenance system should be introduced functioning under a responsible
body.
 Drainage system should be given proper attention during construction and
maintenance.
 Sales men in the pushcarts should be given a separate land area for them to carry
out their trade without disturbing the traffic flow.
 Placing new road signs where required and maintaining the available road signs
properly.

10
  Appointing an experienced health and safety officer to this section of the road during
the construction to maintain health and safety of people during the rehabilitation
project. The health and safety officer should continue his service even after the
completion of the project to look after the maintenance procedures.

In order to carry out the designing and other calculations, a traffic survey was carried out to
collect realistic data. The survey was conducted group wise at the St. Mary's road junction
that is marked in the below figure. Traffic data during one hour was collected on the basis of
whether the vehicles are moving towards Mattakkuliya bus stop or moving out of
Mattakkuliya bus stop. The gathered data can be tabulated as below.

Figure 6.The St. Mary's road junction

Table 1.Traffic data Collected

Towards Mattakkuliya bus stop TOTAL

Personal Three
Time cars Bus Trucks wheelers Bicycle Motor bikes
15.40pm 0 - 15 11 3 4 57 23 19 117
15 - 30 7 4 5 49 11 11 87
30 - 45 11 5 6 50 15 20 107
45 - 60 9 2 2 21 7 19 60
TOTAL 38 14 17 177 56 69 371
Percent 10.2425876 3.773585 4.58221 47.70889488 15.09434 18.59838275

11
 Out of Mattakkuliya bus stop
Personal Three
Time cars Bus Trucks wheelers Bicycle Motor bikes
15.40pm 0 - 15 12 5 10 52 12 21 112
15 - 30 5 4 2 54 12 13 90
30 - 45 6 4 4 56 11 11 92
45 - 60 5 5 3 46 16 13 88
TOTAL 28 18 19 208 51 58 382
Percent 7.329842932 4.712042 4.973822 54.45026178 13.35079 15.18324607 753

According to the survey, three wheelers clearly hold the highest percentage to travel
Towards Mattakkuliya bus stop and out of Mattakkuliya bus stop and the buses and trucks
hold the lowest percentage.

Design criteria

The calculations are based on the existing capacity of the highway, existing geometry and
the geometry of the widened four lane road designed for 20 years based on chainage
design, pavement design for the widened four lane highway and material to be used for the
widened four lane highway which includes the Marshall design.

The designing process can be broken down in to the following major aspects as below.

1. Capacity design
This designing process will be integrated with the calculation of the speed limits of
the road, traffic volume of the considered segment of road and level of service (LOS)
calculation of the segment of road.

2. Geometric design
This designing process will be integrated with the coordinated horizontal and vertical
alignment calculation. But the considered segment of the road is not consisting of a
horizontal curved section. Therefore the horizontal alignment calculation is not
required. The required readings of exact locations will be acquired by Google earth.
Apart from the alignment details this designing process will be integrated with types
of site distances, gradients of exact locations and traffic generated at the exact
segment of road when the speed is at a limiting state.

3. Pavement design
This designing process will deal with deciding of the number of layers of material
along with the thickness of each layer that would be used for Surface layer, base
layer, sub base layer and sub grade layer.

12
 4. Materials for the new design
This designing process will focus on the selection of required material for
construction attempting to maintain high quality and low cost in the product
considering the availability of material.

Capacity design

The Level of service (LOS) is defined as a quality measure which describes operational
conditions within a considered traffic stream, available freedom to manoeuvre for the vehicle
drivers, affecting traffic interruptions and comfort and convenience for drivers and
passengers. (Highway Capacity Manual 2000)

There are six different types of levels of services according to traffic conditions as follows.

Level of Service A – Availability of free flow with high speed and low volumes. Driver can
select his speed of liking and the flow is unaffected by the presence of others.

Level of Service B – Reasonably free flow. Presence of other users of the road is not
affecting but noticeable. Stable flow is maintained and availability of reasonable freedom to
select their desired speed for drivers.

Level of Service C – Flow is Stable. Majority of the drivers are restricted of the freedom to
select their desired speed, change lanes, overtake etc. Driver operations become affected
by the other users. But operating speeds still remains at a reasonable level.

Level of Service D – Approaches unstable flow with nearly all drivers restricted with the
freedom to manoeuvre. The comfort and convenience levels of users are low but may
remain at tolerable level for a short period of time. Instability arising in the conditions cause
substantial drops in speed of vehicles. But this can still be considered as stable flow. This
service volume is related to the tolerable capacity. Therefore this level of service should be
used in order to find out the upper limitation of traffic demand in scenarios which should be
tolerated

Level of Service E – This has an unstable flow that may be suddenly disturbed by
momentary stoppages along the way. Traffic volume has reached capacity or near capacity.
Speed is relatively slow but maintained uniform with all the other users. Freedom to
manoeuvre is at extremely low status that results in the users wanting other users to give
way. A small increase in the flow would result in a break down.

Level of Service F – This status is called forced or breakdown flow operation. The demand
has exceeded capacity. This results in the stop-start operation with large queue formation. In
the extreme state, both speed and volume can fall down to zero.

It is difficult to suggest the class of the highway section considered in this project due to the
fact that the Sri Lankan conditions are not in direct correlation with the standards followed by
the used codes. The selected highway section can be considered both as class 1 and class

13
2. Therefore the class of the considered highway section is selected as class 1 for the
convenience of calculation.

The capacity design of the considered section of the road for the present conditions can be
carried out as below.

