CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION
1.0 General
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is the primary binding material used in the
preparation of concrete. As we know cement is the back bone for global
infrastructural development. It was estimated that 7% of the world‟s carbon dioxide
is attributable to Portland cement industry. Because of the significant contribution to
the environmental pollution and to the high consumption of natural resources like
limestone etc.

Amount of the carbon dioxide released during the manufacture of OPC due to
the calcinations of limestone and combustion of fossil fuel is in the order of one ton
for every ton of OPC produced. In addition, the extent of energy required to produce
OPC is only next to steel and aluminium. So there is a need to economise the use of
cement, One of the practical solutions to economise cement is to replace with
supplementary cementations materials like fly ash, silica fume, slag and metakaolin.
On the other hand, the abundant availability of fly ash world-wide creates opportunity
to utilise this by-product of burning coal, as a substitute for OPC to manufacture
concrete. The total production of fly ash is nearly is same as cement (75 million tons).
But our utilisation of fly ash is only 5% of the production. Therefore, the use of fly
ash must be popularised.

Fly ash is a partial replacement of OPC, in the presence of water and in ambient
temperature, fly ash reacts with the calcium hydroxide during the hydration process of
OPC to form the calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel. The development and
application of high volume fly ash concrete, which enabled the replacement of OPC
up to 60% by mass, is a significant development. After conducting research works the
engineers proposed that binders could be produced by a polymeric reaction of alkaline
liquids with the silicon and the aluminium in materials of geological origin or by-
product materials such as fly ash and rice husk ash and termed these binders as
geopolymers. Such as fly ash might be activated using alkaline liquids to form a
binder and hence totally replace the use of OPC in concrete.

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1.1 Geopolymers

The term „geopolymer‟ was first introduced by Davidovit‟s in 1978 to

describe a family of mineral binders with chemical composition similar to zeolites but
with anamorphous microstructure. Unlike ordinary Portland/ Pozzolanic cements,
geopolymers do not form calcium- silicate-hydrates (C-S-H) for matrix formation and
strength, but utilise the poly condensation of silica and alumina precursors to attain
structural strength. Two main constituents of geopolymers are source materials and
alkaline liquids. The source material alumino -silicate should be rich in silicon (Si)
and aluminium (Al).They could be by-product materials such as fly ash, silica fume,
slag, rice-husk ash, red mud etc.

It is the inorganic alumino -silicate polymer synthesized from predominantly

silicon (Si) and aluminium (Al) materials (or) by products such as flyash. The term
geopolymer represents the mineral polymers resulting from the geochemistry. This
process involves a chemical reaction under highly alkaline conditions on Si-Al
minerals, yielding polymeric Si-O-Al-O bonds in amorphous form. It has been
reported that geopolymer material does not suffer from alkali-aggregate reaction even
in the presence of high alkalinity, and possesses excellent fire resistant.

The silicon and the aluminium in the fly ash are activated by a combination of
sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate solutions to form the geopolymer paste that
binds the aggregates and other un-reacted materials.

The manufacture of Portland cement clinker involves the calcination

of calcium carbonate according to the reaction:

5CaCO3 + 2SiO2 → (3CaO, SiO2) (2CaO, SiO2) + 5CO2

Left: Hardening of Portland cement (P.C.) through hydration of calcium silicate into
calcium silicate hydrate and lime Ca (OH)2.

Right: Hardening (setting) of geopolymer resin (GP) through poly-condensation of

potassium oligo (sialate - siloxo) into potassium poly (sialate - siloxo) cross linked
network.

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 The production of 1 tonne of Portland clinker directly generates 0.45-0.55
tonnes of chemical CO2 and requires the combustion of carbon fuel, which to yield an
additional 0.30-0.40 tonnes of carbon dioxide.

To simplify: 1tonne of Portland cement = 0.75 - 0.95 tonne of carbon dioxide. On

the other hand, geopolymer cements do not rely on calcium carbonate and generate
much less CO2 during manufacture, i.e. a reduction in the range of 40% to 85%.

