11/1

11 Combustion
equipment

Colin French CEng, FlnstE, FIMgt

Consultant

Contents
11.1 Introduction 11/3 11.5 Oil burners 11/8
11.5.1 Pressure-jet atomizers 11/8
11.2 Aspects of selection 11/3 11.5.2 Spill return atomizers 11/8
11.3 Air pollution and emissions 11/4 11.5.3 Twin-fluid atomizers 11/9
11.3.1 Carbon dioxide and water vapour 11/4 11.5.4 Rotary cup atomizers 11/10
11.3.2 Carbon monoxide 11/5 11.6 Supplementary and auxiliary firing systems 11/11
11.3.3 Smoke 11/5 11.6.1 Benefits of supplementary and
11.3.4 Particulates 11/5 auxiliary firing systems 11/11
11.3.5 Unburnt hydrocarbons (UHC’s) 11/5 11.6.2 Gas grid duct burners 11/13
11.3.6 Sulphur oxides (SOx) 11/5 11.6.3 Gas or dual fuel duct burners 11/13
11.3.7 Nitric oxides (NOx) 11/5
11.7 Controls 11/14
11.4 Gas burners 11/6
Introduction 11/6 11.8 Fuel handling systems 11/16
11.4.1 Pre mix burners 11/6 11.8.1 Gas 11/16
11.4.2 Radiant burners 11/7 11.8.2 Oil 11/16
11.4.3 Nozzle mix types 11/7 11.8.3 Accessories 11/18