Percent time spent following Mean speed

V 15,max = 117+ 112 = 229

V 15,max = maximum volume within 15 minutes
V = 753 veh/hour
V = Demand volume for the full peak hour

𝑽
𝑽𝒑 =
𝑷𝑯𝑭 ∗ 𝑭𝑮 ∗ 𝒇𝑯𝑽
(20-3)[4]
 𝐕𝐩 = 𝐩𝐚𝐬𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐫 𝐜𝐚𝐫 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝟏𝟓 𝐦𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝 𝐩𝐜/𝐡)

𝑽
𝑷𝑯𝑭 =
𝑽𝟏𝟓 ∗ 𝟒
𝟕𝟓𝟑
= 𝟐𝟐𝟗∗𝟒= 0.822

 PHF = peak hour factor

𝒇𝑯𝑽 = 𝟏 (20-4)[4]
𝟏+𝑷𝑻 (𝑬𝑻 −𝟏)+𝑷𝑹 (𝑬𝑹 −𝟏)

 f HV = heavy vehicle factor

Assuming :600<Vp<1200
Assuming :600<Vp<1200
ET = 1.1
ET = 1.2
ER = 1.0
ER = 1.0
FG = 1(Terrain = level)
FG = 1(Terrain = level)
(Exhibit 20-10)[4]
(Exhibit 20-9)[4]

𝟔𝟖
PT = 𝟕𝟓𝟑 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎%= 9.03% = 0.0903 (considering buses and trucks)

𝒇 𝟏 𝑓 1
𝑯𝑽 = 𝐻𝑉 =
𝟏+𝟎.𝟎𝟗𝟎𝟑(𝟏.𝟏−𝟏)+𝟎 1+0.0903(1.2−1)+0

= 0.991 = 0.982

14
 𝟕𝟓𝟑 753
VP = 𝟎.𝟖𝟐𝟐∗𝟏∗𝟎.𝟗𝟗𝟏= 924 VP = 0.822∗1∗0.982= 933

 Lane width = 6.6m

 Drain width = 0.45m
 Shoulder width = 0m

FLS = 6.8 (Exhibit 20-5)[4]

Considering 14 access points,

fA= (12-8/6)*2 + 8 = 9.33 kmh-1(Exhibit 20-6)[4]

BFFS = 110 kmh-1 (for urban areas)

FFS = BFFS – FLS -fA(20-2)[4]

FFS = 110 – 6.8 – 9.33 = 93.87 kmh-1

PTSF = BPTSF +fd/np(20-12)[4] ATS = FFS – 0.0125Vp - fnp(20-5)[4]

BPTSF = 100 (1 - e-0.000879Vp) (20-7) fnp = 0 (T.20-11)

= 100 (1 - e-0.000879 * 924) = 55.61kmh-1 ATS = 93.87 – 0.0125*933 – 0 = 82.21 kmh-1

Level Of service = C (Exhibit 20-3)

Present Level of service = C

The capacity to be designed for the proposed road section is for 20 years. The relevant
calculations are as follows.

For the convenience of calculation the vehicles that travelled towards Mattakkuliya bus stop
and out of Mattakkuliya bus stop can be considered as a total in 15 minute intervals as
below.

15
Table 2.Simplified Traffic data Collected

Time Personal Three Motor

(min) cars Bus Trucks wheelers Bicycle bikes TOTAL
0 - 15 23 8 14 109 35 40 229
15 - 30 12 8 7 103 23 24 177
30 - 45 17 9 10 106 26 31 199
45 - 60 14 7 5 67 23 32 148
TOTAL 66 32 36 385 107 127 753

The growth rate of each vehicle type is as below (Road note 31)

Table 3.Growth rate of vehicle types (Road note 31)

Vehicle type Growth Rate

PC (Service vehicle) 5%
Bus (Large buses) 4%
Trucks (Multi axle) 7%
Three-wheeler 3.5%
Motorbike 3.5%
Bicycle 3.5%

The traffic that will occur in 15 minute intervals in 20 years can be calculated as below.

Table 4.Traffic that will occur in 15 minute intervals in 20 years.

Vehicle type ( In the bracket time interval) Number of vehicles

Personal cars (0-15minutes) 23×(1.050)20=61.02585
Personal cars (15-30minutes) 12×(1.050)20=31.83957
Personal cars (30-45minutes) 17×(1.050)20=45.10606
Personal cars (45-60minutes) 14×(1.050)20=37.14617
Buses(0-15minutes) 8×(1.040)20=17.52899
Buses(15-30minutes) 8×(1.040)20=17.52899
Buses(30-45minutes) 9×(1.040)20=19.72011
Buses(45-60minutes) 7×(1.040)20=15.33786
Trucks (0-15minutes) 14×(1.070)20=54.17558
Trucks (15-30minutes) 7×(1.070)20=27.08779
Trucks (30-45minutes) 10×(1.070)20=38.69684

16
Trucks (45-60minutes) 5×(1.070)20=19.34842
Three wheelers(0-15minutes) 109×(1.035)20=216.8869861
Three wheelers(15-30minutes) 103×(1.035)20=204.9482529
Three wheelers(30-45minutes) 106×(1.035)20=210.9176195
Three wheelers(45-60minutes) 67×(1.035)20=133.3158539
Bicycle(0-15minutes) 35×(1.035)20=69.64261022
Bicycle(15-30minutes) 23×(1.035)20=45.76514386
Bicycle(30-45minutes) 23×(1.035)20=51.73451045
Bicycle(45-60minutes) 23×(1.035)20=45.76514386
Motor bikes(0-15minutes) 40×(1.035)20=79.59155454
Motor bikes(15-30minutes) 24×(1.035)20=47.75493272
Motor bikes(30-45minutes) 31×(1.035)20=61.68345477
Motor bikes(45-60minutes) 32×(1.035)20=63.67324363

The traffic that will occur in 15 minute intervals in 20 years calculated above can be
tabulated as below.