The polymerisation process involves a substantially fast chemical reaction under

alkaline condition on Si-Al minerals, that result in a three-dimensional polymeric
chain and ring structure consisting of Si-O-Al-O bonds, as follows

Mn [-(SiO2) z–AlO2] n. wH2O

Where

M = the alkaline element or cation such as potassium, sodium or calcium

The symbol “–” indicates the presence of a bond.

“n” is the degree of poly condensation or polymerisation.

“z” is 1, 2, 3, or higher, up to 32.

The schematic formation of geopolymer material can be shown in Fig 1.1.The

last term in Equation reveals that water is released during the chemical reaction that
occurs in the formation of geopolymers.

Fig. 1.1: Shows Formation of equation of Geopolymers.

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 This water, expelled from the geopolymer matrix during the curing and further
drying periods, leaves behind discontinuous Nano-pores in the matrix, which provide
benefits to the performance of geopolymers. The water in a geopolymer mixture plays
no role in the chemical reaction that takes place.it merely provides the workability to
the mixture during handling. This is in contrast to the chemical reaction of water in a
Portland cement concrete mixture during the hydration process.

There are two main constituents of geopolymers, namely the source materials
and the alkaline liquids. The source materials for geopolymers based on alumina-
silicate should be rich in silica (Si) and aluminium (Al). The choice of the source
materials for making geopolymers depends on factors such as availability, cost and
type of application and specific demand of the end users.

A Geopolymer can take any one of following three basic forms

Fig. 1.2: Shows the Formation of Chemical Reactions For Geopolymes.

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1.2 Factors Affecting the Properties of Geopolymers

Several factors have been identified as important parameters affecting the

properties of geopolymers. It is clearly known that the curing temperature was action
accelerator in fly ash-based geopolymers and significantly affected the mechanical
strength, together with the curing time and the type of alkaline liquid. Higher curing
temperature and longer curing time were proved to result in higher compressive
strength. Alkaline liquid that contained soluble silicates was proved to increase the
rate of reaction compared to alkaline solutions that contained only hydroxide.

The data collected from these studies indicated that the salient parameters
affecting the compressive strength of geopolymer concrete are as listed below

1. Silicon dioxide (Sio2) to aluminium oxide ratio (Al2O3).

2. Mixing time.
3. Rest period.
4. Ratio of Alkaline Liquid to Fly ash.
5. Ratio of Sodium Silicate Solution-to Sodium Hydroxide Solution.
6. Curing Temperature.
7. Curing Time.
8. Handling.

Geopolymer concretes (GPC) are a type of Inorganic polymer composites,

to form a substantial element of an environmentally sustainable construction
and building products industry by replacing/supplementing the conventional
concretes. Which is a binder produced from the reaction of a source material or
feedstock rich in silicon (Si) and aluminium (Al) with a concentrated alkaline
solution. The source materials may be industry waste products such as fly ash, slag,
red mud, rice-husk ash and silica fume may be used as feed stock for the synthesis of
geopolymers. The alkaline liquids are concentrated aqueous alkali hydroxide or
silicate solution, with soluble alkali metals, usually Sodium (Na) or Potassium (K)
based. High alkaline liquids are used to induce the silicon and aluminium atoms in the
source materials to dissolve and form the geopolymeric binder.

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1.3 Geopolymer cement concrete categories

They comprise

1. Slag-based geopolymer cement concrete.

2. Rock-based geopolymer cement concrete.
3. Fly ash-based geopolymer cement concrete.
Type 1: Alkali-activated fly ash geopolymer concrete.
Type 2: Slag/fly ash-based geopolymer cement concrete.
4. Ferro-silicate-based geopolymer cement concrete.

1.4 Fly ash-based alkali activated geopolymer concrete

 Geopolymer is used as the binder, instead of cement paste to produce concrete.

