CHAPTER CONTENT PAGE

NO
1 Introduction 2

1.1 Aerodynamics 2

1.2 History 3

2 Vehicle drag 5

2.1 Aerodynamic Drag 5

2.2 Types of Drags 5

2.3 Effect of Drag on performance of vehicle 11

2.4 Aerodynamic drag control techniques 13

3 Forces and moments 14

3.1 Types of forces 14

3.2 Types of moments

16
3.3 Techniques used to control aerodynamic forces and moments. 17

4 Wind tunnel technology 19

4.1 Wind tunnel testing - Objectives 19

20
4.2 Wind tunnel equipments
21
4.3 Measurement of Aerodynamic forces

4.4 Limitations 23

5 Conclusion 25

6 References 26
 Aerodynamic shape of car

Abstract
When objects move through air, forces are generated by the relative motion between
the air and surfaces of the object. Aerodynamics is the study of these forces,
generated by the motion of air, usually aerodynamics are categorized according to the type of
flow as subsonic , sonic , supersonic etc.

It is essential that aerodynamics be taken in to account during the design of cars as an

improved aerodynamics in car would attain higher speeds and more fuel efficiency. For
attaining this aerodynamic design the cars are designed lower to the ground and are usually
sleek in design and almost all corners are rounded off, to ensure smooth passage of air
through the body , in addition to it a number of enhancements like spoilers, wings are also
attached to the cars for improving aerodynamics. Wind tunnels are used for analysing the
aerodynamics of cars , besides this a number of software’s are also available now days to ensure
the optimal aerodynamic design.

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1. INTRODUCTION
Aerodynamics is the science of moving air and its impact on solid bodies placed in the
flow field as an obstacle. Being a sub-field, most of the equations from fluid dynamics apply
to aerodynamics as well, including all the governing equations, turbulence, boundary layer
theory, and ideal gas assumption.

1.1 AERODYNAMICS
Aerodynamics are classified on the basis of flow environment and flow behaviour.
1.1.1 Classification :

A)On the basis of flow environment-

i. External Aerodynamics
ii. Internal Aerodynamics

B)On the basis of flow behaviour

i. Subsonic
ii. Sonic
iii. Supersonic

1.1.2Field of Application:

i. Aerospace Engineering
ii. Design of Automobile
iii. Predictions of forces & moments in ships & sails
iv. In design of bridges & buildings for calculating wind load.

Automotive aerodynamics is the study of the aerodynamics of road vehicles. Its main
goals are reducing drag and wind noise, minimizing noise emission, and preventing
undesired lift forces and other causes of aerodynamics instability at high speeds. Air is also
considered a fluid in this case. For some classes of racing vehicles, it may also be important
to produce downforce to improve traction and thus cornering abilities.

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1.1.3 Comparison of Automotive Aerodynamics with Aircraft Aerodynamics

Automotive aerodynamics differs from aircraft aerodynamics in several ways. First,
the characteristic shape of a road vehicle is much less streamlined compared to an aircraft.
Second, the vehicle operates very close to the ground, rather than in free air. Third, the
operating speeds are lower (and aerodynamic drag varies as the square of speed). Fourth, a
ground vehicle has fewer degrees of freedom than an aircraft, and its motion is less affected
by aerodynamic forces. Fifth, passenger and commercial ground vehicles have very specific
design constraints such as their intended purpose, high safety standards (requiring, for
example, more 'dead' structural space to act as crumple zones), and certain regulations. [1]

1.2 HISTORY

When the carriage horse was replaced by a thermal engine more than 100 years ago,
nobody thought about aerodynamics. The objective of the body shell of the now horseless
carriage was, as before, to shelter the driver and passengers from wind, rain, and mud. The
idea of applying aerodynamics to road vehicles came up much later, after flight technology
had made considerable progress. For both airships and aircraft, streamlined shapes were
developed which lowered drag significantly, thus permitting higher cruising speeds with any
given (limited) engine power. The early attempts (Figure 1.1) to streamline cars were made
according to aeronautical practice and by adapting shapes from naval architecture. These
failed for two reasons. First, the benefits of aerodynamics were simply not needed. Bad roads
and low engine power only permitted moderate driving speeds. Second, the approach of
directly transplanting (with almost no change) shapes which had been developed for
aeronautical and marine purposes was not appropriate. These streamlined shapes could be
accommodated only if some important details of car design were subordinated, e.g. engine
location, or the layout of the passenger compartment. [2]