11.9 Solid fuel firing 11/18

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11.1 Introduction
A burner is a device for liberating heat by the combustion
of fuel. Fuels are predominantly hydrocarbons, which
release their heat exothermically when oxidized in a
controlled manner. The most freely available oxidant is
air, which contains only 21% oxygen, the remaining
79% being nitrogen which does not contribute to the
process. The nitrogen, because it is heated at the same
time, reduces the maximum flame temperature that would
have been possible with a pure oxidant. Similarly, the
combustion products, when discharged from the process,
contain the inert nitrogen, which increases the volume of
the gases and hence the sensible heat loss.
A burner, then, comprises a means to inject the fuel,
a fan to provide the air for the combustion reaction, a
register or flame stabilizer assembly which provides for
the mixing of air and fuel and the stability of the flame,
and a means for controlling the air-fuel ratio and fuel
input. In addition, on automatic burners, a burner man-
agement system is necessary to ensure programmed start
up and shut down together with supervision while firing
via a flame detection system and interlocks to prove that
certain parameters are maintained such as air and fuel
pressure. An almost infinite number of types of burner
have developed over the years, but broad categories exist
characterized by the type of fuel being burnt, the prin-
ciple of the fuel injection and mixing system, and often
the application for which they were designed. The most
common applications are for hot water heating, steam
production and thermal oil heating. Some integration has
taken place where the burner has become part of the boiler
particularly in the case of gas firing. In general the mar-
ket is serviced by combustion equipment suppliers who
supply both the appliance manufacturers as well as the
retrofit market where a change of fuel, enhanced emis-
sions performance or perhaps more sophisticated control
provide the motivation. Various specialized process uses
exist which require special shaped flames, very high tem-
peratures, controlled atmospheres etc. which are beyond
the scope of this chapter. These might include kilns, steel
and glass melting, drying of materials, etc. Burners for
these purposes are built to BS EN 748.
Combustion equipment manufacturers are frequently
called upon to provide all the auxiliary services necessary
for the safe and efficient operation of the burner. This can
include gas supply and control trains and governing sta-
tions and pumping, heating and filtration for liquid fuels.
11.2 Aspects of selection
Assuming that the plant requirements do not embrace
a heat and power study resulting in a combined heat
and power system, we can confine ourselves to assessing
the heat loading alone. Having determined a total steam
and/or hot water requirement in terms of MW this will
determine how many boilers are required. Nowadays,
financing requirements together with very high reliability
do not tend to accept much capability over and above the
maximum load, unless of course the outage requirements
for annual inspections conflict with 365 day operation.
Unless this calculation yields a multiple boiler operation,
so allowing for a spare boiler, one is looking at a one,
two or three boiler situation. Invariably a single burner
is fitted to a single boiler with the exception of a small
range of 6 to 20 MW where a twin flue shell boiler could
be considered. Rangeability of load may then become a
factor in burner selection with the exception that proves
the rule of the twin flue boiler aforementioned. Modern
twin flue boilers have the ability to operate independently
of each flue, so doubling the range capability.
Unless one is planning a green field site the choice may
be whether to retain the existing boilers or fit new ones.
Modern combustion equipment together with sophisti-
cated controls provides the opportunity to improve the
reliability, control, flexibility and emission enhancements
which may be the driving force in the consideration of
new combustion equipment. The life of boilers is of the
order of two or three times the life of the combustion
equipment, especially with the current pace of electronic
and computer control development. The retrofitting of
new combustion equipment may be provoked by a need to
integrate the heat generation plant with the process control
of the whole site operation. This can be accomplished by
the specification of a SCADA (Supervisory, control and
data acquisition) system, which manages the whole boiler
house as well as providing operational functions such as
boiler sequencing and banking, hours run and data on
running costs, efficiencies and so on.
Whilst gas generally offers greater burner turndown
ratios larger oil burners may be capable of almost double
figure turndown ratios. On-off operation where boiler load
swings exceed burner turn down may be offset by the
common fitment of a damper to prevent cold airflow
through the boiler generated by chimney draught. It is
better to prevent this airflow by sealing the air inlet rather
than the exhaust exit on the grounds of the cleaner cooler
position.
Presently in Europe one is restricted in practical terms
to a choice between gas and diesel oil with perhaps heavy
oil in certain load ranges and specific regions. Solid fuel
has eliminated itself from the market not only by the
difficulties raised by the storage and handling of the coal
but also the handling and disposal of the ash. Of greater
impact is the inability to meet emissions requirements
without the fitment of very expensive and sophisticated
clean up systems which also have high maintenance
and efficiency penalties. A section on solid fuel burners
is retained in this edition for reference purposes and
operators in developing countries or where indigenous
coal is still economic.
Within Europe another factor in the decision process is
Type Approval and Directives. Burners up around 3 MW
which are intended for low temperature hot water gener-
ation (< 1050C) in domestic and commercial applications
must have CE certification to comply with the Gas Appli-
ances Directive. This lays down the essential requirements
regarding the level of safety and specification necessary
to obtain Type Approval. The submission of the equip-
ment for CE acceptance testing by a "Notified Body"
also includes measurement of the field of operation (boiler
resistance versus heat output) and emissions of NOx and
CO. Sizes above 3MW will need to be tested on the
actual hot water boiler because the Notified Body does
not have a test firing capability which is large enough. In
parallel with this similar CE approval is being adopted
for oil burners and an Efficiency Directive also exists to
ensure that the accompanying new boiler meets certain
efficiency requirements. Above 3MW heavy oil can be
added to the fuel selection choice with the caveat that
boilers in the 20-50 MW individual size have to meet
emission limits. Plant exceeding 5OMW combined aggre-
gated output on one site is also subject to emission limits
together with continuous monitoring of emissions. In con-
junction with the Pressure Equipment Directive burners
will shortly have to meet the design and safety standards
laid down for the boiler under codes for the auxiliary
equipment which includes the firing equipment as well as
all of the other peripheral parts of the basic heat generation
pressure vessel. These Standards are as follows:-
PrEN 12953 Shell Boilers
Part 7 Firing Equipment for Liquid and Gaseous Fuels
PrEN 12953 Water Tube Boilers
Part 8 Firing Equipment for Liquid and Gaseous Fuels
Part 9 Firing Equipment for Pulverized Fuels
Part 16 Firing Equipment for Grates and Fluidized Beds
Basic Standards for burners which are associated with
other Directives comprise:-
BSiEN 676 Gas Burners with Fans
BSrEN 267 Oil Burners with Fans
Emissions are becoming a major element in the selec-
tion of combustion equipment, not only to meet Local
Authority and Environment Agency requirements but the
Climate Change Levy, which will mitigate against poor
plant efficiency and the carbon/hydrogen ratio of the fuel.
In ascending order or merit is coal, heavy oil, diesel oil