 The geopolymer paste binds the loose coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and
other un-reacted materials together to form the geopolymer concrete.
 The manufacture of geopolymer concrete is carried out using the usual
concrete technology methods.
 As in the Portland cement concrete, the aggregates occupy the largest volume,
i.e. about 75-80 % by mass, in geopolymer concrete.
 The Silicon(Si) and the aluminium (Al) in the low-calcium fly ash are
activated by a combination of sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate solutions
to form the geopolymer paste that binds the aggregates and other un-reacted
materials.
 The geopolymer concrete has two limitations such as the delay in setting time
and the necessity of heat curing to gain strength.

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1.5 Use of Fly ash in GPC

 Fly ash plays the role of an artificial pozzolna, where its silicon dioxide
content reacts with the calcium hydroxide from the cement hydration process
to form the calcium silicate hydrate (C- S-H) gel.
 The spherical shape of fly ash often helps to improve the workability of the
fresh concrete, while its small particle size also plays as filler of voids in the
concrete, hence to produce dense and durable concrete.
 An important achievement in the use of fly ash in concrete is the development
of high volume fly ash (HVFA) concrete that successfully replaces the use of
OPC in concrete up to 60% and yet possesses excellent mechanical properties
with enhanced durability performance.

1.6 Slabs

1.6.1 General
A slab is a flat two dimensional planar structural element having thickness
small compared to its other two dimensions. It provides a working flat surface or a
covering shelter in buildings. It primarily transfers the load by bending in one or two
directions. Reinforced concrete slabs are used in floors, roofs and walls of buildings
and as the decks of bridges.
The floor system of a structure can take many forms such as in-situ solid slab,
ribbed slab or pre-cast units. Slabs may be supported on monolithic concrete beam,
steel beams, walls or directly over the columns.
Concrete slab behave primarily as flexural members and the design is similar
to that of beams. Concrete slabs are widely used as floors not only in industrial and
residential buildings but also as decks in bridges. The big advantage is flexibility in
methods of manufacturing. They can be made in situ as well as prefabricated and
brought to construction site in full scale.
Two-way slabs system is more aesthetic than the other one ie simply
supported and is easier to construct due to less framework. When long span by short
span ratio is less than 2 it is said to be two way slabs. The bending moment induced
by the uniformly distributed load is resisted by the tension reinforcement provided in
the bottom of the slab.

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1.6.2 Classification of Slabs
Slabs are classified based on the following aspects,
1. Based of shape: Square, rectangular, circular and polygonal in shape.
2. Based on type of support: Slab supported on walls, Slab supported on
beams, slab supported on columns (Flat slabs).
3. Based on support or boundary condition: Simply supported,
Cantilever slab, Overhanging slab, Fixed or Continues slab.
4. Based on use: Roof slab, Floor slab, Foundation slab, Water tank
slab.
5. Basis of cross section or sectional configuration: Ribbed slab /Grid
slab, Solid slab, Filler slab, folded plate.

1.6.3 Types of slabs

Basis of spanning directions, slabs are divided into the following
One way slab – Spanning in one direction ( ly/lx> 2).
Two way slab - Spanning in two direction ( ly/lx ≤ 2).

1.7 Definition of Yield Line Theory

In recent years, Yield line method have been advance for moment analysis of
reinforced concrete structures that are based on inelastic consideration and which
direct attention to condition that are obtained in the structure just prior to failure. In
the case of slabs, this failure theory of structural analysis is known as yield line
theory. By accounting for the strength reserve in indeterminate structures associated
with inelastic redistribution of forces and moments, it permits a more realistic
evaluation of structural safety. Equally important, it is a highly versatile tool,
permitting the analysis for moments in slabs that cannot be treated by conventional
means ordinary method are generally restricted in their application to fairly regular
column arrangements, square or rectangular slab panels, uniformly distributed loads,
etc. However, answers are needed for round or triangular slabs, slabs with major
opening, slabs supported on two or three edges only, or carrying concentrated loads.