The frictional force of aerodynamic drag increases significantly with vehicle speed.
As early as the 1920s engineers began to consider automobile shape in reducing aerodynamic
drag at higher speeds. By the 1950s German and British automotive engineers were
systematically analyzing the effectts of automotive drag for the higher performance
vehicles. By the late 1960s scientists also became aware of the significant increase in sound
levels emitted by automobiles at high speed. These effects were understood to increase
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the intensity of sound levels for adjacent land uses at a non-linear rate. Soon highway
engineers began to design roadways to consider the speed effects of aerodynamic drag
produced sound levels, and automobile manufacturers considered the same factors in vehicle
design.

Fig.1.1 Streamline cars

Closure

Aerodynamic study is required due resistance offered by flow. Actually these rsistance
means drag force of vehicle. These force resist to the motion of the car. There are different
types of drag who resist the motion of a car in different way .

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2. VEHICLE DRAG

This is the most important criteria in the study of aerodynamics. Aerodynamic shape
mostly depend on vehicle drag .

2.1 Vehicle Drag

Aerodynamic Drag is a force which the oncoming air applies on a moving body. It is
the resistance offered by the air to the movement of the body. So, when a car is moving; it
displaces the air. However, it affects the car’s speed and performance. Technically, it is the
aerodynamic drag or the friction offered by the air to a vehicle.

The drag coefficient is a common measure in automotive design as it pertains

to aerodynamics. Drag is a force that acts parallel and in the same direction as the airflow.
The drag coefficient of an automobile impacts the way the automobile passes through the
surrounding air. When automobile companies design a new vehicle they take into
consideration the automobile drag coefficient in addition to the other performance
characteristics. Aerodynamic drag increases with the square of speed; therefore it becomes
critically important at higher speeds. Reducing the drag coefficient in an automobile
improves the performance of the vehicle as it pertains to speed and fuel efficiency.There are
many different ways to reduce the drag of a vehicle. A common way to measure the drag of
the vehicle is through the drag area.

2.2 Types of Drags

Aerodynamic drag is normally divided into five components as following :

1. Profile Drag 55 to 57 %

2. Induced Drag 7 to 8 %

3. Frictional Drag 9 to 10 %

4. Interference Drag 12 to 15 %

5. Cooling and Ventilation Drag 10 to 12 %

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2.2.1 Profile Drag:

Profile Drag is the drag incurred from frictional resistance of the blades passing through
the Air. It does not change significantly with angle of attack of the airfoil section , increase
moderately as air speed increase .

Profile Drag is a function of on longitudinal shape of the vehicle. This drag is minimized by
maintaining a laminar flow around vehicle body. Laminar flow refers to a condition in which
the air stream fallows smooth along the body without breaking away in to turbulence as
shown in fig.2.1 However laminar flow is difficult to maintain.

Fig 2.1 Air stream turbulence flow.

Airfoil shape offers minimum drag, but it is difficult to give the Airfoil or streaming
shape because downward shape of vehicle is as flat as possible to support the load, axle and
road wheel, so only choice for designer is to give perfect streamline shape to upper shape of
the vehicle . For different solid body shapes drag corfficients are different . These drag
coefficient are shown in fig.2.2

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Fig.2.2 Drag coefficient for solid body

2.2.2 Induced Drag :

Vehicle is relatively flat along the bottom and curved across the top. Air flow passing
through lower side of the vehicle. Induced drag is caused by vortices formed at the side of the
vehicle and the wind traveling below the vehicle.Establishment of trailing vorices are shown
in fig. 2.3