Table 5.Table 6.Tabulated traffic that will occur in 15 minute intervals in 20 years

Time Personal Three Motor

(min) cars Bus Trucks wheelers Bicycle bikes TOTAL
0 - 15 61.02585 17.52899 54.17558 216.887 69.64261 79.59155 498.8516
15 - 30 31.83957 17.52899 27.08779 204.9483 45.76514 47.75493 374.9247
30 - 45 45.10606 19.72011 38.69684 210.9176 51.73451 61.68345 427.8586
45 - 60 37.14617 15.33786 19.34842 133.3159 45.76514 63.67324 314.5867
TOTAL 175.1176 70.11594 139.3086 766.0687 212.9074 252.7032 1616.222

Therefore the total maximum vehicle flow in 1 hour after 20 years (V) =1616.222

And the total maximum vehicle flow in 15minutes after 20 years (V 15, max) =498.8516

Percent time spent following Mean speed

V = 1616.222
V 15,max =498.8516
𝑽
𝑽𝒑 = 𝑷𝑯𝑭∗𝑭𝑮 ∗𝒇𝑯𝑽
(20-3) [4]

17
 𝑽
𝑷𝑯𝑭 =
𝑽𝟏𝟓 ∗ 𝟒
𝟏𝟔𝟏𝟔.𝟐𝟐𝟐
= =0.810
𝟒𝟗𝟖.𝟖𝟓𝟏𝟔∗𝟒

𝒇𝑯𝑽 = 𝟏 (20-4) [4]

𝟏+𝑷𝑻 (𝑬𝑻 −𝟏)+𝑷𝑹 (𝑬𝑹 −𝟏)

Assuming Vp>1200 Assuming Vp>1200

ET = 1.0 ET = 1.1
ER = 1.0 ER = 1.0
FG = 1(Terrain = level) (Exhibit 20-10) [4] FG = 1(Terrain = level)(Exhibit 20-9)[4]

(𝟕𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟗𝟒𝟎𝟓𝟖+𝟏𝟑𝟗.𝟑𝟎𝟖𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟔)
PT = 𝟏𝟔𝟏𝟔.𝟐𝟐𝟐
∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎%= 12.96% (considering buses and trucks)

𝒇 𝟏 𝑓 1
𝑯𝑽 = 𝐻𝑉 =
𝟏+𝟎.𝟏𝟐𝟗𝟔(𝟏.𝟎−𝟏)+𝟎 1+0.1296(1.1−1)+0

=1 = 0.987

𝟏𝟔𝟏𝟔.𝟐𝟐𝟐 1616.222
VP = 𝟎.𝟖𝟏𝟎∗𝟏∗𝟏=1995.336 VP = 0.810∗1∗0.987= 2021.617

 Lane width = 6.6m

 Drain width = 0.45m
 Shoulder width = 0m

FLS = 6.8 (Exhibit 20-5)[4]

 Considering 14 access points,

fA= (12-8/6)*2 + 8 = 9.33 kmh-1(Exhibit 20-6)[4]

 BFFS = 110 kmh-1 (for urban areas)

18
 FFS = BFFS – FLS -fA(20-2)
FFS = 110 – 6.8 – 9.33 = 93.87 kmh-1
FFS = 93.87 kmh-1

PTSF = BPTSF +fd/np(20-12)[4] ATS = FFS – 0.0125Vp - fnp(20-5)[4]

BPTSF = 100 (1 - e-0.000879Vp)(20-7)[4] fnp = 0 (T. 20-11)[4]

= 100 (1 - e-0.000879 * 1995.336) = 82.69kmh-1 ATS = 93.87 – 0.0125* 2021.617– 0=68.60 kmh-1

Level Of service =E (Exhibit 20-3)

 Level of service after 20 years = E

The following calculation is carried out to model the highway as a multi lane road with two lanes for
each side (Total four lanes) with a design life of 20 years.
V 15,max = 498.8516 veh/hour
V 15,max = maximum volume within 15 minutes
V = 1616.222 veh/hour
V = Demand volume for the full peak hour

𝑽
𝑽𝒑 =
𝑷𝑯𝑭 ∗ 𝑵 ∗ 𝑭𝒑 ∗ 𝒇𝑯𝑽
(20-3)[4]
 𝐕𝐩 = 𝐩𝐚𝐬𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐫 𝐜𝐚𝐫 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝟏𝟓 𝐦𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝 𝐩𝐜/𝐡)

𝑽
𝑷𝑯𝑭 =
𝑽𝟏𝟓 ∗ 𝟒
𝟏𝟔𝟏𝟔.𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝑷𝑯𝑭 = 𝟒𝟗𝟖.𝟖𝟓𝟏𝟔∗𝟒= 0.810

 PHF = peak hour factor

𝒇𝑯𝑽 = 𝟏 (20-4)[4]
𝟏+𝑷𝑻 (𝑬𝑻 −𝟏)+𝑷𝑹 (𝑬𝑹 −𝟏)

 f HV = heavy vehicle factor

19
ET = 1.5
ER = 1.2
(Exhibit 21-8)

(𝟕𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟗𝟒𝟎𝟓𝟖+𝟏𝟑𝟗.𝟑𝟎𝟖𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟔)
PT = 𝟏𝟔𝟏𝟔.𝟐𝟐𝟐
∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎%= 12.96% (considering buses and trucks)

PR=0 ( No Recreational vehicles (RVs) observed)