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 The yield line theory is based on assumed collapse mechanisms and plastic
properties of under-reinforced slabs. The assumed collapse mechanism is defined by a
pattern of yield lines, along which the reinforcement has yielded and the location of
which depends on the loading and boundary condition. For the yield line theory to be
valid, shear failure, bond failure and primary compression failure in flexure must all
be prevented.

Yield line theory is an ultimate load analysis. It established either the moment
in an element (e.g. a loaded slab) at the point of failure or the both with and without
beams. Consider the case of a square slabs simply supported on four sides as
illustrated by fig. (1.3). this slab is subjected to a uniformly distributed load, which
gradually increases until collapse occurs.

Square slab simply supported

Hair cracks

Large cracks emanating

from point of maximum
deflection

Fig: 1.2: Shows the yielding of Bottom reinforcement in a simply supported two-
way slab.

Application of more loads will cause the reinforcement in even more section
to yield and further propagation of the yield lines, until eventually all the yield lines
reach the boundary of the slab. This is shown in fig. (1.4) below.

Axis of rotation a long supports to rigid

regions.

Yield lines forming yield line pattern.

Fig: 1.3: Shows the formations of a mechanism in a simply supported two-way

slab.

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 The resistance moment along the yield lines is almost at their ultimate value,
and the yield line cannot propagate further, the slab is carrying the maximum load
possible.

Any slight increase in load will now cause state of unstable equilibrium, and
the slab will continue to deflect under this load until the curvature at some section
along the yield lines is so great that the concrete will crush. This section will then lose
its capacity to carry even more and cause failure to occur along the whole length of
the yield lines. Thus the condition when the yield lines have just reached the boundary
may be regarded as the collapse criterion of the slab. The system of yield lines or
fracture lines such as that in fig. (1.3) is called a yield line pattern.

As illustrated by fig. (1.3), the slab is divided into rigid plane regions. Yield
lines form the boundaries between the rigid regions, in effect to rotate about the yield
lines. The regions also pivot about their axis of rotation, which usually lie along lines
of support, causing supported load to move. At this junction that the dissipated by the
hinges in the yield lines rotating is equated to work expended by loads on the regions
moving. This is the Yield Line Theory.

Under this theory, elastic deformations are ignored all the deformations are
assumed to be concentrated in the yield lines and, for convenience, the maximum
deformation is given the value of unity.

1.8 Fundamentals of Yield Line Theory

The fundamental concept of the yield line theory for the ultimate load design
of slabs has been explained by K.W. Johansen. In this theory the strength of slab is
assumed to be governed by flexure alone, other effects such as shear and deflection
are to be separately considered. The steel reinforcement is assumed to be fully yielded
along the yield lines at collapse and the bending and twisting moment are assumed to
be uniformly distributed along the yield lines.

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1.9 Fundamental assumptions
In applying the yield lines theory the ultimate load analysis of reinforced concrete
slabs, the following fundamental assumptions are made:

Stress

Strain

Fig 1.5: Shows the Stress strain Relationship for Reinforced concrete slab.

1. The steel reinforcement is fully yielding along the yield lines at failure. In the
usual case, when the slab reinforcement is well below that in the balanced
condition, the moment-curvature relationship is as shown in fig. (1.5).
2. The slab deforms plastically of failure and is separated into segment by the
yield lines.
3. The bending and twisting moments are uniformly distributed along the yield
line and they are the maximum values provided by the moment‟s strengths in
two orthogonal directions (for two-way slabs).
4. The elastic deformations are negligible compared with the plastic
deformations, thus the slab parts rotate as plane segments in the collapse
condition and all the deformation take place in the yield line.

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1.10 The Location and Orientation of Yield Lines
The location and orientation of the yield line were evident in the case of the
square slab simply supported. The yield lines were easily established. For other cases
it is helpful to have set of guidelines for drawing yields lines and locating axis of
rotation. When a slab is on the verge of collapse owing to the existence of sufficient
number of real or plastic hinges to form a mechanism, axis of rotation will be located
along the line of support or over point supports such as columns.