Fig.2.3 Establishment of trailing vortices

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Vortices are created around various regions of a vehicle when it is in motion. Vortices
can be described as a swirling air mass with an annular cylindrical shape. The induced
resistance is a part of the vehicle’s pressure resistance. Air pressure differences between the
vehicle’s upper and lower side produce cross-flows that form two large longitudinal swirls
together with the roof flow such swirls induce low pressures and this leads to an increased
pressure resistance as shown in fig. 2.4 and fig.2.5

Fig.2.4 Longitudinal swirls caused by induced draft

Fig.2.5 Induced air flow at the vehicle body

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2.2.3 Friction Drag :

Friction drag is drag caused by the friction of a fluid against the surface of an object that
is moving through it. It is directly proportional to the area of the surface in contact with the
fluid and increases with the square of the velocity. Friction drag is caused by the friction
force between the boundary layer and the body surface. If this surface is smooth(fig.2.6(b)), a
laminar boundary layer will be maintained further along the vehicle than with a rough
surface(fig.2.6(a)) shown in A thin layer of relatively slow moving air next to the surface of
body called boundary layer. At high speed , polished surface will reduce skin friction by
presenting a “slippery surface to the air. However, at the relatively low speed of an
automobile, the polished surface has little effect On drag.

Fig.2.6 Boundry layer for surface body

2.2.4 Interfernce Drag :

Interference Drag is drag that is generated by the mixing of airflow streamlines between
airframe components such as the wing and the fuselage, the engine pylon and the wing .The
drag is due to components which projects out of the normal surface of the vehicle 1body.
This includes components such as door handle, wipers, rear view mirrors, aerials, license plat,
air scoops, rain gutters and luggage racks. Projected parts underneath the vehicle also
contribute to interference drag. Extra efforts are taken to establish laminar flow around
projecting components.
2.2.5 Cooling and ventillaiton Drag :
This drag is caused by air flowing through cooling passage, engine compartment and
passenger compartment. A properly designed cooling and ventilating system can keep drag to

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a minimum and reduces energy demand. Flow through the radiator and engine compartment –
––-produces the greatest drag from internal flow.How air flow through radiator and engine
compartment is shown in fig.2.7

Fig.2.7 Cooling and ventilation drag

2.3 EFFECT OF DRAG ON PERFORMANCE OF VEHICLE

As speed of vehicle increases air drag apposing force increases in V2 rate and
power consumption demand increases which increases the fuel consumption. To overcome
this effect, control the shape of the vehicle as possible as to aero foil shape to maintain the
streamline flow across the vehicle body.

2.3.1 Performance and Fuel Economy

The motivation for allowing aerodynamics to influence the shape of vehicles, if not their
style, is the market situation, and this changes with time. Fuel economy and, increasingly,
global warming are the current key arguments for low drag worldwide. In Europe,
particularly Germany, top speed is still considered an important sales feature despite the
rapidly increasing traffic density which largely prohibits fast driving even in the absence of
speed limits. Vehicle fuel consumption is a matter of demand and supply. On the demand
side are the mechanical energies required for propulsion and by accessories. On the supply
side is the efficiency with which this energy can be generated by the powerplant and
delivered to the points of application. The influence of aerodynamics on this demand-supply
relationship is through the drag force, which affects the propulsive part of the demand side.
Commercial aircraft, trains, ships, and highway trucks typically operate at a relatively
constant cruising speed. In typical automobile driving, however, vehicle speed varies with
time or distance. An analysis of the factors affecting automobile fuel economy can best be

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made if the driving pattern is prescribed. In the U.S., two speed variations of particular
rclcvance are the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Urban and Highway schedules
that are the basis for the fuel-economy and exhaust-emissions regulations. They represent the
two major types of driving, and a combination of their fuel consumptions is used for
regulatory purposes.