and gases with natural gas being the most attractive, apart
from hydrogen, which is only found in one or two special
chemical processes and refineries.
Macro effect Combustion Emmission
Global warming via CO2 Carbon dioxide
greenhouse gases UHC's Unburnt hydrocarbons
N2O Nitrous oxide
O3 Ozone
Ozone layer depletion NO, NO2, N2O Nitric oxides
Acid rain deposition H2O Water vapour
NOx Nitric oxides
CO Carbon monoxide
SOx Sulphur oxides
General pollution Smoke
UHC's Unburnt hydrocarbons
SOx Sulphur oxides
Particulates
NOx Nitric oxides
CO Carbon monoxide
The Impact on the Environment = Population x Affluence x Technology
Plant Engineers have the power to contribute by choosing and using the best available technology
Fuel selection choice may be coloured by emission
considerations but primarily depends on fuel price.
Sizes in the 3-20 MW individual size classification,
especially where fitted in a multi-boiler layout, are prime
candidates for interruptible gas operation with a back up
of diesel fuel. It is inadvisable to use heavy oil as the
back up for natural gas supplied under an interruptible
contract, as the heavy oil does deteriorate when not used
by the agglomeration of the long chain molecules form-
ing asphaltenes which are very slow burning. This can
cause boiler fouling and increased particulate emissions.
Similarly, circulating heavy oil for long periods without
burning the fuel can also lead to fuel degradation and
combustion problems.
Smaller applications especially of a non-industrial nat-
ure primarily burn natural gas, not only for its simplicity
and convenience, but also to minimize space requirements
by the avoidance of tankage.
11.3 Air pollution and emissions
Over the last decade emission performance of combustion
equipment has become a topic of unavoidable importance.
It is incumbent upon the plant engineer to do all in his
power to select, utilize and maintain the best standards and
technology to minimize the total production of exhaust
gases by maximizing overall efficiency. In addition, spe-
cific gaseous species which contribute to atmospheric pol-
lution need careful control and monitoring to abrogate
their effects. The main pollutants and effects are shown
in Figure 11.1.
11.3.1 Carbon dioxide and water vapour
The combustion of hydrocarbon fuels yields Carbon Diox-
ide (CO2) from the combustion of the carbon and Water
Vapour (H^O) from the Hydrogen content. Carbon Diox-
ide is a greenhouse gas, therefore, the mass flow of
exhaust gases must be minimized by high production and
utilization efficiency.
Comments
High overal efficiency thrugh good selection, control and
management ie. Low excees air using low emission
burners, computer control.
Pessimists predict average temps increasing by
1 .5-4.50C by 2050.
Sea levels 3.0 meters higher by 2100.
Photodissociation causes loss of UV filtration
leading to more skin cancer and further global warming.
NOx and SOx are the most important.
Widely accepted that 20 countries are badly effected
the most obvious being the Scandanavian group.
Photochemical smog formed in reaction with sunlight.
Over 1 billion people suffer from breathing air over agreed
safety levels and hence commonly develop respiratory
problems such as asthma.
11.3.2 Carbon monoxide
Evident from its name, it is the incomplete combustion
of carbon. Reasons for its existence are similar to smoke.
Providing the combustion chamber is of adequate volume,
levels should not generally exceed: -
Gas < lOOmg/m3
Diesel Oil < 200mg/m3
Heavy Oil < 400mg/m3
Solid Fuels < 600mg/m3
11.3.3 Smoke
Smoke is sub-micronic particles of carbon caused by
the incomplete combustion of the fuel. This comes from
either poor atomization, operation away from the optimum
air/fuel ratio, chilling of the flame through poor air or fuel
distribution or incorrect flame shape. No visible smoke
should be seen, other than in the case of heavy oil and
solid fuels and then only an insignificant haze should be
discernible.
11.3.4 Particulates
Particulates in oil firing are the result of incomplete
burn out of the atomized fuel droplets. In excessive
amounts this may be due to bad atomization, incorrect
fuel temperature, poor fuel or air distribution or chilling
of the flame.
Small particles of size range 1 -76 microns are clas-
sified as grit and are generally dispersed into the atmo-
sphere, larger sizes still may result in some localized fall
out in calm weather as well as fouling the heating sur-
faces.
Solid fuel generated particulates result from carry over
from the grate or incomplete combustion in the case of
pulverized fuel or fluidized bed combustion. These should
be reduced to a minimum by back end clean up equipment
such as dust cyclones, electrostatic precipitators or bag
filters.
11.3.5 Unburnt hydrocarbons (UHC's)
These gases are the incomplete reactions of hydrocar-
bon fuels. Normally they only amount to a few parts per
million but do contribute to global warming and can be
carcinogenic. They are normally expressed as an equiva-
lent methane value and are measured in mg/m3 with only
single figure values being acceptable.
11.3.6 Sulphur oxides (SOx)
Burning fuels containing sulphur will result in primarily
in sulphur dioxide (S02) with a single number percentage
oxidizing further to sulphur trioxide (SO3). The combus-
tion equipment/type has no bearing on the levels as the
reaction is purely chemical and depends only on how
much sulphur was present in the original fuel.
11.3.7 Nitric oxides (NOx)
NOx is the collective name for all nitrogen oxides; these
are NO, NO2 and N2O. Combustion at the temperatures
and pressures found in the boiler house environment
generate predominantly NO with a smaller percentage
(1-5%) of NO2. N2O is only normally encountered in
solid fuel firing and gas turbines. The predominant species
NO is gradually further oxidized to NO2 in the atmo-
sphere. For this reason nitrogen oxides are expressed as
NO2 equivalent in modern instrumentation. Similarly, leg-
islation quotes levels as NO2, knowing it is a foregone
conclusion that it will finally oxidize. Standardized con-
ditions of temperature, pressure and oxygen concentration
are used at all times.
Three formation mechanisms result in NOx generation:-
11.3.7.1 Thermal NOx
First described by Zeldovich the reaction of molecular
nitrogen from the combustion air with atomic oxygen
and the subsequent reaction of the atomic nitrogen with
the molecular oxygen. The reaction is highly dependant
on temperature. In most common gases it is wholly
responsible for the NOx unless the gas contains molecules
with organically bound nitrogen.
11.3.7.2 Prompt NOx
As its name implies it is formed in the early stages of
flames where highly fuel rich, substoichiometric mixtures
are present. It only contributes to a small degree in gas
combustion.
11.3.7.3 Fuel NOx
In fuels containing organically bound nitrogen a degree
of conversion of the nitrogen into NOx takes place. It
is essentially dependent on the local concentration of
oxygen in the flame front and only to a lesser degree
by temperature. For diesel oil it can add about 50 mg/m3
to the base level of NOx created thermally. The diesel
would typically contain 0.02% nitrogen. For heavy oils
and solid fuels the levels of organically bound nitrogen
vary considerably from 0.2-0.6% for heavy oil and up
to 1% for coal. This results in a NOx concentration in
the exhaust of 400-1000 mg/m3 and is therefore the most
prominent mechanism.
Figure 11.2 Schematically represents the formation
routes to NO.
Figure 11.3 shows the strategies for reduction. Low
NOx burners utilize a combination of these techniques
with the most common being fuel and air staging with
lower levels being achieved in conjunction with exhaust
gas recirculation. The recirculation may be induced from
within the flame/furnace or by positive recycling of the
products of combustion within the construction of the
boiler or externally often with a separate fan. Techniques
depend on which mechanism of formation predominates.
Water and steam injection have been used but suffer from
efficiency penalties of increased wet losses in the exhaust
and is now confined to gas turbine applications where the
 Nitrogen source Reaction medium Formation of NO