𝒇 𝟏 Assuming 15% unfamiliar drivers

𝑯𝑽 =
𝟏+𝟎.𝟏𝟐𝟗𝟔(𝟏.𝟓−𝟏)+ 𝟎
Fp=100%-15%=85%
Fp=0.85
=0.939
Assuming two lanes for each side
𝟏𝟔𝟏𝟔.𝟐𝟐𝟐
VP = 𝟎.𝟖𝟏𝟎∗𝟐∗𝟎.𝟖𝟓∗𝟎.𝟗𝟑𝟗= 1249.98

 Lane width =3m

 Drain width = 0.45m
 Shoulder width =1.8m
 Lateral clearance= 0.6m
FLw =10.6 kmh-1 (Exhibit 21-4)
FLC=5.8 kmh-1 (Exhibit 21-5)
FM=2.6 kmh-1 (Exhibit 21-6) (Assuming an undivided highway design- To minimize the land
acquisition cost as the land in this area is highly populated and expensive)
fA= (12-8/6)*2 + 8 = 9.33 kmh-1(Exhibit 20-7)[4] (Considering 14 access points)

BFFS = 110 kmh-1 (for urban areas)

FFS = BFFS – FLw –FLC- FM- FA

FFS = 110 - 10.6 - 5.8 - 2.6 -9 .33 = 81.67 kmh-1 (21-1)

VP = 1249.98 pc/h/lane FFS = 81.67 kmh-1

20
 Level of service = C (Exhibit 21-3)
Therefore it is clear that by widening the road with four lanes consisting of lane width =3m, Drain
width = 0.45m, Shoulder width =1.8m, Lateral clearance= 0.6m the road can be maintained at level
of service C after 20 years. But the road reaches level of service C marginally according to the
calculation.
From the above calculation it can be predicted that if a road of three lanes for each side (Total six
lanes) is designed the level of service can be maintained at or above level of service C comfortably
even after 20 years. But Colombo 15 is a densely populated area and land acquisition to construct a
six lane highway will be highly costly. Therefore it is optimum to construct a four lane highway and
channel the excess traffic to alternative roads if necessary.

Geometric design

1. Horizontal alignment design

In the considered 1km span though there are several junctions no horizontal curves are
encountered. Therefore the horizontal alignment design is not required.

2. Vertical alignment design

It is a must to carry out a vertical alignment design to ensure proper drainage in the area and
acceptable level of safety that is integrated with vertical alignment.

By carrying out site visits it was concluded that the considered road section has a vertical
profile of a crest vertical curve and the vertical elevation above mean sea level and
curvatures were obtained by using Google Earth.

21
 Figure 7.Longitudinal cross section1 along the considered path (Courtesy-Google Earth)

Figure 8. Longitudinal cross section 2 along the considered path (Courtesy-Google Earth)

22
From the figure, length of the curve (L) = (974m-683m) =291m

Initial gradient of tangent (G1) = +3.6%

End gradient of tangent (G2) = -3.7%

Assuming that the design speed of the road is 64 kmph

The Reaction time (TR) is considered as 2.5 Sec (Reference AASHTO Manual)

Deceleration (a) rate is 3.4m/s2 (Reference AASHTO Manual)

Acceleration due to gravity (g) =9.81m/s2

Stopping Sight Disance (SSD) = Break reaction distance + Breaking distance

V2
Stopping Sight Disance (SSD) = V ∗ TR +
2(a + G ∗ g)

64 ∗ 1000
64 ∗ 1000 ∗ 2.5 [ 3600 ]2
SSD = +
3600 2(3.4 + .036 ∗ 9.81)

SSD = 86.55m

SSD calculated above is less than the length of the considered curve (291m). Therefore the
safety is enough for a vehicle to stop in the crest without getting in to an accident.

Available stopping sight distance can be represented as below.

Figure 9. Stopping side distance consideration for vertical crest curve

Source: http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/speedmgt/ref_mats/fhwasa10001/images/Fig2.gif

Driver eye level (H1) =0.6m,

23
Vehicle tail light of the front vehicle (H2) =0.3m

L= 86.55m

Algebraic gradient difference =|G1 − G2| = (3.6-(-3.7)) = 7.3

SSD2
L = |G1 − G2| × 2
200 (√H1+√H2)

SSD2
86.55m = 7.3 × 2
200 (√0.6+√0.3)

SSD=64.39m

The below mentioned table represents the minimum SSD values suggested by the Federal
Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation

Table 6.Stopping sight distance values required for various conditions.

Design speed in AASHTO design Estimated SSD for Estimated stopping

mph (within brackets SSD criteria in feet mean driver in sight distance for dry
kmph) (within brackets roadway conditions
feet (within brackets
meters)
meters) feet (within brackets
meters)

40 (64) 305 (92.96) 165(50) 285(86.8)

42.2 (68) 332.5(101.346) 182.5(55.6) 312.5 (95.25)

45 (72) 360(109.728) 200 (60.96) 340(103.6)

(http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/speedmgt/ref_mats/fhwasa10001/)

According to the above table both values obtained for SSD before and after height
adjustment calculation is well below the required value. Therefore the considered road
section is safe according to vertical alignment.

3. Chainage design

The CBR values gained by conducting CBR tests from three different locations of the
considered section of highway were similar. Therefore the chainage and elevation design is
done assuming a typical cross section as below consisting of a gradient of 2.5% towards
both left hand side (LHS) and right hand side (RHS).

The highway is considered to be constructed elevated up from the existing ground.