The slab segments can be considered to rotate as rigid bodies in space about
this axis of rotation. The yield line between any two adjacent slab segments is straight
line, being the intersection of two essentially plane surfaces. Since the yield (as a line
of intersection of two planes) contains all points common to these two planes, it must
contain the point of intersection of the two axis of rotation, which is also common to
the two planes. That is, the yield line (or yield extended) must pass through the point
of intersection of the axis of rotation of two adjacent slab segments.

Guidelines for established axis of rotation and yield lines are summarized as
follows to predict yield line pattern

a) Yield lines end at a slab boundary.

b) Yield lines are straight.
c) Axis of rotation generally lie along lines of support (the support in may be a
real hinge, or it may establish the location of a yield line which acts as a
plastic hinge).
d) Axis of rotation passes over any columns.

Fig 1.6: Shows the Two-way slab with simply supported edges.

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 In fig. (1.6) shows a slab simply supported along its four sides, rotation of slab
segment A and B about „ab‟ and „cd‟ respectively. The yield line „ef‟ between these
two segments is a straight line passing through „f‟, the point of intersection of the axis
of rotation.

Illustrations are given in Fig. (1.7) of the application of these guidelines to the
establishment of yield line locations and failure mechanisms for a number of slabs
with various support conditions.

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 Fig 1.7: Shows the Yield Line Patterns for Number of Slabs with Various
Support Conditions.

Since the first step in the analysis is to postulate a failure mechanism or yield
line pattern, the yield line patterns of various slabs are shown in figure (1.7 {a-k}) to
show how they conform to the guidelines stated above.

Fig. (1.7 a) shows a possible yield line pattern for a square slab subjected to
uniformly distributed load. The axis of rotation of element A is „ab‟, the line of
support, while that of B is „bc‟. The yield line between these elements passes through
the point of intersection of these axis, which is corner „b‟ similarly yield lines pass
through the other corners. Since yielding starts in the centre of the slab, then the yield
line are straight lines between the centre and the corners. Fig. (1.7 b) shows a yield
line pattern for a rectangular slab under uniform load.

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 The yield line passes through the corners for the reasons given previously, and
yield line „ef‟ is parallel to the longer sides it intersects the parallel axis of rotation
adjacent element A and C at infinity. Initially it is only necessary to draw the general
yield line pattern, the exact position of „c‟ and „f ‟ can be found in the process of the
analysis.

For the continuous rectangular slab shown in fig. (1.7 e) negative yield lines
must also form along the lines of support before they can become axis of rotation. In
fig. (1.7 d), which represents a trapezoidal slab, the yield line of produced passes
through the point of intersection of the axis of rotation along the longer sides. The
other pattern shown in fig. (1.7 e-k) may similar reasoning.

Once a failure pattern has been postulated two methods of solution are
available in order to find the relation between the ultimate resistance moments in the
slab and the ultimate load. First of these methods is the virtual work and the second is
called the equilibrium method. Both of these methods are presented in chapter 4.

1.11 Use of Yield line Theory in Design Codes of Practice

Any design process is governed by the recommendation of a specific code of
practice. In the UK, BS 8110. „Alternatively, Johansen‟s yield line method may be
for solid slabs. The provision is that to provide against serviceability requirement, the
ratio of support and span moments should be similar to those obtained by elastic
theory.

1.12 Upper and lower bound Theorems

Plastic analysis methods such as yield line theory derived from the general
theory of structural plasticity, which states that the ultimate collapse load of a
structure lies between two limits, an upper bound and lower bound of the true collapse
load. These limits can be found by well-established methods. A complete solution by
the theory of plasticity would attempt to make the lower and upper bounds converge
to a unique solution. The lower bound theorem and upper bound theorem when
applied to the slabs can be stated as follows

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1.12.1 Lower bound theorem
If, for a give external load, it is possible to find distribution of moments that
satisfies equilibrium requirements, with the moment not exceeding the yield moment
at any location, and if the boundary conditions are satisfied, then the given load is a
lower bound of the true carrying capacity. Lower bound Theorem (sometimes called
the static theorem). The theorem is often referred as the safe theorem.