Figure 11.2 Schematic of Formation Routes to NO

Reduction in O2 Reduction in Reduction in residence

partial pressure combustion temperature time at high temperature
Exhaust gas recirculation Exhaust gas recirculation Optimization of fuel and air distribution
and burner configuration
Reduced excess air Reduced air preheat Reduced duration in chamber
Air staging Radiant combustion Radiant combustion
Fuel staging Optimization of fuel air distribution
Water and steam injection Optimization of combustion chamber
heat absorbtion
Pre mix combustion
Water and steam injection

Figure 11.3 Strategies for NOx reduction

extra mass flow is beneficial in boosting the output from sizes tend to fall into three categories - Pre Mix, Radiant
the turbine section. Even here it is being superseded by and Nozzle Mix all of which have been adapted for good
dry low NOx techniques. emission performance.

11.4 Gas burners 11.4.1 Pre mix burners

Introduction
Gas is the most common and easily controlled method
of combustion. Gas and air are in the same phase, i.e.
gases, as opposed to a liquid or solid fuel in two alterna-
tive phases, which obviously require greater measures to
obtain mixing of the fuel and air. The process, therefore,
is one of control or indeed inhibition of reaction rate. The
simplest gas burners are of the non-aerated type, which
utilize a small jet of gas to self inspirate the required air
in order to obtain a so-called diffusion flame. Simple jets
of this type are the Bray, Aeromatic or Drew types. Pro-
ducing only a few KW, they find no application in sizes
with which we are concerned. Commercial and industrial
Otherwise known as aerated or atmospheric burners, the
gas ejected from the nozzle induces all the air necessary
for combustion into a closed space, whereupon the mix-
ture is emitted through a variety of slots, holes or grilles.
These are sufficiently small that the flame above cannot
burn back into the primary chamber because the holes are
small enough to quench the combustion or are of suffi-
cient velocity to be higher than the flame speed of the
gas. The premix chamber can be made in any shape to fit
the configuration of the combustion space and therefore is
very suitable for small boilers where overall compactness
is an important aspect. An even distribution of heat output
promotes low NOx because spacial hotspots are avoided.
A typical burner of this type is illustrated in Figure 11.4.
 emmisivity of the flame. Even if the flame is fairly
yellowish and at risk of incomplete combustion the emmi-
sivity does not increase much. To overcome this weakness
and hence lower the temperature of the gases as the com-
bustion takes place a radiant burner comprises of a large
ceramic or similar mantle into which the premix gases
are fed. Combustion at the surface of the ceramic matrix
raises its temperature to 100O0C or more so that much of
the gases' energy is liberated in the form of radiant heat
transfer.
By making the ceramic radiant enclosure of a similar
shape to the relatively cold surfaces of the combustion
chamber, very good heat transfer can be accomplished.
Low average flame temperatures produce low NOx. Sizes
up to around 3MW are available. Disadvantages are the
relatively delicate nature of the matrix and its supporting
framework and the inability to derive dual fuel versions. A
schematic diagram is shown in Figure 11.5. The principle
can also be adapted to the above mentioned smaller pre-
mix bar burners by the addition of a ceramic top surface to
the flame ports. Alternatively a series of metallic rods sus-
pended just above the ports are so arranged so that they
cool the flame and radiate their heat to the combustion
chamber roof.

11.4.3 Nozzle mix types

Figure 11.4 Premix bar burner
11.4.2 Radiant burners
Gas flames have the weakness that they do not liber-
ate very much heat by radiation because of the low
Utilizing a forced draught fan, the burner has a gas head
arranged to mix the fuel and air in a blast tube which con-
trols the stability and shape of the flame. Gas exits from
holes or nozzles in the head and is mixed partly in the high
velocity air stream and partly allowed to exit into an area
downstream of a bluff body or a swirl stabilizer. Behind
the bluff body a relatively quiescent zone forms which
provides the means for stability. Alternatively the swirl
stabilizer achieves its function by promoting a reverse
flow zone in front of the blades so that a permanent source

Furnace tube

Igniter
Radiant heat

Air
from
burner
fan

Surface flame
lonization Internal Ceramic matrix
flame probe supporting
frame
Figure 11.5 Radiant gas burner
 lonization flame detector for pilot and main flame
Air plate
Gas plate
Pilot gas igniter
Blast tube
Gas discharge holes
Figure 11.6 Monobloc nozzle mix gas burner
of re-ignition is facilitated. Many configurations exist, but
most frequently their ancestry is a result of the adapta-
tion of oil burners for dual fuel firing at the onset of the
widespread use of gas. This can often mean that the burner
is convertible to the alternative fuel or easily upgraded
to dual fuel. As we have already noted, gas firing is a
relatively naturally reactive process, the art being to con-
trol the combustion rate, shape, stability and emissions. A
typical monobloc gas burner is shown in Figure 11.6.
Performance on gas is normally limited in dual-fuel
applications to that of the oil burner, although modern
electronic air fuel/ratio control permits greater turndown
ratios to be set when operating on gas. Smaller burners
have a turndown ratio of perhaps 4:1, whilst larger sizes
can achieve 15:1. Movable sliding head parts can facilitate
good performance at low loads. Low NOx operation
may be accomplished by strategic nozzle placement (fuel
staging) or recirculation of the exhaust gases through the
burner head or whole burner register.
Problems can occur with highly rated boilers converted
to gas firing where tube end and tube plate cracking can
occur due to overheating, especially if the tube/tube plate
attachment is not properly "J" prepped and then welded.
Boiler codes and calculation programmes are now well
able to predict and avoid this eventuality. With the advent
of low emission demands, boiler furnace volumetric heat
release rates are now lower, although low NOx flames
can be slower burning and hence longer than their pre-
decessors. Another phenomena that occasionally occurs
is resonance or pulsation where the burner acoustically
couples with the natural frequency of the combustion
chamber. This is normally easily overcome by modifying
the burner gas head to change the rate of mixing.
11.5 Oil burners
Oil burners are normally characterized by the method of
atomizing which in itself is dependent on the grade of fuel
Throat
Fan case
Burner
inlet
Gas
In
being combusted. Three main types are found suitable for
the vast majority of applications - the pressure-jet which
is available as a basic nozzle and with a tip shut off, the
rotary cup and the twin fluid atomizer.
11.5.1 Pressure-jet atomizers
Oil is fed at high pressure to a nozzle in which the oil
passage is positioned to feed oil radially inward via a
number of slots which are arranged at a tangent to the
swirl chamber. The high rotational velocity given to the
oil as it exits at high pressure through the central dis-
charge hole provides the means for droplet disintegration
via a conical sheet formed at discharge. Limitations of
this principle include restriction to kerosene and gas oil
for small sizes and poor turndown caused by a limited
range of pressures over which the atomization is satis-
factory. There is a choice of spray pattern, notably solid,
semi-hollow and hollow cone, and a reasonable range of
spray angles is available (Figure 11.7), often used in a
two-nozzle head configuration to improve the turndown
ratio from 1.4:1 for a single nozzle with pressue varia-
tion to 2:1 using two nozzles at constant pressure. The
orthodox arrangement for the combustion head is shown
in Figure 11.8 and a dual fuel low NOx head is shown
in Figure 11.9 where some partially burnt flame gases are
allowed to be drawn back by the incoming air stream.
Packaged monobloc types complete with fan and all
controls cover the range from a few KW up to about
6MW. Above this the burners tend to become bespoke
for the application but the principle is still valid up to
power station boilers which may be firing heavy fuel oil
in arrays of up to 60 burners.
11.5.2 Spill return atomizers
These partially overcome the weakness of the simplex
pressure jet regarding turndown ratio by spilling back
the unconsumed fuel at part load. In this way, the swirl
 Body
Filter
Insert with channels to provide high
velocity swirl motion at nozzle exit
Figure 11.7 Pressure-jet Nozzle
velocity in the exit chamber is maintained constant but
the diameter of the exit hole remains the same. A further
advantage is that it is possible to add a central shut-off
needle through the atomizer which is actuated by a servo
piston using fuel pressure against the shut-off spring. This
allows fuel to be circulated right up to the atomizer tip
prior to starting the burner. Improved light-up results on
medium and heavy fuel oils due to pre-warming of the
nozzle and feed pipework. In addition, it provides a further
mode of safety on shutdown acting as a shut-off valve
as well as preventing dribbling of the atomizer, which
could lead to poor atomization caused by nozzle fouling.
This type of atomizer is shown in Figure 11.10. The
combustion head configuration remains similar to simplex
atomizers.
Low fire Ignition
Blast oil nozzle electrode
Throat
tube
High fire
oil nozzle Oil supply In
Figure 11.8 Combustion head pressure-jet burner
11.5.3 Twin-fluid atomizers
Atomization in these types if partly caused by fuel
pressure, but this is enhanced by the kinetic energy
provided by another fluid which is normally air or
steam. At present, this secondary fluid is at a medium
or high pressure, the low-pressure method being largely
superseded. Pressures are around 1-2 bar for those
categorized as medium pressure and 6-10 bar for
high-pressure types. Oil pressures are also typically
6-12 bar.
Steam is the preferred atomizing medium, since it is
more economic than compressed air. Steam consump-
tion is typically less than 0.5% of the fuel burnt on
a mass basis, although this rises in direct proportion
to turndown ratio. On very large burners the steam
flow is modulated in proportion to fuel burnt. Turn-
down ratios range from about 5:1 for small shell boil-
ers to 12:1 in watertube applications, making this one
of the most versatile burners. The steam condition is
important in that it must be dry saturated or slightly
superheated at the nozzle to avoid condensate formation.
On small or non-continuously running plant where no
steam is available for start up a compressed air supply
must be provided until steam becomes available from the
boiler.
Possibly the best-known version of this principle is
the Y-jet atomizer which has between four and ten exit
holes arranged circumferentially, each consisting of two
converging passages arranged in a Y formation. Latterly
performance has been improved by variations which use
a central chamber so that the two fluids are internally
mixed before being ejected in a similar pattern to the
Y-j et. The advantage of this system is that the resulting
jet of atomized oil is more evenly dispersed from the
hole whereas with the asymmetric confluence of the two
fluids at the Y junction a small amount of oil is carried
down the wall of the common hole. This is due to surface
Fan
case
 Ignition
electrode
Ignition Throat
gas Fan case