24
Figure 10.Typical cross section of the highway

LHS 1-Draine edge

LHS 2- Separation line of lane 1 and lane 2

RHS 1- Separation line of lane 3 and lane 4

RHS 2-Draine edge

Considering the starting point 0+000 of highway at the main entrance of the Northshore
College of business and technology the following chainages and elevations can be
calculated.

Table 7. Finishing surface chainage and height above mean sea level

Height Height
above above
mean sea mean sea LHS 1- LHS 2- RHS 1- RHS 1-
level of level of the Finishing Finishing Finishing Finishing
centre line finishing height height height height
in existing centre line above above above above
ground after mean sea mean sea mean sea mean sea
Chainage construction level level level level
0+000 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+010 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+020 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+030 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+040 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+050 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+060 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+070 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+080 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+090 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+100 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25

25
0+110 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+120 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+130 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+140 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+150 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+160 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+170 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+180 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+190 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+200 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+210 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+220 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+230 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+240 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+250 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+260 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+270 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+280 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+290 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+300 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+310 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+320 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+330 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+340 8 8.4 8.325 8.25 8.325 8.25
0+350 8 8.4 8.325 8.25 8.325 8.25
0+360 8 8.4 8.325 8.25 8.325 8.25
0+370 8 8.4 8.325 8.25 8.325 8.25
0+380 8 8.4 8.325 8.25 8.325 8.25
0+390 8 8.4 8.325 8.25 8.325 8.25
0+400 8 8.4 8.325 8.25 8.325 8.25
0+410 8 8.4 8.325 8.25 8.325 8.25
0+420 8 8.4 8.325 8.25 8.325 8.25
0+430 8 8.4 8.325 8.25 8.325 8.25
0+440 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+450 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+460 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+470 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+480 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+490 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+500 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+510 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+520 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+530 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+540 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+550 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+560 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+570 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+580 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+590 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+600 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+610 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+620 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+630 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25

26
0+640 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+650 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+660 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+670 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+680 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+690 7 7.4 7.325 7.25 7.325 7.25
0+700 8 8.4 8.325 8.25 8.325 8.25
0+710 8 8.4 8.325 8.25 8.325 8.25
0+720 8 8.4 8.325 8.25 8.325 8.25
0+730 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+740 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+750 9 9.4 9.325 9.25 9.325 9.25
0+760 10 10.4 10.325 10.25 10.325 10.25
0+770 11 11.4 11.325 11.25 11.325 11.25
0+780 11 11.4 11.325 11.25 11.325 11.25
0+790 12 12.4 12.325 12.25 12.325 12.25
0+800 12 12.4 12.325 12.25 12.325 12.25
0+810 13 13.4 13.325 13.25 13.325 13.25
0+820 13 13.4 13.325 13.25 13.325 13.25
0+830 13 13.4 13.325 13.25 13.325 13.25
0+840 13 13.4 13.325 13.25 13.325 13.25
0+850 13 13.4 13.325 13.25 13.325 13.25
0+860 13 13.4 13.325 13.25 13.325 13.25
0+870 13 13.4 13.325 13.25 13.325 13.25
0+880 13 13.4 13.325 13.25 13.325 13.25
0+890 13 13.4 13.325 13.25 13.325 13.25
0+900 14 14.4 14.325 14.25 14.325 14.25
0+910 14 14.4 14.325 14.25 14.325 14.25
0+920 14 14.4 14.325 14.25 14.325 14.25
0+930 14 14.4 14.325 14.25 14.325 14.25
0+940 13 13.4 13.325 13.25 13.325 13.25
0+950 13 13.4 13.325 13.25 13.325 13.25
0+960 13 13.4 13.325 13.25 13.325 13.25
0+970 12 12.4 12.325 12.25 12.325 12.25
0+980 12 12.4 12.325 12.25 12.325 12.25
0+990 12 12.4 12.325 12.25 12.325 12.25
1+000 11 11.4 11.325 11.25 11.325 11.25

The chainage and the Granular road base finishing height above mean sea level can be
tabulated as below

Table 8.Granular road base surface chainage and height above mean sea level

Height Height LHS 1- LHS 2- RHS 1- RHS 2-

above above Granular Granular Granular Granular
mean sea mean sea road base road base road base road base
level of level of the finishing finishing finishing finishing
centre line finishing height height height height
in existing centre line above above above above
ground after mean sea mean sea mean sea mean sea
Chainage construction level level level level
0+000 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1

27
0+010 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+020 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+030 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+040 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+050 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+060 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+070 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+080 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+090 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+100 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+110 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+120 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+130 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+140 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+150 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+160 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+170 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+180 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+190 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+200 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+210 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+220 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+230 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+240 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+250 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+260 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+270 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+280 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+290 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+300 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+310 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+320 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+330 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+340 8 8.4 8.175 8.1 8.175 8.1
0+350 8 8.4 8.175 8.1 8.175 8.1
0+360 8 8.4 8.175 8.1 8.175 8.1
0+370 8 8.4 8.175 8.1 8.175 8.1
0+380 8 8.4 8.175 8.1 8.175 8.1
0+390 8 8.4 8.175 8.1 8.175 8.1
0+400 8 8.4 8.175 8.1 8.175 8.1
0+410 8 8.4 8.175 8.1 8.175 8.1
0+420 8 8.4 8.175 8.1 8.175 8.1
0+430 8 8.4 8.175 8.1 8.175 8.1
0+440 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+450 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+460 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+470 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+480 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+490 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+500 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+510 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+520 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+530 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1

