Adolescence as identity synthesis

Erikson’s psychosocial approach

Erik Erikson (1902 – 1994)
 German psychoanalyst who studied the concept of identity formation during
adolescence
 Recognized that personality development did not end in adolescence but continued
throughout life

 Born to Danish parents but raised by his mother and a German pediatrician stepfather,
prompting him to feel a sense of “otherness” while growing up

 Known for his theory on psychosocial development (based on Freud’s psychosexual

theory) and the concept of identity crisis
 Focused more on the adaptive capabilities of the ego rather than the id and libidinal
drivers of development
Nature of Ego Identity
 Ego identity – psychosocial concept describing one’s sense of self
a) Identity becomes more apparent through its absence or loss.
 Loss of ego identity allows for better understanding of identity formation and
optimal development by society.
b) Identity has a tripartite nature.
 Erikson saw identity as an interdisciplinary concept encompassing biological
endowment, personal organization of experience, and cultural millieu, as opposed to
Freud who focused his study on personality development towards biology.
c) Identity involves conflict, depends upon the past, and determines the future.
 It is rooted in childhood and serves as a basis to meet later life tasks.
Development and Resolution of Identity
 Identity formation - occurs when an adolescent is capable of integrating childhood
identifications into personal talents and values; reconfiguration or transcendence of
earlier identifications
 Process depends on an interplay between what young people come to understand
about themselves at the end of childhood and what they appear to mean to other
significant to them (from Toys and Reasons by Erikson).
- Society also plays a role in identity formation depending on how it identifies a
young individual.
 Identity formation usually occurs during adolescence, while introjection and
identification are childhood processes.
 Introjection – incorporation of another’s image; unconscious adoption of the ideas
of others
 Identification – means by which the self is structured; process by which an
individual unconsciously patterns himself after another
  A person’s sense of “I” is greatly affected by his relationship and experiences with
parents or parental figures.
 The achievement of identity is never constant and is always open to change
depending on circumstances and situations.
 An optimal sense of identity is defined through a sense of well-being or comfortability
in one’s own body.
 Identity evolves from early stages of development and continues throughout an
individual’s life cycle.
 Epigenesis – literally means “upon” (epi) and “emergence” (genesis), implying “one
item develops on top of another in time”

 Erikson’s theory on psychosocial development follows an epigenetic sequence of

stages that emerge in a predetermined order.

 Negative Identity – ego’s attempt to adhere to something different from the past

 No synthesis of identifications are made to create a foundation for building an

identity later.

 To some, it is better to be totally different from who they were in their childhood
rather than struggle to reintegrate the past into a present and future that is
continuous with their previous existence.
Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development
 Erikson conceptualized his theory as a series of stages where one encounters a crisis
and must address it before being able to proceed to the next stage without conflict.
 Crisis – critical turning point where development will make a move for better or
worse
 Resolutions of each stage do not require an “either-or” decision or a complete
inclination towards the positive pole, but an adaptive balance between both the
positive and negative poles.
 By the end of adolescence, an individual has to have a sense of well-being and a
sense of knowing where he is going.
Stage Crisis Virtue Outcome
 Infant develops trust when adults or
caretakers give them love and
Infancy Trust vs.
Hope attention.
(0 – 18 mo.) Mistrust
 Infant becomes withdrawn and
fearful if not taken care of.
  Child feels confident to exercise
control and independence if given
Toddler Autonomy vs.
the proper social response.
(18 mo. – 3 Shame and Will
 Child becomes inferior and doubtful
yrs.) Doubt
of his capabilities if denied the
opportunity to act on his own.
 Child becomes ambitious and learns
to have initiative when his choices
Preschooler Initiative vs. and goals are supported by adults.
Purpose
(3 – 5 yrs.) Guilt  Child develops feeling of guilt if his
initiatives backfire or are
unsupported.
 Child develops a sense of
accomplishment if he is encouraged
and commended for his actions.
Grade-schooler Industry vs.
Competence  Child may feel inferior or
(5 – 13 yrs.) Inferiority
inadequate through a negative home
environment or inability to get along
with peers.
 Teen develops a sense of self and
morality through personal
Teenager Identity vs. Role exploration and social interaction.
Fidelity
(13 – 21 yrs.) Confusion  Teen becomes confused and
indecisive with who he is and who
he will be in the future.
 Adult has a strong sense of self and
learns to commit to relationships
Young adult Intimacy vs. with others.
Love
(21 – 39 yrs.) Isolation  Adult forms weak and impersonal
relationships, and feels isolated from
others.
 Adult continues to build his life by
being productive and involved in
Middle-age activities, as well as contributing to
Generativity vs.
Adult Care the next generation.
Stagnation
(40 – 65 yrs.)  Adult becomes self-indulgent and
self-concerned, with little
connection to others.
 Adult feels fulfilled with his life and
Older Adult Integrity vs. has accepted his mortality.
Wisdom
(65+ yrs.) Despair  Adult feels as if time is not enough
and that he has wasted his life.
  Although Erikson’s model offers several insights to the concept of identity formation
during adolescence, it was nevertheless criticized for having imprecise formulations of
identity and possible reflection of cultural bias.
Research Findings on the Element of Fidelity
 James Marcia expounded on Erikson’s fifth psychological stage by identifying four
different identity statuses – two commitment and two non-commitment.
 A person’s identity is determined largely by the choices and commitments he
makes regarding certain personal and social traits.
 Through character sketches, Marcia suggested different attributes and characteristics
associated to each identity status.
Commitment Non-commitment
Achievement Foreclosure Moratorium Diffusion
 Adolescent tends to  Adolescent is
 Adolescent commits  Adolescent makes
conform to currently in a crisis
to an identity after no attempt to search
childhood and has not made a
undergoing a crisis for an identity
identifications commitment
 Inflexible,
 High level of moral
 Flexible and open defensive, and  Highest measure of
reasoning but with
with higher authoritarian; firm hopelessness with
greater degrees of
measures of in opinions with low self-esteem and
skepticism and
autonomy lower scores on autonomy
anxiety
autonomy
 Low success fear for
males but high  Low success fear for  High fear of success
anxiety in women but high fear for males and low
anticipation of for men fear for females
success for females
 Function at highest  Function at pre-
level of post-  Conventional in  Higher levels of conventional or
conventional moral moral reasoning moral reasoning conventional levels
reasoning of moral reasoning
 More secure with  Does not get
 Possesses close  Struggles to detach
relationships and involved in intimate
relationship with from parents and are
come from families relationships and
parents and adhere reluctant to commit
supporting generally lack a
to family values to relationships
autonomy central core
 Need for counseling  Often appear in
 Rarely come for  Most difficulty in
may arise only counseling settings
counseling but is finding a social
during times of and need direct
vulnerable to niche; psychiatric
crisis, though intervention the
shifting assistance may be
usually only short- most; least stable
environments given
term identity status
 Change from one identity status to another may be progressive or regressive.
  Factors affecting change remain largely unresearched, but some have noted that
readiness for change may indicate progressive development, and that choice of
lifestyle affects the stability of each status.

Taken from Kroger, J. (1996). Adolescence as identity synthesis: Erikson’s psychosocial approach. In Identity in
adolescence: The balance between the self and other (Ch.2). New York, NY: Routledge.