Flame
plate

Oil
nozzle
Blast
tube
Oil
Recirculated Air in
flame gases plate Gas
in

Figure 11.9 Dual fuel low NOx head monobloc burner

Cap nut

OiMn

Oil return

Swirl chamber

Tip shut-off needle Filter Actuating pushrod

Figure 11.10 Spill return nozzle with tip shut-off needle

tension and density differences between the steam and
oil. Notwithstanding this small difference both types are
widely used on larger boilers especially watertube types.
Cross sections of the Y-jet and the internally mixed types
are shown in Figure 11.11.
Twin fluid atomisers are normally fitted into what are
termed register burners the name having derived from
their widespread use on watertube boilers where two or
more registers or combustion heads are inserted through
the front wall of the boiler and fed by a common airbox
and fan. Flame stability is usually accomplished with a
swirl stabiliser of 200-250 mm. diameter. In order to
attain low NOx performance the air supply is introduced
in stages to the flame via several concentric passages as
shown in Figure 11.12.
11.5.4 Rotary cup atomizers
A shaft rotating at 4000-6000 rev/min carries a primary
air fan and an atomizing cup. The cup, typically of
about 70-120 mm diameter, is tapered by a few degrees
to increase in diameter at the exit. Oil is fed to the
inner surface by a stationary distributor which projects
oil onto the smaller-diameter end of the cup. The oil,
influenced by centrifugal force, forms a thin film which
passes towards the cup lip. Atomization occurs as the
oil leaves this lip. In addition, a primary air supply, nor-
mally in the range of 5-12% of stoichiometric (chemi-
cally correct) air, is arranged to exit over the cup outer
surface, at a velocity of about 50-90 m/s. The primary
air is swirled to oppose the rotation of the cup. Droplets
 Oil
Steam
Oil
Back plate
Steam
Oil
Figure 11.11 Twin fluid nozzle types
shattered by the combined centrifugal action of the cup
and the primary air blast are propelled axially into the
furnace.
Advantages of this type include an ability to burn all
fuels from petroleum to pitch including those containing
solid particles, good turndown ratio (4 to 10:1 typically)
and an insensitivity to oil conditions such as pressure and
temperature. It is widely used in shell boilers, and the only
real limitation is that the cup surface has to be cleaned
daily. A typical cross section of atomizer layout is shown
in Figure 11.13. Variants include direct driven cup and
separate mounting of the primary air fan.
Duel fuel versions have a gas manifold arranged around
the cup and gas is emitted into the annular air exit so that
the gas and air are mixed at high velocity in a highly
turbulent zone. Occasionally a second gas is burnt by
wrapping another gas manifold around the outside of the
air exit to inject gas into the same air delivery system
commonly called the quarl gap. In this manner a duel or
triple fuel burner is obtained. Flame stabilization is with
an aerated bluff body which uses the recirculation vortices
of the flame and air spilling off the baffle. Commonly
found on shell boilers they also occasionally used on
watertube boilers especially where light oils are available
so that the cleaning of the cup is not a problem or if
gas is the prime fuel. Low NOx versions particularly
on shell boilers often use positively induced exhaust gas
recirculation and are capable of excellent results. The
configuration of a dual fuel rotary cup burner is shown in
Figure 11.14.
Y configuration
Retaining nut
Spray plate
Internal mix
Mixing chamber
11.6 Supplementary and auxiliary firing
systems
Combined heat and power systems have become a major
feature of the energy market over the last decade. This is
not surprising when one considers the benefits of cheaper
electricity, efficient generation of steam, flexibility of heat
to power consumption, excellent emissions performance
and avoidance of the Climate Change Levy.
11.6.1 Benefits of supplementary and auxiliary
firing systems
The addition of a supplementary firing system between
the gas-turbine or reciprocating engine and the waste heat
boiler adds to basic attractions of CHP by:-
11.6.1.1 Improving flexibility of operation
a) Increasing the range of possible heat/power ratios from
about 1.6:1 to as high as 11:1.
b) Allowing variation of steam demand by modulation of
fuel input.
11.6.1.2 Improving the efficiency of scheme from
30-50% for the turbine alone to as high as 92%
a) Reducing the sensible heat losses.
b) Reducing the residual oxygen in the exhaust.
 Swirl vanes adjust axially in cones
to set resultant swirl angle