28
0+540 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+550 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+560 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+570 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+580 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+590 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+600 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+610 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+620 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+630 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+640 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+650 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+660 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+670 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+680 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+690 7 7.4 7.175 7.1 7.175 7.1
0+700 8 8.4 8.175 8.1 8.175 8.1
0+710 8 8.4 8.175 8.1 8.175 8.1
0+720 8 8.4 8.175 8.1 8.175 8.1
0+730 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+740 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+750 9 9.4 9.175 9.1 9.175 9.1
0+760 10 10.4 10.175 10.1 10.175 10.1
0+770 11 11.4 11.175 11.1 11.175 11.1
0+780 11 11.4 11.175 11.1 11.175 11.1
0+790 12 12.4 12.175 12.1 12.175 12.1
0+800 12 12.4 12.175 12.1 12.175 12.1
0+810 13 13.4 13.175 13.1 13.175 13.1
0+820 13 13.4 13.175 13.1 13.175 13.1
0+830 13 13.4 13.175 13.1 13.175 13.1
0+840 13 13.4 13.175 13.1 13.175 13.1
0+850 13 13.4 13.175 13.1 13.175 13.1
0+860 13 13.4 13.175 13.1 13.175 13.1
0+870 13 13.4 13.175 13.1 13.175 13.1
0+880 13 13.4 13.175 13.1 13.175 13.1
0+890 13 13.4 13.175 13.1 13.175 13.1
0+900 14 14.4 14.175 14.1 14.175 14.1
0+910 14 14.4 14.175 14.1 14.175 14.1
0+920 14 14.4 14.175 14.1 14.175 14.1
0+930 14 14.4 14.175 14.1 14.175 14.1
0+940 13 13.4 13.175 13.1 13.175 13.1
0+950 13 13.4 13.175 13.1 13.175 13.1
0+960 13 13.4 13.175 13.1 13.175 13.1
0+970 12 12.4 12.175 12.1 12.175 12.1
0+980 12 12.4 12.175 12.1 12.175 12.1
0+990 12 12.4 12.175 12.1 12.175 12.1
1+000 11 11.4 11.175 11.1 11.175 11.1

29
Similar to the above table, the chainage and the height above mean sea level that the
excavations should be carried out can be tabulated by deducting another 0.250m from each
height above mean sea level of the above table.

Pavement design

The following pavement calculation is done for a 20 year design lifetime of the highway. The
time that the vehicles flow on the road is assumed as 16 hours per day. Road note 31 and
Guide lines for capacity of roads in rural areas-Indian road congress guide lines are mainly
used to carry out the following calculations.

Table 9.ESA factors 1-Overseas Road note 31

Vehicle type ESA factor

Cars (Service vehicles) 1.88
Buses (Large buses) 0.3
Trucks (Multi axle) 0.13

The below Equivalent standard axles (ESA) values are generated by using the following
formula.
4.5
Axle Load (kg)⁄
ESA factor=⌊ 8160 ⌋ Overseas Road note 31-Table 2.1

Table 10. ESA factors 2-Overseas Road note 31

Vehicle type ESA factor

Three wheelers 4.16×10-6
Motor bikes 1.54×10-7
Bicycles 9.147×10-7

The following is a conservative pavement design. Therefore the four lane road to be
designed is designed as a combination of 2 two lane roads.

Therefore the following maximum hourly flow is considered to be half of the maximum hourly
flows gained by the survey.

Table 11. Effective hourly flows

Vehicle type Maximum hourly flow

Personal cars 33
Bus 16
Trucks 18
Three wheelers 192.5
Bicycle 53.5
Motor bikes 63.5

30
Pi (Cars/SV) =33 ×16×1.88=992.64

Pi (Bus/LB) =16 ×16×0.3=76.8

Pi (Trucks/MA) =18 ×16×0.013=3.744

Pi (Three wheeler) = 192.5×16×4.16×10-6=0.0128

Pi (Motor bike) = 53.5×16×1.54×10-7=1.318*10-4

Pi (Bicycle) = 63.5×16×9.147*10-7=9.293*10-4

The above results are tabulated as below.

Table 12. Standard Axle Load per day

Vehicle type Number of ESA factor Growth Rate ρi(Standard Axle

vehicles in two Load per day)
lanes only.
PC (Service 33 1.88 5% 992.64
vehicle)
Bus (Large 16 0.3 4% 76.8
buses)
Truck (Multi 18 0.013 7% 3.744
axle)
Three-wheeler 192.5 4.16*10-6 3.5% 0.0128
Motorbike 53.5 1.54*10-7 3.5% 1.318*10-4
Bicycle 63.5 9.147*10-7 3.5% 9.293*10-4

A=365 ∑m n th
i=1 Pi((1 + ri) − 1)/ri ; Table 2.2 -OVERSEAS ROAD NOTE 31(4 EDITION)

n=20 (20 Year design life of road)

m=6 (6 Types of vehicles)

992.64[(1+0.05)20 −1]
A (Cars/SV) =365{ 0.05
}=11.98×106

76.8[(1+0.04)20 −1]
A (Bus/LB) =365{ 0.04
}=0.835×106

3.744[(1+0.07)20 −1]
A (Trucks/MA) =365{ 0.07
}=0.056×106

0.0128[(1+0.035)20 −1]
A (Three wheeler) =365{ 0.035
}=0.0000132×106

31
 1.318×10−4 [(1+0.035)20 −1]
A (Motor bike) =365{ 0.035
}=0.000001×106

9.293×10−4 [(1+0.035)20 −1]

A (Bicycle) = 365{
0.035
}=0.0000096×106

The above results are tabulated as below.