2.3.2 Handling

While traveling along a road, a vehicle experiences more than just drag. The resultant
aerodynamic force has components in all six degrees of freedom (Fig.2.8). In principle, they
all influence a vehicle’s dynamics. Traditionally, test engineers distinguish between a
vehicle’s behavior In still air (handling), and its behaviour in the presence of a

Fig.2.8 The Resultant of aerodyanamic forces

crosswind (crosswind sensitivity). The flow over a vehicle moving through still air is
nominally symmetric about the vehicle’s plane of symmetry. Lift, pitching moment and, of
course, drag are therefore the only aerodyn’~mic components. Unless special measures are
taken, the vertical force on a bluff body close to the ground is positive, i.e. it tends to lift the
vehicle. The accompanying reduction in load on the tires is, in principle, disadvantageous to
handling. This is because the maximum side force that a tire can generate decreases when
wheel load is reduced. However, the effect is negligible for most vehicles except race cars--at
least at reasonable driving speeds. For a typical European car with a typical lift coefficient of
0.3, lift amounts to less than 3% of the vehicle’s weight at a speed of 60 mph, and only 10%
at 120 mph. It is the pitching moment rather than total lift that counts in vehicle dynamics
because it changes the load distribution between the front and rear axles, which alters the

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steering properties of a vehicle. With increasing speed, a negative (nose down) pitching
moment promotes a tendency oversteer, which is undesirable. But, this effect is hardly
noticeable to the average driver. Nevertheless some European manufacturers design their cars
for as low a rear-axle lift as possible, even if it involves a drag penalty. In contrast, race cars
live on negative lift. Their cornering capability has been improved dramatically by
aerodynamic downforce. This downforce has to be balanced against the accompanying
increase in drag, with the nature of the balance depending on the racetrack. High-speed
courses with only a few bends, like LeMans (France), call for cars with low drag because top
speed and fuel economy are decisive (the latter determines the number of fuel stops); speed
while cornering is less important. On the other hand, courses with numerous bends, like
Brands Hatch (Great Britain), require high downforce for short lap times.

2.3.3 Functionals

The flow over a vehicle not only produces aerodynamic forces and moments, but also
many other effects that can be summarized under the term functionals. During the
development of a new vehicle they require at least the same attention as the forces and
moments. These functional effects are: forces on body parts .Vehicle bodies are made up of
large and comparatively flat panels, and these have to withstand considerable aerodynamic
loading. Hoods, doors, and frameless windows have to be tight under all conditions. Modern
lightweight structures are prone to flutter. Special attention has to be paid to add-on parts like
air shields and the various types of spoilers. Wind noise. The more that the formerly
dominant noise sources (i.e. engine and tires) have been attenuated, the more that wind noise
has become objectionable inside vehicles. Passenger cars and buses are of particular concern.
In 1983, the vehicle speed at which wind noise was of the same annoyance as the noise from
those other sources was 100 mph in 1992 it is only 60 mph. Open sun roofs and side windows
can also cause low-frequency noise (booming) which is extremely annoying. Body surface
water flow and soiling Water flow on a body’s surfaces can impede visibility. Water streaks
and droplets accumulating on the forward side windows prevent a clear view into the outside
rear view mirrors. Soil diminishes the function of headlights and taillights. The sides of vans
and buses are often used for advertising purposes and therefore need to be kept clean. Interior
flow systems Several interior flow systems pass through a vehicle. For passenger and sports

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cars the design of engine-cooling ducting has become extremely difficult because of
increased engine power and less underhood space. Race cars are the most demanding.
According to up to 12 separate flow ducts have to be provided; these are for the "air box"
which conducts the combustion air to the engine, several coolers for water, oil, and the
turbocharged air, brake cooling, and cockpit ventilation. Passenger vehicles require ducting
for proper ventilation and heating of the passenger compartment. Buses require high rates of
air exchange free of drafts.[8]

2.4 AERODYNAMIC DRAG CONTROL TECHNIQUES

Given below there are some techniques by which aerodynamic drag can be controlled

1. The underbody should be as smooth and continuous as possible, and should sweep up
slightly at the rear.

2. There should be no sharp angles .

3. The front end should start at a low stagnation line, and curve up in a continuous line.

4. The front screen should be raked as much as is practical.

5. All body panels should have a minimal gap.

6. Glazing should be flush with the surface as much as possible.

7. All details such as door handles should be smoothly integrated within the contours.

[4]

Closure

Due to vehicle drag applied in different points on vehicle body , different forces applied in
different directions.And due to components of these forces drag force, side force, lift force
are formed . Again due to these forces moments also create of vehicle body.