Igniter

Oil lance

Gas spuds
or pokers

Oil +
steam
Boiler front wall

Tertiary Secondary Primary

air air air
Figure 11.12 Low Nox register style burner with staging

11.6.1.3 Improving the emission performance with suitable control dampers allows:

a) NOx reduction from the prime mover by the technique
of reburning.
b) Reduction of other pollutants, e.g. CO, particulates by
combustion in a more favourable environment than in
the prime mover due to higher temperatures and better
flame residence times.
Specifying auxiliary operation of the burner with a forced
draught fan between the prime mover exit and the burner
a) Boiler operation when no significant electrical gener-
ation is required.
b) Continued boiler usage when outages occur due to
breakdowns and maintenance.
There are an almost infinite number of configurations of
combined heat and power layouts but only two types of
burner prevail. The generic term duct burner refers to the
fact that the burner is arranged to be fitted in the duct

Burner
housing
Primary air
fan
Cup
shroud
Atomizing
cup
Oil
distributor
Primary
air
Figure 11.13 Section through rotary cup burner
between the turbine and boiler. If the fuel is to be gas
the simple grid burner is adequate. However, if dual fuel
operation is required, a specially adapted register burner
is necessary.
11.6.2 Gas grid duct burners
Constructed in a frame for easy fitment into the ducting,
they comprise of a number of bars (normally between 3
and 10), which are equi-spaced in the duct and generally
all work simultaneously. The duct can be as small as 1 m2
up to 20m2. Even though they only add l-2mbar to the
back pressure on the turbine, they are capable of typically
a turndown ratio of 10:1 and generally have a flame no
longer than 2 metres at high fire. The boost temperature
takes the turbine exit from around 50O0C to a maximum of
105O0C although special linings in the duct could allow
somewhat higher figures if the ceramic lining normally
employed was replaced by a refractory material. Ignition
is by a special cross lighting bar that brings the burner on
once the turbine is firing. On the rare occasions when the
steam load is between the turbine output and the low fire
rate of the burner, the burner will need to go on and off
as required although this is relatively unusual.
Burner
motor
With no moving parts the grid burner is very reliable
and will work on most gases such as natural gas, landfill or
biogas, or refinery waste streams. Operation in auxiliary
operating mode means that the pressure loss over the
burner would be reduced to about a third with fresh
air at 150C instead of exhaust gas at 50O0C because
pressure loss is proportional to absolute temperature. This
is overcome by having closing plates to restrict the cross
sectional area between the gas bars either manually or
automatically actuated. The method of stabilization of
the flame is illustrated in Figure 11.15, the stabilizers
normally being made up of a number of short lengths for
differential expansion reasons bearing in mind that the gas
tube is kept cool by the gas whereas the stabilizer is at
least turbine exit temperature. A typical burner layout is
shown in Figure 11.16.
11.6.3 Gas or dual fuel duct burners
Much less common than the grid type, these find favour
when there is a requirement to run both the engine or
turbine on oil as well as gas, consequently the same is
required from the duct burner. Burners of this nature
were derived from the twin fluid register types and are
arranged to sit in the duct even though the environment
 Secondary air

Air register unit

Tertiary air

Flame Baffle

Atomizer housing

Primary air

Gas supply

Air box

Figure 11.14 Dual fuel rotary cup burner

Flame stabilizer burner is shown in Figure 11.17. It is possible to close

Gas
turbine
or
engine
exhaust Secondary
stabilizer
Gas tube
Aeration
holes
Figure 11.15 Grid burner stabilization
is rather hostile bearing in mind their extra complexity.
Although capable of nearly the same turndown ratio as
the grid burner, the turndown ratio on oil is more likely
to be 4:1 to 6:1. Versions have been operated on heavy
fuel oil, especially when in support of a heavy oil diesel
engine. Burners which supplement reciprocating engines
have to contend with the pulsating nature of the exhaust
and a higher level of pollutants than is the case with gas
turbines. In addition, the available oxygen concentration
can be as low as 9%, whereas figures of 14-15% are
more common with gas turbines. A dual fuel register
couple this type of burner to the boiler so that the flame
is not in the duct but within a boiler with its own furnace.
Under these circumstances the oxygen concentration can
be taken down as low as 3% with a flame temperature as
high as 160O0C.
11.7 Controls
Burners require a programmed start up and shut down
sequence in order that safe operation is achieved. Various
interlocks need to be satisfied, e.g. that the burner is at its
low fire position for light up. In addition, whilst the burner
is in operation, any unsafe event must be recognized and
a safe shut down, called a lock out, actioned.
For smaller burners this is done by a dedicated propri-
etary electronic control box. For start up the fuel supplies
are checked for correct pressure and temperature and an
air purge completed to ensure that the chamber is free of
an explosive mixture. The air and fuel actuators are then
positioned ready for start up and the ignition sequence
commenced. A high voltage spark system is used for small
and medium sized pressure jet style gas and oil burn-
ers with a single electrode 5000 volt spark jumping to
ground on gas units. Twin electrodes producing a 10000
volt spark which is positioned on the edge of the spray
cone are used on oil burners. Larger and dual fuel burn-
ers tend to exclusively use a gas pilot, spark lit. Once
the ignition is actioned and verified, the main fuel sup-
ply may be introduced. A photo cell or ionization probe
 Igniter
Photocell
Cross lighting
Main burner bars
bar

