INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS, TRANSDUCERS & ACTUATORS

INTRODUCTION

Transducers play a major role in mechatronics engineering & technology.

These are the basic elements that convert or transform one form of energy to
another form. Let us change the word ‘energy’ into the word ‘signal’ which is more
convenient to use. Thus transducers convert one form of signal to another form.
Transducers are mainly used to quantify the physical, electrical, fluidic and
mechanical variables such as temperature, pressure, magnetic field, voltage, flow
and vibration. Such variables or parameters are also called as measurands.

Q. What is the difference between transducer and sensor?

Transducers are the physical element which is an active part of a sensor. In another
word, a sensor is a sophisticated transducer which contains signal conditioning
circuits. This signal conditioning circuit is used for amplifying and refining the weak
signal that is available at the output of the transducer. Some of the commonly used
signal conditioning circuits are amplifiers, filters and Analog to Digital Converters
(ADC). The input signal is referred to as measurands. The output of the transducer
is referred to as equivalence.

Q. List the sensors or transducers.

1. Limit switches
2. Proximity switches
3. Electric sensors
4. Light sensors- optical encoders

Q. Write the working and applications of limit switches.

Limit switches are normally not operator accessible. Generally they are activated by
moving parts on the machine. They are mechanically or magnetically operated. They
are sometimes called cam switches because many are operated by a camming action
when a moving part pushes the switch.

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 INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS, TRANSDUCERS & ACTUATORS

Functions of limit switches:

Detecting presence/ absence

Counting
Detecting range of movement
Detecting positioning and travel limit
Breaking a live circuit when unsafe conditions arise.

Applications:

Material handling
Food packaging
Manufacturing- Automotive/heavy equipments, machining, marine/aviation
Metal forming

Q. What do you mean by proximity switches? List and give their

applications.

A proximity sensor consist of an element that changes either its state or an analog
signal when it is close to, but often not actually touching, an object. Magnetic,
electrical capacitance, inductance and eddy current methods are particularly suited
to the design of a proximity sensor.

Type:

Inductive type
Capacitive and
Optical sensors
Reed switches

Functions:

Detecting presence/ absence

Counting

Applications:

Material handling
Food packaging
In AGVs (Automated Guided vehicles)

Q. Write the working of inductive sensor.

Inductive sensors use currents induced by magnetic fields to detect nearby metal
objects. The inductive sensor uses a coil (an inductor) to generate a high frequency
magnetic field. If there is a metal object near the changing magnetic field, current
will flow in the object. This resulting current flow sets up a new magnetic field that

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 INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS, TRANSDUCERS & ACTUATORS

opposes the original magnetic field. The net effect is that it changes the inductance
of the coil in the inductive sensor. By measuring the inductance the sensor can
determine when a metal have been brought nearby.

Q. Write the working of capacitive sensor.

Inside the sensor is a circuit that uses the supplied DC power to generate AC, to
measure the current in the internal AC circuit, and to switch the output circuit when
the amount of AC current changes. Remember that capacitors can hold a charge
because, when one plate is charged positively, negative charges are attracted into
the other plate, thus allowing even more positive charges to be introduced into the
first plate. Unless both plates are present and close to each other, it is very difficult
to cause either plate to take on very much charge. Only one of the required two
capacitor plates is actually built into the capacitive sensor! The AC can move current
into and out of this plate only if there is another plate nearby that can hold the
opposite charge. The target being sensed acts as the other plate. If this object is
near enough to the face of the capacitive sensor to be affected by the charge in the

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 INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS, TRANSDUCERS & ACTUATORS

sensor's internal capacitor plate, it will respond by becoming oppositely charged near
the sensor, and the sensor will then be able to move significant current into and out
of its internal plate.

Q. Write the working of Optical sensor.

These sensors are more commonly known as light beam sensors of the thru-beam
type or of the retro reflective type. Both sensor types are shown below.

The light beam is generated on the left, focused through a lens. At the detector side
the beam is focused on the detector with a second lens. If the beam is broken the
detector will indicate an object is present. The oscillating light wave is used so that
the sensor can filter out normal light in the room. The light from the emitter is
turned on or off at a set frequency. When the detector receives the light it checks to
make sure that it is at the same frequency. If light is being received at the right
frequency then the beam is not broken.

Retro-reflective type light sensors have the transmitter and receiver in the same
package. They detect targets that reflect light back to the sensor. Retro-reflective
sensors that are focused to recognize targets within only a limited distance range
are also available.