1.12.2 Upper bound theorem

If, for a small increment of displacement, the internal work done by slab ,
assuming that the moment at every plastic hinge is equal to the yield moment and the
boundary conditions are satisfied, is equal to the external work done by the given load
for the increment of displacement, then that load is an upper bound of the carrying
capacity. Upper bound theorem (sometimes called the kinematic theorem). The upper
bound theorem is often referred as unsafe theorem, because interpreted in a design
sense it states that the value of the plastic moment obtained on the basis of an
arbitrarily assumed collapse mechanism is smaller than, or at best equal to, that
actually required.

If the lower bound conditions are satisfied, the slab can certainly carry the
given load, although a higher load may be carried if internal redistributions of
moment occur. If the upper bound conditions are satisfied, a load greater than the
given load will certainly cause failure, load may be carried if internal redistribution of
moments occur, although a lower load may produce collapse if selected failure
mechanism is incorrect in any sense.

Yield line theory gives upper bound solution results that are either correct or
theoretically unsafe. However, once the possible failure pattern that forms have been
recognized, it is difficult to get the yield line analysis critically wrong.

1.13 Ultimate load theories for slabs fall into the categories

 Upper bound (unsafe theorem).


 Lower bound (safe theorem).


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Plastic analysis is either base on

1. Upper bound (kinematic) methods.

2. Lower bound (static) methods.

Upper bound (kinematic) methods include

 Plastic or yield line method for beams, frames.


 Yield Line Theory for slab.

Lower bound (static) methods include

1. Strip method for slabs


2. The strut and tie approach for deep beams, corbel, anchorages, walls and
plates loaded in their plane.

In the majority of cases encountered, the result of yield line analysis from first
principles will be well within 10% of the mathematically correct solution.

There are other factors that make yield line design safer than it may at the first
appear, e.g., compressive membrane action in failing slabs (this alone can quadruple
ultimate capacities), strain hardening of reinforcement, and the practice of rounding
up steel areas when allotting bars to designed areas of steel required.

Practical designers can use yield theory with confidence, in knowledge that are
in control of a very powerful and reliable design tool.

1.14 Serviceability and Deflection

Yield line theory concerns itself with the ultimate limit state. The designer
must ensure that relevant serviceability requirement particularly the limits of
deflection are satisfied.

Deflection of slabs should be considered on the basis of elastic design. This

may call for separate analysis but, more usually, deflection may be checked by using
span/effective depth ratios with ultimate moments as basis. Such checks will be
adequate in the vast majority of cases.

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1.15 Organisation of the Report
 Chapter – 1
This chapter gives a brief view about Geopolymers, Geopolymer Concrete,
Geopolymer Concrete Slabs and its alkaline reactions and introduction about
concept of yield line theory.
 Chapter – 2
It includes the works studied about the geo polymer concrete, GPC slabs of
different edge conditions.
 Chapter – 3
It gives the detailing‟s of materials used in the study along with the properties
as per the standards.
 Chapter – 4
This chapter gives an introduction to yield line theory and theoretical analysis
of two way slab by using ultimate load method.
 Chapter – 5
This chapter the explains the Experimental program and it is divided into two
phases. Phase I shows the study of mechanical properties of GPC concrete
with GPC mix pre of 8M NaOH solution. Phase II includes the casting and
testing of GPC slabs with different edge conditions.
 Chapter – 6
It deals with the observations and analysis of results obtained from the
experimental program.
 Chapter – 7
This chapter discuss the conclusions of the work.
 Chapter – 8
This chapter gives a brief view of the photographs taken while doing the work.

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1.16 Objectives

 To determine the mechanical properties of Geopolymer concrete.

 To determine the flexural behaviour of Geopolymer concrete two way slab

subjected to UDL with different edge conditions.

 To study the validity of yield line theory in Geopolymer concrete slab by

using theoretical and experimental approaches.

 To study the load-deflection behaviour of Geopolymer concrete slab.

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