Feed
Photo cells gas
manifold

Duct burner frame Insulation

Figure 11.16 Grid burner typical bar layout

Gas
turbine
or
engine
exhaust
Twin fuid atomizer
Swirl stabilizer
Ga spuds

Swirlers

Augmentation
air (3-5%)

Steam
Gas
Oil

Figure 11.17 Dual fuel register duct burner

on smaller burners will then prove the pilot flame and the
main fuel can be introduced and this verified. If a lock out
occurs, the burner must stop, normally with a post purge
to clear the incomplete products of combustion. Some
codes of safety allow one re-attempt at light up but most
require manual intervention to reset the trip. Safety inter-
locks are normally arranged to check changeover of the
signal during the light up and shut down sequence, e.g.
the microswitch is seen to have changed over from open
to closed circuit. Burners operating continuously require
self-checking of the photocell and all components should
fail safe, i.e. not in a dangerous condition. Valves, pressure
switches, etc. should fail in the closed or un-pressurized
condition.
 The management of the safety sequences on larger
burners are more commonly now controlled by a PLC
(programmable logic controller). However, this must have
a second unit in parallel which checks that the paral-
lel operating sequence agrees with the master controller.
This is done by an approved watchdog system pro-
grammed to check for synchronized compliance. Alter-
natively, a second PLC can perform the watchdog duty
and on some safety critical applications triple redundancy
is specified. On many large industrial projects, the I/O
(Input/Output) count is increased to allow communica-
tions between the burner management system and boiler-
house overall control system. Sometimes communications
are required between the factory process and the heat gen-
eration equipment. Large plants often employ a SCADA
(Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) computer sys-
tem to bring together operating data and control the whole
process. Information on running times, efficiency of oper-
ation, emissions data etc. is made available. This may
be subject to extensive computational analysis to fur-
nish graphically presented data on a VDU and allows
operators to understand and interpret complex operational
information in a clear way. Using modems, the health
of the whole operation may be monitored either locally
or by the Contract Energy Management Company or
indeed, for example, the burner maker's service depart-
ment. Indeed, the burner service engineer at head office
may know the burner has failed before the customer has
noticed it and may already be on his way to fix it. It
should be noted that SCADA systems do not replace
burner management control units as this is a dedicated
primary safety critical function, although the SCADA unit
may re-sequence the load take-up order of the boilers
and which ones remain in a banked condition. In any
multiple boiler industrial plant, SCADA is becoming de
rigeur. The issue of connectivity (compatibility of various
instrument signals) is now virtually resolved but is never-
theless an item which needs to be addressed with new
equipment.
Reverting to smaller burners, the function of air/fuel
ratio control is now undertaken on modulating burners
by a dedicated electronic unit which keeps the air and
fuel servomotors in their pre-programmed positional rela-
tionship. Any deviation from the relationship is detected
by a comparitor watchdog and trips the burner if, for
example, one of the motors does not feed back the correct
relationship. An extra to this function is an O2 sens-
ing probe which adjusts one of the motors so that the
optimum air/fuel ratio is maintained throughout the mod-
ulation range. This Oi trim function can be integrated into
the digitally controlled air/fuel ratio controller. One man-
ufacturer has now combined the burner logic sequencing
controller with the air/fuel ratio controller into one com-
pact unit. Additional printed circuit cards can be added
to extend the user power to include variable speed fan
drives, remote alpha-numeric message display units and
touch screen control of burners and their function and
operating sequence. In addition to basic burner health,
information on boiler wide alarm and fault data can be
conveyed in an easily understandable form.
11.8 Fuel handling systems
The foundation for a reliable and efficient combustion
system is a well designed and cost effective fuel supply
and regulation system
11.8.1 Gas
Smaller plant may only have a 200 mbar supply and this
will normally require the use of a gas booster (specially
adapted fan) to raise the pressure to 0.1 bar or so. Larger
plant which is adjacent to the National grid system nor-
mally will be able to have gas at about 0.3 bar. Larger
plant still may be delivered high pressure gas at sev-
eral bar pressure which has to be "knocked down" to
a more usable pressure with the governor station under
the customers control. In these cases where the pressure
reduction is more than 30% higher than the operating
pressure a slam shut valve must be incorporated in the
governor station to shut off the supply if the governor
malfunctions giving an excessive exit pressure. Pressure
relief must also be incorporated to prevent surges of pres-
sure when the gas flow is suddenly arrested. If this was not
done the governor would be "locked up", in other words
it would be sensing a pressure higher than required and
would therefore be trying to close off the flow when the
seat was already closed. The governor should be sized so
that at highest flow the pressure has not decayed by more
than ?i% this is know as governor droop and is caused
by the increasing flow losses within the governor itself.
Most burners have a valve train packaged into the
burner assembly with one of the two main safety shut off
valves also fulfilling the function of a control governor.
Some burners use this governor to regulate the pressure
in unison with the burner air supply (detected by air
pressure) which gives a rudimentary air/fuel ratio control
system. Smaller units are either on/off or high/low heat
control by a 2 position gas governor built into the shut
off function. The more industrial sizes tend to have fixed
pressure control using the multifunction governor/shut
off valve and the output is controlled by a modulating
gas butterfly valve or similar. A typical gas installation
pipe layout is shown in Figure 11.18 but it must be
remembered that there is plenty of variation dependent
on pressures, number of burners and safety standards
applicable to the size and type of application.
11.8.2 Oil
First and foremost comes the fuel type - if the fuel is
diesel or lighter no heating is required except perhaps
light tracing on external pipework where there is a risk of
sub-zero temperatures. If black oil is being consumed not
only must full thermostatically controlled electric or steam
tracing be employed, but the oil should be kept circulat-
ing around the system so that steady state pressure and
temperature is maintained. Only if the plant is to be shut
down for a number of days may circulation be stopped
but even then the heat tracing should be kept running. For
heavy oil installations there should be an outflow heater
fitted to the tank, and pumping and a line heater also is
 Relief
Vent governor
Slam shut valve
Gas
Supply
Governor
Gas
filter
Figure 11.18 Typical installation gas pipework layout
necessary between the tank and the burner. Where high
levels of availability are required the line heater, pumping
and filtration should all be duplexed. Twin fluid burners
normally require an atomizing temperature above the boil-
ing point of water, which means that traces of water in the
oil will boil and cause cavitation if not kept pressurized
above the saturation pressure and temperature. For this
reason after the oil has been heated to atomizing temper-
ature it must be returned to a point in the pipework where
there is sufficient pressure to prevent boiling. The solu-
tion to this is to incorporate two-stage pumping and return
the oil between the stages of the pump. Another impor-
tant consideration is to have adequately sized pipework
between the tank and the pumps and ensure that there is
always a positive head on the pump/s under flow condi-
tions and bear in mind to keep the filter before the pumps
sufficiently clean. Good instrumentation i.e. pressure and
temperature gauges at all strategic points are essential. So
often, the fuel delivery, preparation and transport to the
burner is inadequate with gross examples of bad practice,
for example running the ring main in a trench which also
acts as a wash down reservoir and is therefore full of
water.
Diesel oil burner systems have the advantage of no
line and tank heaters but good filtration and pumping
preferably duplexed is desirable. Diesel oil does not
normally require a ring main system although in large
systems it is not uncommon with a so called dead leg
Burner Burner
Duplex line heater assembly Duplex pumping and
for heated oil applications
Oil supply
Tracing line
thermostat
Ring
main
pressure
controller
Oil return line
Figure 11.19 Typical installation oil pipework layout
Main
Governor/main shut off valve
shut off valve
Vent
To
burner
head
Gas pressurized
leak detection
system
Burner
mounted
(single pipe) to each burner. For small burners there will
only be a pump on the burner with its own pressure
controller within the pump, in this case it is important
that the pump inlet is fully pressurized from the tank head
and pipework is sufficiently large enough to cope with
all burners firing. Ring main systems have an upstream
pressure controller fitted at the end of the outgoing run,
this should be capable of isolation and bypassing so that
flow can be re-established in the event of a restart where
highly viscous oil is present which may risk diaphragm
failure of the controller. Pump sizing capacity should
allow a 15% margin over the total oil burnt for diesel
oil and single pipe systems and 30% excess for ring main
systems so that wear and other forms of deterioration are
catered for.
As with gas burners the burner oil fuel controls are nor-
mally packaged onto the burner and obviously designed
to suit the particular operation and fuel of the application.
Two shut off valves are essential for both the ignition and
main flame supplies. Small burners have a supply to each
nozzle, each line having one valve with another valve in
the common line. Spill return burners normally have a
shut off valve incorporated by the action of the cut-off
needle and secondary valves in the supply and spill lines.
Fully modulating burners utilize a control valve which
can be adjusted for overall throughput as well as low and
high fire settings so that the linearity of flow to opening
position is not compromised.
Oil storage tank
filtering unit
Fire valve
Outflow
heater
Hot water
or steam
Non-return valve
 Guillotine
Hopper door