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 INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS, TRANSDUCERS & ACTUATORS

Q. Write the working of Reed switch sensor.

It consists of two magnetic switch contacts sealed in a glass tube. When a magnet is
brought close to the switch, the magnetic reeds are attracted to each other and
close the switch contacts. It is widely used for checking the closure of doors.

Q. Write the construction & applications of thumb wheel switch sensor.

Thumb wheel adjustment with 10 positions is available. This switch consists

of a glass epoxy stator with tin plates copper tracks for ways.
The switches are sealed to protect it from dust. The pole is spring loaded
brass contact. The operating lever and assembly is plastic coated.

Applications: computers and measuring instruments

Q. Write the working and applications of optical encoders.

Optical encoders are used to detect the position, velocity, acceleration and direction
of movement of rotors, shafts, pistons of rotary machines and translational systems.
The optical encoder provides encoded pulsed signals in response to the movement.
Continuous optical signals are coded by the use of a specially designed rotating disk
containing code patterns called ‘track’. The pattern or track on the disk consists of
alternate appearance of opaque and transparent segment and the pattern is circular.
Basically, two types of encoders, such as incremental encoder and absolute encoder
exist.

Incremental encoder: this device consists of a circular disk that contains

alternative evenly spaced opaque and transparent segments over a circle. A light
source is located on one side of the disk and a photo detecting device (photo
detector) is placed on the other side of the disk. Light emitting diode (LED) is used
as the light source that provides continuous light signal. A photo diode or photo
transistor is commonly used as the light detector. Light signals can be received if the
transparent segment of the pattern is in between the light source and photo
detector. In the real application the disc is rigidly fixed with the rotor or shaft of the
rotating element. The evenly spaced transparent radial lines on its surface, rotates
past the light source. The output is taken from the photo detector. The number of

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 INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS, TRANSDUCERS & ACTUATORS

pulses determines the position of the disk and the number of pulses per second
measures the velocity of the disk.

Absolute encoder: It also provides angular position and velocity value, which is
derived from the pattern of the coded disc. They are more capable than incremental
encoders. They provide a unique output for every position. The coded disk consists
of a number of concentric patterns of opaque and transparent segments. The
concentric patterns are called tracks. The number of tracks determines the
resolution of the encoder. Each track has its own photo detector. The length of the
transparent segments of the track towards the center of the disk increases in a
specific order to satisfy the binary coding technique.

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 INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS, TRANSDUCERS & ACTUATORS

Q. What is actuator? List them.

Actuation is the process of conversion of energy to mechanical form. Actuator is a

device that accomplishes this conversion. The microcontroller provides command
signal to the actuator for actuation. They are responsible for transmission of power
and motion from one place to another by the use of mechanical components.

Solenoids
Relays
DC and AC motors.

Q. Write the working and applications of solenoid.

Solenoids are the most common actuator components. There is a moving ferrous
core (piston) that will move inside wire coil. Normally the piston is held outside the
coil by a spring. When a voltage is applied to the coil and current flows, the coil
builds up a magnetic field that attracts the piston and pulls it into the center of the
coil. The piston can be used to supply a linear force.

Applications: pneumatic valves and car door openers.

Q. Write short note on relays.

Relays are electrically operated actuators or switches in which changing a current in

one electrical circuit switches a current on or off in another circuit. Relays are like
remote control switches and are
used in many applications
because of their relative
simplicity, long life, and proven
high reliability. Relays are used
in a wide variety of applications
throughout industry, such as in
telephone exchanges, digital
computers and automation
systems. Highly sophisticated relays are utilized to protect electric power systems
against trouble and power blackouts as well as to regulate and control the

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 INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS, TRANSDUCERS & ACTUATORS

generation and distribution of power. In the home, relays are used in refrigerators,
washing machines and dishwashers, and heating and air-conditioning controls.

Q. what are ON-OFF and latching applications in relays?

ON-OFF Applications:

In figure (a) the relay is off. The metal arm is at its rest position and so there is
contact between the Normally Closed (N.C.) switch contact and the 'common' switch
contact.

If a current is passed through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts the metal
arm and there is now contact between the Normally Open (N.O.) switch contact and
the common switch contact, as shown in figure (b).

Latching relay circuit:

If a relay is connected as shown in figure, it will become 'latched' on when the coil is
energized by pressing the Trigger button. The only way to turn the relay off will
then be to cut the power supply by pressing the Reset button (which must be a
push-to-break type).