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3.FORCES AND MOMENTS

Due to different vehicle drag some external applies on car body. And due to these
forces car also produce its moments along axes in different planes.

3.1 Types of forces

On the basis of direction of forces 3 forces are there as shown in fig.3.1

1. Drag forces
2. Lift forces
3. Side forces

Fig.3.1Aerodynamics forces and moments on vehicle

Out of which drag forces are discussed in 2nd chapter . Remaining are as follows.

3.1.1 Forces in Z-directions (Aerodynamics lift force) (Pz)

Streamlines over the upper part of vehicle have higher velocity than the streamlines
below the vehicle. Hence higher pressure is developed below the vehicle and resultant
vertical aerodynamic force is in upward direction and hence called aerodynamic lift. It is
applied through the center of pressure of the body profile.

Coefficient of aerodynamic lift obtained by wind tunnel testing = 0.2 to 0.5 for cars

Expressions for calculation Aerodynamic lift force is given by,

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Cz  A V 2
Pz 
2 -------------------------------------------------------------------(I)

Where,

Pz = Aerodynamic lift (N)

Cz = Lift coefficient, ( Dimensionless )

 = Air density (kg / m3)

A = Frontal projected area in direction of wind (m2)

V = Vehicle speed relative to wind (m/s)

3.1.2 Force in Y-direction (Aerodynamic Side force) (Py) :

The force is formed by the asymmetric flow around the body of the vehicle when the
wind angle ‘α ‘ is not equal to zero. This force acts at the center of pressure and creates
moments about z-axis and x-axis.

Aerodynamic side force act at center of pressure zone can be written in the form of ,

Cy  A V 2 -------------------------------------------------(II)
Py 
2

Where,

Py = aerodynamic side force,

Cy = side force coefficient,

 = Air density (kg / m3)

A = Frontal projected area in direction of wind (m2)

V = Vehicle speed relative to wind (m/s)

• If the side force acting just ahead or behind of the C.G. or y-axis from side of the
vehicle, created moment is called Yawing moment (Mz) across the vertical Z-axis.
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• If the moment which rotates vehicle around longitudinal axis (x-axis) is called rolling
moment(Mx) due to side force(Py) acting just above or below the longutudenal axis (
x-axis) or C.G.

Effects of the Side force (Py) on vehicle performance and control techniques :

Generally, all vehicle bodies are unstable, that is a side wind will produce a yawing
moment tending to turn the vehicle away from the direction of motion.
The use of stabilizers as fins at the rear improve directional stability. [5]

3.2 Types of moments

Because of the applied aerodynamics forces and distance of applied force from
centre of mass of vehicle , moments are created in vehicle in different axis . They are
as follows:

3.2.1 Yawing Moment :

Yawing moment is the moment of the side force about z-axis. It tends to change the
direction of motion. If side force Py acts on body just ahead of y-axis or C.G. then produces
yawing moment(fig.3.1)

Therefore Yawing moment due to side force =

Mz = Py f
2
Mz = Cmy ρ A V ------------------------------------(III)
2

Where,

Mz = Yawing moment across the Y axis.

Cmy = Yawing moment coefficient

Py = Aerodynamic side force in Y-axis pressure zone.

A = Frontal projected area in direction of wind (m2)

V = Vehicle speed relative to wind (m/s)

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l = A characteristic length, (wheel base}(m)

f = Distance of Py from z-axis (m)

3.2.2 Rolling moment (Mx):

Rolling moment is the moment of side force about x-axis. It tend to roll vehicle body
about longitudinal axis. (fig.3.1)

Rolling moment due to side force (Mx)=

Mx = Py d

Mx = Cmy  A -------------------------------------------------(IV)

Where,

Mx = Rolling moment across the Y axis.

Cmy = Rolling moment coefficient

Py = Aerodynamic side force .

