SUMMARY: HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS

Computers are generally defined as automated machines where data are input,
processed and displayed (output product) through adequate devices. They
operate according to how they are programmed, whether wrongly or truly.
Despite its high intelligence, the human brain is lacking rapidity and capacity to
dealing with huge tasks of data processing, thus, a machine that can process big
amount of data in a very fast way must be developed to solve the demands in
terms of data record and communication as well as information. That was the
context in which computers emerged. In other words, they have been invented
due to the need to find a device that can supersede the human brain in data
processing. Therefore, they become instruments conceived to process huge
amount of data, very quickly and accurately. This is what makes them very
helpful to human life, especially in the management of all fields of activities.
Hence, in an attempt to summarize the development of computers over time, we
propose in this analysis to present first the basic components of a computer and
its organization/functioning. Thereafter, it seems necessary to provide an outline
of the early stage of computers before their breakthrough actually started.
Finally, we offer a description of the different generations of computers from
early stages up to nowadays.

There are different types of computers. At the very beginning, the Mainframe
Computer was the model. However, as it was costly and required more staff, it
was later superseded by the Minicomputer which offered various software
systems for multiple tasks. The Microcomputers appeared afterwards, with the
particularity of using microprocessors. The highly used computer nowadays is
the Super Computer which is very powerful and adapted for many tasks.
Basically, a computer consists of hardware and software. Hardware components
describe the physical parts of the computer. Input devices like keyboards, mice,
scanners... read in data. Output devices like printers, monitors... present out data
to the user. The Central Processing Unit is the heart of the computer system and
includes the control unit, the arithmetic and logic unit, and a bus system. There
is also the Main Memory (Primary Storage, RAM). The RAM (Read Access
Memory) works closely to the CPU and acts as a buffer between CPU and the
rest of the computer. RAM operates only when the computer is on and is
characterized by its memory’s volatility. However ROM (Read Only Memory)
which is non volatile memory keeps data and instructions when power is off.
There are also other categories of non-volatile memory viz. PROM
(Programmable Read Only Memory), EPROM (Erasable PROM), EEPROM
(Electrically Erasable PROM). These previous memories (volatile and non-
volatile) are just stocking data and instructions for a temporary period. Hence, in
order to stock data and/or information permanently, relevant devices are used.
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The hard disks are the more widely used for permanent storage of data, though
we have optical storage (CD-ROM), USB Flash Disks, Floppy disks (tending to
be obsolete), among others. These permanent storage devices can be called
volumes and are named using a letter of the alphabet, followed by colon,
example: A: for the first diskette drive, B: for the second, C: for the first hard
disk. When it comes about storage and access to data in these devices, a whole
system is need: File System. A file is any document or programme that the user
of a computer system creates. Every file stored on a permanent storage device is
attributed a name that will be used to retrieve the file. File names are unique as
this will help distinguish one file from another. There is a convention for naming
files computer systems based on the operating systems. For instance, on
DOS/WINDOWS file names can have two parts: base name and an extension.
The base name is obligatory and the extension is optional. The extension is
usually used to indicate the type of file, example: doc is the extension for Ms
Word files, xl is the extension for Ms Excel files. The naming systems have
been changing over time. In early DOS and WINDOWS, spaces were not
allowed in naming of files; the number of characters was also limited. Now
these limitations do not apply to the current versions of operating systems. There
is no fixed rule for giving names to files, but it makes more sense to link a file’s
name by the content of the file or anything related to the file. Another way to
locate file easily is by creating a directory or folder in which can be held files
relating to the same field. On the same directory, it can also be created sub-
directories. The naming convention for directories is the same as for files. To
specify a file or directory, DOS/WINDOWS offer a system that comprises the
volume name and a path to the file or directory, ex.: c:\courses\TRA\TRA611.
Regarding the organization of files, it is noted that files can be organized on a
directory in a hierarchical structure for an easy management. There will be a
main directory with other directories (sub-directories) and files.
As for software, there are two categories: application and system software.
Application software is a software that is conceived to generate information, fix
a problem, or support a decision making process for individuals or
organizations. When it comes about system software, it is designed to enhance
the effectiveness and efficiency of the computer system.
Hardware and software are thus the setup of the computer. At the heart of the
computer is the hardware; the system software is acted as a buffer between the
hardware and the outer layer (application software) which is used by the user to
interacts with the computer. In this interactivity between the user and the
computer system, the operating system plays a fundamental role. Actually, the
operating system, available on all computers, is the main controlling software of
the system and helps the user to communicate and access data in the computer
system. The most commonly used are: Microsoft Windows, Linux, Unix, DOS,
Apple Mac OS, among others.