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 INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS, TRANSDUCERS & ACTUATORS

Q. Write short on solid state relays.

These active semiconductor devices use light instead of magnetism to actuate a

switch. The light comes from an LED, or light emitting diode. When control power is
applied to the device’s output, the light General Purpose Relay is turned on and
shines across an open space. On the load side of this space, a part of the device
senses the presence of the light, and triggers a solid state switch that either opens
or closes the circuit under control. Often, solid state relays are used where the
circuit under control must be protected from the introduction of electrical noises.
Advantages of Solid State Relays include long life, no moving parts, no contact
bounce, and fast response. The drawback to using a solid state relay is that it can
only accomplish single pole switching.

Q. write short note on motors.

Motors or electromechanical actuators convert electrical energy into mechanical

energy. The fundamental principle of operation of such actuators comes from the
fact that when an electric current is passed through a group of wire loops placed in a
magnetic field, the loop rotates, and the rotating motion is transmitted to a shaft,
providing useful mechanical work. They are used in robotics, machine tools,
petrochemicals, paper mills. Besides industrial control applications, the
electromagnetic actuators are used in many consumer products such as, fans,
vacuum cleaner, mixer, hair dryer and CD player. There are three types of motors
such as AC, DC and stepper motors.

Q. How DC motor works? And explain their types.

DC motor is the most versatile actuator and sometimes called rotating machine. The
DC motor has two parts, stator and rotor. The stator is the outer part of the motor
which contains evenly spaced magnetic poles. The stator is fixed and rotor rotates
inside the stator. Rotor consists of an electromagnet with poles facing toward the
stator poles.

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 INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS, TRANSDUCERS & ACTUATORS

The electromagnet is formed by current carrying conductors (copper wires), which

are wound around the iron core (rotor).

The wound wire is called armature coil or armature winding. When a DC current is
applied to the armature windings, the rotor is immediately turned in to a group of
electromagnets. The current that passes through the rotor winding is called
armature current. When this current carrying rotor is placed in magnetic field which
is established by use of magnet of stator, a force is exerted that makes it possible to
rotate a rotor. The magnetic field, armature current and force are mutually
perpendicular to each other. The direction of current, the direction of magnetic field
and the stator-rotor assembly are such, based on the law that the force exerted on
the coil makes it possible the rotor to rotate. The force exerted is given by,

F= I L B

Where, I is armature current, B is magnetic field and L is the length of the

conductor coil. DC motors are categorized as brushed, brushless and coreless type.

Q. Write the construction and working of brushed DC motor.

Brush and commutator are two important parts of the DC motors. When current is
passed through the armature winding, it develops a group of electromagnets whose
poles are attracted by the opposite poles of stator poles. Among the group, consider
a single electromagnet. Assume that only one field magnet (two poles) is present.
The poles of this electromagnet will be attracted by the opposite poles of the stator
poles (Fig a) and by virtue of which the rotor electromagnet would make a motion
and then stop in the position as shown in fig b.

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 INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS, TRANSDUCERS & ACTUATORS

That is, once the magnetic lines of forces of the two electromagnets (stator and
rotor) become parallel and opposite shown in fig b, no further motion of the rotor
would occur. However, key to a DC motor is that the moment the rotor
electromagnet aligns, its field flips, i.e., the direction of flow of current through the
coil is deliberately altered (Fig c). The alteration of current causes the poles of the
rotor electromagnet to alter. Notice that prior to the flipping the pole of the rotor
electromagnet and the pole of stator electromagnet were not similar. In this
particular example they were North Pole and South Pole respectively, and just after
flipping the poles of the two electromagnets become similar. The alteration allows
the rotor electromagnet to continue its motion since the same pole will now repel
each other. If the field of the rotor electromagnet flipped at just the right moment at
the end of each alignment, the rotor would rotate freely.

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 INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS, TRANSDUCERS & ACTUATORS

Q. Write working of brushless and coreless DC motors.

Brushless motors

A brushless motor operates much in the same way as a brushed motor. In a brushed
motor, the current is supplied to the rotating coil by a mechanical commutator (split-
ring) and brush arrangement. In a brushless motor, on the other hand the
commutation is achieved electronically. The electronic commutator can reverse the
external connections at a high rate. The commutator and brushes are in contact and
during rotation both the elements rub against each other. The brushless motor is a
better construction because the commutation is achieved using electronic circuit that
overcomes the problem of wearing arising out of physical contact. A brushless motor
is often used when high reliability, long life and high speeds are required.