 = Air density (kg / m3)

A = Frontal projected area in direction of wind (m2)

V = Vehicle speed relative to wind (m/s)

d = Distance of Py from x-axis (m)

Rolling moment cause load transfer between the wheels on the same axle. Thus effect is
dangerous for vehicle having more height where the side force acts a long way above the
longitudinal axis. The only real solution here is an increase in wheel track. [6]

3.3 Different Techniques used for control aerodynamic forces & moments

1. The vehicle have a small grill, to minimize frontal pressure.

2. The vehicle have minimal ground clearance below the grill, to minimize air flow
under the car.

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3. The vehicle have a steeply raked windshield to avoid pressure build up in front.

4. The vehicle have a "Fastback" style rear window and deck, to permit the air flow to
stay attached.

5. The vehicle have a converging "Tail" to keep the air flow attached.

6. The vehicle have a slightly raked underside, to create low pressure under the car, in
concert with the fact that the minimal ground clearance mentioned above allows even
less air flow under the car.

7. The vehicle have to Increasing wheel track to incresase stability in case of rolling

8. Equal weight have to distribute on wheels.

9. The cooling system needs to be designed for low drag.

10. Use of stabilizers or fins at rear of vehicle.[5]

Closure

Due to different forces and moments applied on the vehicle body. Vehicle gets
unbalanced. Because of these sometimes accident may happens .

For these deigner have to measure analyse the cause and effect of forces and moments .
But on road it very difficult to measure . Therefore to measure forces and moments of stable
car wind tunnel technology is invented.

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4.WIND TUNNEL TECHNOLOGY

Majority of experimental data needed in aerodynamics is generated using wind

tunnels. Wind Tunnel is a device for producing airflow relative to the body under
test(fig.4.1). Wind tunnels provide uniform flow conditions in their test section. wind tunnel
testing were initially aimed at conducting aerodynamic research mostly involving aircrafts. The
first enclosed wind tunnel for aeronautical purposes was designed and operated in 1871 by
Francis Herbert Wenham from the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, delivering many
fundamental discoveries. However, wind tunnel testing was only applied to automobiles almost
one century later, after years of using computer simulations instead of real-life procedures. How
these test is carried is shown in fig,4.2

4.1 Wind tunnel testing - Objectives

1. Study streamlining flow pattern over automobile model.

2. Study of pressure distribution over vehicle model.
3. For better body profiling & to obtain low coefficient air drag.
4. For study of better direction stability.
5. Good aesthetic shape so less air resistance to movement .
6. To meet specific design aspects : style , packaging , registration.
7. To determine performance characteristic of vehicle.
8. Performed on either scale model or full scale model.

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Fig.4.1 Field where wind tunnel test is used.

4.2 Wind tunnel equipments :

4.2.1Test section :

– Central part : Vehicle suspended

– 3 axis co-ordinate system
– Wind tunnel balance : Measurement
• Platform balance method : forces under each wheel.
• Virtual centre balance method : vehicle mounted on frame

4.2.2 Prechamber or settling chamber :

– Consist of flow rectifiers, filters, heat exchangers to improve the quality of the
air flow in terms of steadiness and direction.
– Keep temperature constant

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– Honeycomb : guide air : uniform , steady air

4.2.3 Nozzle :

– Contraction of air : velocity increase , pressure decrease

– Uniform flow required

4.2.4 Diffuser:

– Return air from test section by reducing speed of flow within shortest distance
& without flow separation.
– Good Efficiency
– Moving Belts
– Advance technology.
– This improve the quality of the air flow between vehicle and road.

4.2.5 Fan

- Generates speed of 200 km/hr.

- Normal 140 km/hr.

4.3 Measurement of aerodynamic forces:

Air velocity and pressures are measured in several ways in wind tunnels. Air velocity
through the test section is determined by Bernoulli's principle , Measurement of the dynamic
pressure, the static pressure, and (for compressible flow only) the temperature rise in the
airflow. The direction of airflow around a model can be determined by tufts of yarn attached
to the aerodynamic surfaces. The direction of airflow approaching a surface can be visualized
by mounting threads in the airflow ahead of and aft of the test model. Smoke or bubbles of
liquid can be introduced into the airflow upstream of the test model, and their path around the
model can be photographed.