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These operating systems are functioning thanks to what is called Programming
Language. It means that all tasks undertaken under the computer’s system are
solved through a precise set of rules called Algorithm. There are two broad
categories of programming languages: low level and high level languages.
Low level languages are designed to operate at a low level, either directly or
close to the hardware. They are machine-dependent and comprise two types:
machine language and assembly language. The machine language which is
native for any computer comprises a series of binary digits that represent the
instructions and data given to the hardware. As for assembly language promoted
due to difficulties to work with machine language, it comprises English-like
mnemonics (devices used to aid recall) for instructions. Any programme in an
assembly language needs an assembler which transforms the language into the
equivalent machine language code before the computer can operate it. High
level languages can be classified in various ways, including the following:
compiled language, interpreter, Java, procedural programming language, object
oriented programming language, declarative language. Their fast development
has led inevitably to the breakthrough of a multitude of applications adapted to
industrial needs. In many fields viz. Health, Education, Business, Government,
Military, Banking, etc. people uses new applications to manage routine tasks.
With these resources computers appear to be vital in nowadays communication.
However, computers can only perform tasks that can be described algebraically.
As a substantial description of computers, their components, organization and
functioning is made, it is also important to understand their evolution.
To retrace this history of computers, we need first to have an overview on the
period preceding their coming. Thus, before computers people over the world
used different methods including primitive materials like papyrus, a crude form
of paper by ancient Egyptians. At this age, Sumerians used boxes of stones to
represent numbers. Chinese invented the abacus in 1000 B.C. Many other
methods and techniques were used at this period, but with the genius of human
being, invention with regard to computing was launched. A number of scientists
(Wilhelm Schickard, Blaise Pascal, Leibnitz, Ada Lovelace) worked on the
field, improving progressively the computer systems in terms quality and space.
In 1614 John Napier invented logs for calculations. In 1833, Ada Lovelace
began the study of scientific computation. She developed a programming
language Ada, named after her. The creation and spread of companies
specialized on the field brought a higher dimension to computing machines.
IBM created MARK 1, which was electromechanical. However, the
breakthrough of computers came almost in the second half of the twentieth
century (from 1945), with the use of binary maths and Boolean logic. In this
regard, the evolution of computers went with the major technological
breakthroughs, generations after generations. People started talking about digital
computers that are smaller and more powerful. The first generation of the digital
computers was under WW2 and the need to process timely immense data.
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Progresses were made by different companies (UNIVAC, EDVAC, IBM 704).
Hence, the advancements carried out were the conception of programmes and
programming languages. As the devices working with vacuum tubes remained
still too large, requiring vast space and lot energy, there was a need for
improvement. This led to the second generation of computers where great
progresses were made in the early second half of the 20th century. Computer
systems became more and more powerful (miniaturization). Transistors quickly
replaced the vacuums tubes. They required less space, less energy and processed
more data in shorter time. High level languages were used; operating systems
replaced human operators. The performance was 200,000 to 250,000
calculations per second. Batch processing and time sharing started. Being
extremely motivated to meliorate computer products, engineers marked later the
third generation with more sophisticated computers (IBM 360). The use of
integrated circuit (IC) was the key characteristic of the third generation, but
computers got also more single and cheaper, with broader range of programmes.
As for the fourth generation, it was characterized by the utilization of
microprocessor and microcomputers. The engineers tended then to build on
applications that qualified this generation of computers with the use of artificial
intelligence and expert systems. Sophistication of software and expansion of
communication qualified also this computer development age.
In the fifth generation, specified by further miniaturization, computers reached a
new dimension with the artificial intelligence which is defined as the ability of
computer system to display behaviour that appears to be from an intelligent
individual group. Another characteristic of this fifth generation was also the
expert system: a computer system that has the ability to make judgements and
decisions like an expert in a particular field (Stair, 1986). In terms of
programming languages, advancement was noted. PROLOG and LISP dealt
with problems that require judgement and expertise.
From the early stage up to date, the different types of computers are as follows:
Mainframe (early days of computers, very costly), Minicomputer (replacement
of mainframe), Microcomputer (personal computer or PC; development of
microprocessor, with CPU on a single chip, ex: Notebook, Laptop),
Supercomputer (the most powerful in use today).
To recapitulate this chapter of computer generations, computers have been
transforming the world through successive stages. With their rapid evolution,
leading to high programming skills, combined with the growth of Internet and
the World Wide Web, the availability and sharing of information and data in a
huge amount have led to the Information Age. This period is characterised by an
economy based on information computerization. The oncoming of the
Information Age is associated with the Digital Revolution, just as the industrial
revolution transformed the world. During the information age, the phenomenon
is that the computer industry creates a situation where information is available
anytime and anywhere. In a digital society, the access to communication
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technologies is simplified through telecommunications and computer networks.
This has led to various consequences: the number of users of information and
telecommunications has considerably increased all over the world, including
under developing countries. The electronic publishers have also become more
important in terms of number. This evolution of technology in daily life, as well
as educational life style and the Information Age have allowed rapid global
communications and networking to shape modern society.

In conclusion, we come out with the idea that development of computers, both
in terms of architecture and functioning, moves simultaneously along two paths-
in hardware and in software. Works in each area influence the other. From very
primitive equipment to digital computers, systems have changed a lot. Moving
from vacuum tubes up to microprocessors, the intelligence of computers has
never stopped to be more and more significant. Consequently, computers can
already perform individual operations faster than humans can. However, the
human brain remains far superior at parallel processing, or performing multiple
operations at once. For most of the past half-century, engineers made computers
faster by increasing the number of transistors in their processors. In addition,
computers have reached a level where they become indispensible in all activities
of human being. With the Age of Information, and the increase of data to
process accurately and quickly, new machines with more developed processors
and applications are expected from the genius of programming engineers. This
makes inevitably the field of computers very evolutionary.

References
Dr Mrs. Ayonghe Lum Suzanne. Computers, CAT I Hand-out. ASTI,
University of Buea, Nov 2014

Ralph M. Stair. Computers in Today's World. Irwin Professional

Publishing, 1986