Refractory
arch
Rotary valve
Unignited
fire break Secondary fuel Ignited
system air Ash
fuel Ash
plate

Variable
speed
drive Primary
air
Deadplate Air distribution
dampers

Figure 11.20 Chain grate stoker

11.8.3 Accessories Mixture of pulverized Fuel gas

coal & primary air Photo-electric
Essential accessories for both gas and oil are fuel usage
cell
meters both for commissioning and set-up purposes as
well as energy monitoring. Equally important for a com- Secondary
lgntion burner air Il
pletely different reason - that of safety - is a fire isolating
valve to isolate the fuel system in the event of a fire in Secondary
air I
the boiler house. This must be self closing on loss of sig-
Rotary
nal and not require any electrical power supply to rapidly body/core air
isolate the fuel delivery system. Ignition gas
Ignition air Core air

11.9 Solid fuel firing

Within the European Union, coal firing has virtually
disappeared largely as a result of emission issues. Other
factors facilitating its demise have been uneconomic fuel
prices, the cost of ash disposal and high labour and
maintenance costs.
Only where these factors are significantly different will
solid fuel equipment be found. Developing countries,
especially those having cheap coal from surface deposits,
still use what was the technology that fuelled the Industrial
Revolution. Stokers are the eponymous underfeed and
fixed grate types with the coking stoker (which uses
reciprocating bars) and the chain grate being the main
other types. Due to the high ash content likely in the third
world, the latter two are the most likely survivors. A chain
grate stoker is shown in Figure 11.20. The pulverized fuel
burner which uses milled fine coal dust can still be found,
especially where a requirement exists for dual or triple
fuel operation. The configuration of this burner is in the
form of a register not dissimilar to gas and oil register
burners. A pulverized coal and gas dual fuel burner is
shown in Figure 11.21.
Secondary air I & Il
Figure 11.21 Pulverized coal and gas dual fuel burner
Circulating fluidized bed combustion is the only other
type which has the potential to burn poor quality fuels.
Combustion of the coal in a fluidized or bubbling bed of
sand or similar inert material energized by the upward
flow of air prompts rapid burn out of the solid fuel.
Although capable of operation using a blend of coal
and domestic and industrial waste, the high maintenance
costs of corrosion and erosion both in the bed and in
the auxiliary systems have made it a rarity even though
much money and effort has been spent on progressing the
technology. Clean up costs from the exhaust also weigh
heavily against its further use.
Waste incineration plant has specially developed grate
systems such as the stepped or roller grate.