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Aerodynamic forces on the test model are usually measured with beam balances, connected
to the test model with beams, strings, or cables.

The pressure distributions across the test model have historically been measured by drilling
many small holes along the airflow path, and using multi-tube manometers to measure the
pressure at each hole. Pressure distributions can more conveniently be measured by the use
of pressure-sensitive paint in which higher local pressure is indicated by lowered
fluorescence of the paint at that point. Pressure distributions can also be conveniently
measured by the use of pressure-sensitive pressure belts , a recent development in which
multiple ultra-miniaturized pressure sensor modules are integrated into a flexible strip. The
strip is attached to the aerodynamic surface with tape, and it sends signals depicting the
pressure distribution along its surface. [2]

Wind tunnel measurements :

• Flow visualization
• Aerodynamic loads
• Pressure measurements
• Temperature measurements
• Acoustic measurements

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Fig.4.2 Wind tunnel testing

4.4 Limitations:

1) The wind tunnel has designed with three fans due to the required flow speed and design
requirement. That‘s why the length was increased and also increases the guide vane stages.
There also create some turbulence and flow disturbance in the tunnel.

2) Also to ensure a uniform steady flow the wind tunnel also had to be built within
extremely limited tolerances .Without the benefit of machine fabricated pieces that are
usually found in wind tunnels additional time and effort was required to keep the dimensions
and contraction shapes close to the calculated requirements.

3)Another issue was to ensure uniform steady flow all of the surfaces and transitions had to
flow smoothly. This caused a problem with using screws or bolts, which could penetrate the
wind tunnel and lead to irregular flows around the protrusions. The solution to this was to use
a combination of rivets, tape, and adhesive to attach the components without any
protrusions.

4)To measure the pressure of the flow, pitot tubes are required with the pressure sensors.
So the effectiveness of the pitot tubes was of major importance. But, commercial pitot
tubes are unavailable in our country. As such, homemade pitot tubes, rather than
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commercial pitot tubes, were used for measuring the pressure in the test section. These are
obviously less efficient to sense air pressure and thus slight error was there in the pressure
reading.

5) High power fans are of a prime need in these sorts of wind tunnel projects. That is
why the total power output of the fan section was the most important thing in this project. As
the NGV had some losses and inefficient, so it actually required high power axial fan to
increase the power output of the fan section. But high power axial fans of the required
dimension and which was compatible with our designed wind tunnel are unavailable in our
country. [7]

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Conclusion
Due to Optimisation or giving aerodynamic shape of car results in –

1. Decreases weight of car.

2. Considerable reduction of fuel consumption due to low resistance of air.
3. Comfort characteristics will definitely increase due increasing stability of vehicle .
4. More favourable driving characteristics of ground vehicles due to decrement of
applied forces and moments on vehicle.
5. Gives sporty look to the vehicle.

Department ofAutomobile Engineering ,R.I.T., Rajaramnagar. Page 25

 Aerodynamic shape of car

References

1. Kieselbach 1982a,b, 1983; Hucho 1987b

2. Going with the flow, Aerospace Engineering & Manufacturing, March 2009, pp. 27-
28 Society of Automotive Engineers

3. Ackroyd, J. A. D.; Axcell, B. P.; Ruban, A. I. (2001). Early Developments of Modern

Aerodynamics. Reston

4. Krishnani, P. N. (2009) CFD study of drag reduction of a generic sport utility vehicle,
Master’s Thesis, Mechanical Engineering Department, California State University,
Sacramento.

5. Joseph Katz on Nov 28, 2016

6. F. Wittmeier, ... J. Wiedemann, in The International Vehicle Aerodynamic Conference,

2014

7. By Dave Campo, Stratasys, Inc

8. Buchheim et al 1983.

9.Aerodynamic Performance of Passenger Cars.Ruban, A. I. (2001)

Department ofAutomobile Engineering ,R.I.T., Rajaramnagar. Page 26