Table 13. ESA values for all vehicle types

Vehicle type A
PC 11.98×106
Bus 0.835×106
Truck 0.056×106
Three-wheeler 0.0000132×106
Motorbike 0.000001×106
Bicycle 0.0000096×106
Total 12.8710238×106

Total A = 12.8710238×106, this is classified as Traffic class 7 (T7)

Table 2.2 -OVERSEAS ROAD NOTE 31(4thEDITION)

According to the results gained by laboratory testing the CBR value of the soil in the area is
20.

Therefore select sub grade strength class S5 -Table 3.1 -OVERSEAS ROAD NOTE
31(4thEDITION)

Figure 11.Cross section profile of the highway

CHART 2 COMPOSITE ROAD BASE (UNBOUND & CEMENTED) / SURFACE DRESSING

(Overseas Road note 31)

Material definitions are as below,

SD-Surface dressing

32
 Granular road base, GB1-GB3

Cement or lime-stabilised road base 2, CB2

Material selection for new design

The main types of materials used for the construction of the considered 1km span of
highway are.

1. Cement or lime stabilized road base

2. Granular road base
3. Asphalt

1) Cement or lime stabilized road base

Cement or lime stabilization is done to the soil in order to develop the engineering properties
required for the pavement sub layers. Stabilization process is also capable of minimizing the
risk of long-term deleterious reactions that occur in the material that might reduce the
pavement structural capacity.

2) Granular road base

For a granular material to be qualified as a base material the following criteria has to be met
according to the Road development authority (RDA) Specifications.

i) Liquid limit <40 and Plastic Index<15

ii) Maximum dry density >1750 kg/m3
iii) CBR > 30

The main type of granular material used in Sri Lanka for road base construction is Aggregate
base course (ABC). Apart from the above three main qualities the material should be well
graded according to the particle size distribution curve and the Flakiness index of the
material should be less than 25% for the material t be qualified as a base material.

The reasons for selecting the base material according to the above limitations are due to the
following explanations.

33
 a) Flakiness is considered an unfavourable condition for a base material as it inherits a
feature of breaking down under heavy loads on the structure. This inherent feature of
material with higher flakiness reduces its ability to bear higher loads.
b) The material should be well graded in order to provide the following features that are
essential for a road structure.
 A well graded material has the required level of natural interlock between each
angular particle of aggregate that will finally result in low amount of voids once the
material reaches its compacted state.
 A well graded material spreads the load applied throughout the structure.
 Grading of the material is an indicator of other engineering properties such as
compressibility of material, shear strength capacity and hydraulic conductivity of
material.
c) CBR value directly indicates the strength of the material which is the most critical
factor for a base material.
d) Maximum dry density (MDD) represents a state of maximum interlocking of particles
and behaves similarly to the CBR value which makes it special.
e) Plasticity index is essential to maintain the plasticity of the material.

3) Asphalt

Asphalt is a combination of Bitumen and aggregates. The supporting capacity of a pavement

is mainly depending on the Aggregates in the Asphalt.

The main function of bitumen in an asphalt mix in a flexible pavement is to make and
maintain a strong bond between the components of the pavement in the highway and most
importantly to provide a smooth surface for the pedestrians and vehicles.

The bitumen content Pb is designed below in order to construct the one kilo meter span of
highway.

Marshall Test (Hot mix design analysis)

This design is mainly done in order to find the bitumen content of the asphalt that is to be
used for the construction of the road section. The design criteria required for the design
calculations are as follows.

34
Table 14.All design Criteria of materials

(Table 8.4 Overseas Road Note 31)

As the Total A = 12.8710238×106 in the highway designed in the pavement design, it

belongs to traffic class 7 (T7). Therefore the design should be done under the conditions in
the column 3. (Stability above 6, Flow above 2, Air voids between 3% and 5% and
compaction level i.e. number of blows 2×75.

 Assumptions

Maximum specific gravity of aggregate (Gsb) = 2.683

Effective specific gravity of aggregate (GSe) = 2.734

Specific gravity of asphalt (Gb) = 1.015

Maximum particle size (mm) =14mm

The required values for Voids in Total Mix (Va) and Void in Mineral Aggregate (VMA) are
calculated using the below equations

Bulk Density, (Gmb)

Weight in air
Gmb = Weight in SSD−Weight in Water

Theoretical Maximum Density, (Gmm)

1
Gmm = 1−Pb P
+ b
Gse Gb

35
Void in Total Mix (Va)

Gmb
Va = (1 - Gmm) × 100

Void in Mineral Aggregate (VMA)

Gmb ( 1− Pb )
VMA = 1-( Gsb
) × 100

Void Filled with Asphalt (VFA)

VMA−Va
VFA = ( VMA
) × 100

The values calculated by using the above formulae can be tabulated as below

Table 15. Va and VMA values

Voids in
Voids in Mineral
Asphalt Ps (100- Stability Total Mix Aggregate
%(Pb) Pb) Gmb (N) Flow Gmm (Va) (%) (VMA) (%)
5.5 94.5 2.348 3550 8 2.501219344 6.125786 17.29929184
6 94 2.364 5800 11 2.48200546 4.75444 17.17629519
6.5 93.5 2.36 7600 13 2.463084521 4.18518 17.75624301
7 93 2.353 8250 17 2.444449877 3.741123 18.43868804
7.5 92.5 2.341 7000 22 2.426095079 3.5074915 19.2909057

 The variation of Va Vs Pb can be plotted as below

36
 7

6
Void in Total Mix (Va) (%)

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pb %

Graph 1.Va Vs Pb graph

According to the above graph Pb1(The Pb value corresponding to 4% Va )= 6.6%

 The variation of Stability Vs Pb can be plotted as below

9000
8000
7000
6000
Stability(N)

5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pb%

Graph 2.Stability Vs Pb graph

According to the above graph Pb2

(The Pb value corresponding to maximum stability value) = 7%

37
  The variation of Gmb Vs Pb can be plotted as below

2.37

2.365

2.36

2.355
Gmb

2.35

2.345

2.34

2.335
0 2 4 6 8
Pb%

Graph 3, Gmb Vs Pb graph

According to the above graph Pb3 (The Pb value corresponding to maximum Gmb value) = 6%
Pb1+Pb2+Pb3 6.6+7.0+6
Therefore Design Pb = 3
= 3
= 6.53%

Checking whether the limiting conditions are met

1. The variation of Flow Vs Pb% can be plotted as below

Road note 31 suggests that a Pb value should be taken so that the corresponding flow value
is retained at a value higher than 2mm.

