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Infestation control in stored spices and spice powders - an overview

Article  in  Pestology · December 1999

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Nivedhitha Gunasekaran Somiahnadar Rajendran

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PESTOLOGY VOL. XXIII NO. 12 DECEMBER 1999

INFESTATION CONTROL If.J STORED SPICES At-ID SP~CE POlJl/DERS -

AN OVERY; EW

N. GUNASEKAR1\.NAND S. RAJ""ENDl{AN
f'vorl Protectant.'i Gnd Tn(estation COIttrol Department, CentrCtl."'t.;od1'echnolcgical Rescarl.h f,tsli/llte,
Mysore-570 013, I1tdia.

-L1BSTRACI
Spices are high value ingredients used in a wid~ variely of food preparations. During

storage, spices and sj:'ice products are attacked by insect pests, which consume, cc'ntaminate
and make the producis favourable for olher spoilage organisms leading to quality deteriorution.
Control measures cl.lrrt~nlly adoplod, i.e., fumigation, irradiation and heat treatmerll and
their relative merits are discussed. Tile effect~ of the chemicul und physical treatmenls on
chemical constituents, colour, sensory and organoleptic quaiilies of spices and spice products
have been examined. The advantages ot carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere for disinfesltliion
and :;torage of spices are also discussed.

KEY WORDS: Stored spices, disinfestation.

1997-98 India exported 0.22 million tonncs of

S pices as a whole serve as
condiments in culinary. and
their lherapeUlil': properties. they playa
significant role in the treatment of several
disorders in humans. Spicl'S arl~ consumed ill
slnall quaI1titil.'s in every day diet of humans and
the)' do not contributi~ for significant amounts
of macrol1utrients, 11,tmely. carboh)'drntes.
proteins and fats. Howr;!-vcr, they have
exceplion;-lll)! high Il'\!(~ls or milll~rais ..ind
\1tamins, \\'hich play In illlp()rtant role in human
nutrition. Spic('s arc usl:d in ;:Ill\:alcgori~s offood
inJuslry iJl\ol\'ing me.1t, fish, \:l'gl~lablc products,
bakery products and (~on"'el1ience foods. Thus,
the use of spices in e\'cry day food in reasonable
amounts cannot but help to meet cumulatively
the needs of\'itamins and rnir\('r~ls of the human
body (Mahindru, 1994).
\Vorld trade of spices during 1995-96 is
estimated at 0.55 million tonnes vvorth US $ 1873
million and is projected to be 0.63 million tonnes
worth US S 2000 million by 2001 AD. During
spices valued at US $ 338 million. InJi3's
contribution to the world trade is of tIle (Irder of
important 37% byvolu111C mld 121}uby value. all all :lv(~rugc.
because of 8-1 ()IYooCthc total prodllctiOil ill India i~ (~:',r(Jrted.
Although !j,e exaci losses in s!(>r(~(1sl>ic(!s,
whole or powucreu, ulle to inSl!c!s ~Inu utl\er
pests in lndiil or elsewhere I\,lve nut beel\
qualltificd, this problem has assumeu
significance from the point of view of quality
standards in n.llional and imeolational ml\rkets,
Insects are the princii-l'rll agent:., of spoilage in
spic~:, and th(~ir products and tl\c pest acti\'ity
not OJ11y le:lds to loss or dr)' nli.lttcr allO lluality
but .llso pruduce~ pathogenic toxins.
Considering tIle importance of spices/spice
products in gelting v,uuable foreign exch.mgc, it
is essential to look into the st.ltus of tilC pest
problem and lhe various options fur COI\lrulling
the pests. Infestation iJsobleln in stored SIJic','s
and control measures h.l\'C be~n discuss{'u earlier
by Pruthi (1980) and Y.ldav (1989). l'he prescllt
rCVie\'1concerns the in~;ect pe~ts cn(:ollnll~red
and the merits and ur.lwbacks vC lhr a\ ,lil~II)i
contra: I1lcthous.