Coreless motors

Iron core construction has several major disadvantages. The core has relatively high
inertia that limits acceleration. They also own electrical inductances and core losses,
which stay even with laminated structure. To overcome these drawbacks many
motors are designed without a core. These types of motors are called coreless
motors. Coreless motors depend upon the winding itself to provide structural
integrity for the armature.

Q. Write the working of AC motors.

AC motors

AC motors consume alternating electrical power to produce mechanical actuation in

terms of angular movement. The principle of operation of all AC motors relies on the
interaction of a revolving magnetic field created in the stator by AC current, with an
opposing magnetic field at the rotor. The opposing magnetic field is originated by
virtue of induction or by supplying an armature current by a separate the DC current
source. The principle of operation of AC motor in relation to the origin of opposing
field differs. Accordingly, AC motors are of two types

induction motor
synchronous motor

AC motors are either single phase or multiphase, depending upon the input signal
requirement and internal construction.

Induction motors

The interaction of magnetic fields of the rotor and the stator makes the induction
motor to rotate. The stator windings are connected to the power supply, which could

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be a one or multiphase type. For example, a single phase induction motor is

connected to the single phase power line and three-phase induction motors to the
three-phase power line, respectively.

When an alternating voltage across the stator windings is applied, a radial rotating
magnetic field is produced. The rotor has conductive loop along its periphery. The
rotating magnetic fields produced by the stator induce a current into the conductive
loops of the rotor. Once that occurs, the magnetic field causes forces to act on the
current carrying conductors, which results in a torque on the rotor.

Synchronous motors

The synchronous motors are a 3-phase system in which the magnets are mounted
on the rotor and are excited by the DC current. The stator winding is divided into
three parts, which are fed with three-phase AC current respectively. Because of the
nature of the connection, the magnetic field rotates at a constant speed that is
determined by the frequency of the current in the AC signal. The variation of the
three waves of current input to the stator winding causes a varying magnetic
interaction with the poles of the magnets of the rotor. This, in turn, causes the rotor
to rotate. Typical characteristics of synchronous motors can be attributable to as
follows. They:

run at constant speed fixed by frequency of the input powers signal

require DC current for excitation
have low starting torque

Q. Write the working of stepper motor.

Many applications require precise positioning control. Traditionally this has been
achieved by the use of small DC motors. However, small DC motors have very
gradual acceleration and deceleration providing low stabilisation property. Gearing
mechanism can help to reduce this problem to some extent. But overshoot still
persists deviating the reachability, which means that desired position control cannot
be achieved. The only way to effectively use a DC motor for precise positioning is to

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 INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS, TRANSDUCERS & ACTUATORS

apply servo mechanism, a control realisation principle based on feedback rule

furthermore; DC motors are not efficient for producing high torque at relatively low
speeds.

The stepper motor also consists of a rotor and stator. As the name suggests, the
stepper motor steps a bit at a time. The motor can be controlled using a
microcontroller as it can responds to digital pulse trains. The rotor of the motor
rotates a specified number of degrees by each pulse the motor receives from its
controller. The motion caused by one pulse is called one step.

There are two forms of stepper motor

Variable reluctance motor

Figure shows the basic form of the variable reluctance stepper motor. With this
form the rotor is made of soft steel (having less reluctance than air) and is
cylindrical with four poles, i.e. fewer poles than on the stator. When an opposite
pair of windings has current switched to them, a magnetic field is produced with
lines of force which pass from the stator poles through the nearest set of poles on
the rotor. Since lines of force can be considered to be rather like elastic thread and
always trying to shorten themselves, the rotor will move until the rotor and state
poles line up. This is termed the position of minimum reluctance. This form of
stepper motor generally gives step angles of 7.5° or 15°.

Permanent magnet stepper

Figure shows the basic form of the permanent magnet motor. The motor shown has
a stator with four poles. Each pole is wound with a field winding, the coils on
opposite pairs of poles being in series. Current is supplied from a DC source to the
windings through switches.

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 INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS, TRANSDUCERS & ACTUATORS

The rotor is a permanent magnet and thus when a pair of stator poles has a current
switched to it, the rotor will move to line up with it. Thus for the currents giving the
situation shown in the figure the rotor moves to the 45° position. If the current is
then switched so that the polarities are reversed, the rotor will move further 40° in
order to line up again. Thus by switching the currents through the coils the rotor
rotates in 45° steps. With this type of motor, step angles are commonly 1.8°, 7.5°,
15°, 30°, 34° or 90°.

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