25

20
Flow(mm)

15

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pb%

Graph 4.Flow Vs Pb% graph

38
From the above table it is evident that the Flow corresponding to Pb% of 6.53 is well above
2mm. Therefore the Pb% value of 6.53 is ok according to the flow limit.

2. The variation of Voids in Mineral Aggregate (VMA) (%) Vs Pb% can be plotted as
below.

Maximum particle size is 14mm, Therefore Table 8.5; overseas road note 31 suggests that a
Pb value should be taken so that the corresponding VMA value is retained at a value higher
than 15%.

19.5
Void in Mineral Aggregate (VMA) (%)

19

18.5

18

17.5

17
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pb%

Graph 5. VMA) (%) Vs Pb% graph

According to the above graph the value of void in mineral aggregate (VMA) (%) is well above
15 %. Therefore the Pb% value of 6.53 is ok according to the VMA limit.

Therefore the asphalt content of 6.53% should be used for the construction as it satisfies all
the conditions in Table 8.4 of Overseas Road Note 31 (Stability above 6, Flow above 2, Air
voids between 3%-5%)

The Compaction level (number of blows) that the material will be subjected to is 2×75.

Costing

Assumptions

 The construction project in the considered 1km span is carried out in a period of one
month.
 Surface dressing (Wearing course) is 75mm

39
  250mm thick cement or lime stabilized gravel road base

All other assumptions are made in the below table.

Table 16.Cost calculation

Rate (Rs per

Description of cost Unit Quantity unit) Amount (Rs)
Labour costs
Unskilled Day 1500 900 1350000
Semiskilled Day 600 1000 600000
Skilled Day 300 1200 360000
Machinery costs
Excavator 120 Hour 90 2600 234000
JCB Hour 95 2000 190000
Compressor air 750 cfm Day 90 9800 882000
Tipper 3 cube km 300 150 45000
Hand rammer Day 70 2315 162050
Bob cat Hour 120 1650 198000
Roller 4 Ton Hour 180 1600 288000
Roller 10 Ton Hour 240 3600 864000
Water bowser 14000 ltrs Day 220 8600 1892000
Motor grader Hour 170 3500 595000
Material costs
Gravel fill m3 1000 2669 2669000
Lime stabilized road base m3 500 1548 773999.9226
Sub base dense aggregate base (ABC) m3 900 1272 1144800
Wearing course Ton 1035 16744 17330040
Other costs
Traffic safety and control Month 1 5909573 5909573
Setting out km 1 244193 244193
Office for Employer / Engineer Month 1 296267 296267
Laboratory Month 1 492267 492267
Clearing and Grubbing m2 6000 97 582000
Removal of structures and obstacles
(Masonry) m3 10000 4038 40380000
3
Roadway excavation, unsuitable soil m 3000 1083 3249000
Total cost 80731189.92

40
References

 routemaster.lk. 2016. Sri Lanka bus route 178 from Narahenpita to Mattakkuliya.
[ONLINE] Available at: http://routemaster.lk/bus/178/. [Accessed 01 June 2016].
 Google Maps. 2016. Google Maps. [ONLINE] Available at:
https://www.google.lk/maps. [Accessed 01 June 2016].
 [ONLINE]Availableat:http://www.tc.umn.edu/~cliao/ROAD/javahelp/Images/crest_cur
ve.jpg [Accessed 01 June 2016].
 [ONLINE]Availableat:http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/speedmgt/ref_mats/fhwasa10001/ima
ges/Fig2.gif [Accessed 7 Jun. 2016].
 Overseas Road note 31 fourth edition.
 Transport in Sri Lanka (2015) Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia. Available from :
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_Sri_Lanka [ Accessed on 4th May, 2016]
 National highways in Sri Lanka (2015) Road Development Authority. Available from :
http://www.rda.gov.lk/source/rda_roads.htm [Accessed on 4th May, 2016]
 Professional Review Examination, February/March 2010, Institution of Engineers, Sri
Lanka Eng. S.A.S.T Salawavidana
 Highway Capacity Manual, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 2000.
 A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, Fourth Edition, American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), Washington,
D.C., 2001.
 Guide lines for capacity of roads in rural areas-Indian road congress guide lines.
 Highway-with-beautiful-nature, http://alliswall.com/file/107/1920x1200/16:9/big-
highway-with-beautiful-nature.jpg [Accessed on 4th May, 2016]
 [ONLINE]Available at:http://www.virginiadot.org/business/resources/bu-mat-
chapt1ap.pdf [Accessed 7 Jun. 2016].
 [ONLINE]Available at: http://www.aboutcivil.org/importance-types-of-bituminous-
materials.html[Accessed 7 Jun. 2016].
 [ONLINE]Available
at:http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/speedmgt/ref_mats/fhwasa10001/[Accessed 7 Jun.
2016].

41