16
 PESTOLOGY VOL. XXIII NO. 12 DECEMBER 1999

INSECTPESTS are pearl)' \vhile, \.,'ith SpillCS a1 thc: cI1d of the

ef;g from which the lari'a emerges. f:ggs hatch
Durin~ storage. spices (]nd spice products (ll"e in 6-8 days and eggshell is eaten by ne\vl}'
(]ttacked by beetle and Illoth pests (Tablc 1) etnerged larva. There arc .Jlarval inslars before
among \vhich the spice beetle, Stegobium pupation. The larvae arc creamy or gre}'ish
paniceum L. and the cigar(~ttebeetle. La.\"ioderma wllite and thickly l~o\'cred \\'ith fine hairs that
serricorne R are predominant (Pruthi. 1980; appear as light brown on fully-gro\vn
Butani, 1984: Rahman Rezaur et. ai.. 1982 and individuals. The nc\\'ly hatched larvae are
Yadav 1989). L. serricorne q tropical insect is light extremely acti"-e but they tend to penetrate
to dark bro\vn in colour and 2.0-3.7 mm size. dccpl}' into loosely held commodities. Fully-
Adtllt siz(~and colour m(]y vary according to the grown larvae stop feeding and forll1 a plillal
type of food, temperature and humidity case, \vhich is made of food and waste
encountered during development. Adult is oval material, cemented together by secretion
in shape with head and thorax bent downvvard pi.oduccd by midgut. Aftcr pi.;pu: i.,criod. which
giving a humped or convex appearance. Females varies between 4-12 days, the adult remains in
are lal~cr than males,Thc adults fly during later tl,c r)upal case to harden and becomes sexually
afternoon, at dusk and d(ll"kness, but sometimes mature and then emerges. The adults ha\.e
in daylight on warm dull cI;IYS. short life of2-7 \vceks depending on lar\'(11food
!Ylll~, !I'II\I}I'I":!!III"I' III\III\IIII\i\li!~.. °1111'!\I!ililifl'
cycle under optimull1 co/\llitiollS !,Ikcs aO\)llt
rn~cct J1C~ls
of ~Iorcd spicc~ and ~picc products 41-513da}.s Ashworth (J993).
Jnsect Commodity
Beetles S, pfll1iceum, a cosmopolitan speclcs. has
l,asioden/la serricor/le Coriander alld its products.
been found infesting variolls t)'l'cs of "Mnt and
Turmeric, Ginger, Chillies, animal products (Lefkovitch. 1967). They ha\'e
Cdrdamom. Garlic bulb. ll1tracellular symbiotic yeasts in tJ1cir hindguts
Stegobium paniCe/fm Turmeric, Chillies. Coriander. (mycetomes) wluch make tllcm independent of
Gi!i~er, Cardamom. external source of Vitamin B. Adult female la)rs
7ribolium castrmeum ChiJlics. Turmeric. about 75 eggs during its life. Thcre are five or six
Tribolittm conjilsum Chillies. larval inslars; the last of \'v'hich constructs a
7rogorferma granarium Coriflnrler and its proclucts. cocoon in which it ptlpatcs. Aftcr eclosion. the
Tellebroidcs
mauretailieus (;hillies. Ginger, Turmeric, adults will remain in the cocoon for \-ariable
Cardamom. periods before emerging. Some indi\'iduals dr-
Araecerll.~fasciculallis Ginger. Turmeric, Cardamom. not construct cocoons. There is no obvious
Rlr)'Znperlhn dnminicn Chillies, Ttlrmcric, Coriander, externalscxual distinction in the adult excepting
Gingcr. that females are generally 11l'a\ier tl1an males.
Carpophil/I.~ ()h,~oll'r/I.~ Garlic bulb. Ttlrmcric. Adults do not fl~ed,'fl1C lift: l'~'C:l' is ahollt ,10da~'s
Cryprolc,~tl?\' .~p. Turmrric. Garlicbulb. and the adliit lives for 13-65 days tI('pendin~ 011
Turlucric. ambient conditions.
()r) :c",hil/".~l/r;l/mllr'/~is
Arrngemls dill/idiat/I.\' Turmeric.
There is a general feeling that high moisture
Cry'ptoblabes gl/idiella Garlicbulb.
content in the spices/spice products favours
,C;itophillis
ol:vzne Turmeric.
development of Insect pests and mol lid gro\\1h.
I\.loths
It has been noticed that in dry products \\'hen
Sitotroga cerealella Chillies.
insect infestation is high there \\'ill be heating and
Ephestia cal/tella Chillies.Turmeric. moisture condensation which is conducive for
CorcY'"a cephalonica Turmeric. spoilage by microorganisms (Seenappa, 1979).
Pest activity results in contamination of products
Females directly oviposit on to dried \vith insect fragments. excreta (uric acid),
material (011an average 110eggs/female). Eggs pathogenic microbes. and mycotoxins,

17
 PESTOLOGY VOL. XXIIII,jO. 12 DECEMBER 19f}9
Consequentl)!, the quality, shelf life and
marketability or spices/spice products are
affected and thus it becomes illl ~conomicaJ.Jy
important issue.
Hence, spices/spice products should be
protected from the attack of insect pests and
other depredating agents in order to meet the
quality standards and/or regulatory limits with
respect to pest contaminants and pesticides. In
India, as per the Agmark Grade Specifications-
199.4 under the Agricultural Produce-Grading
and Marking Act 1937, all the spices and tllcir
products sllOllld bl' [rl'l~ [r()m insect illlestatiolJ,
illsect fragml'nts and Inould gro\vth. The
m.\ximum allowable limit for uric acid, which is
an indicator for insect infestation. is 100 mg/kg"
under the PFAAct 1954. Hence, among tile insect
control methods applic..lble to ,...tiJiI::Jspiccsl
spice products. ftlmigation. irradiation and use
of heat are importallt. ".
CONTROL l\1ETHODS
Fumigation : l~umigation involv(~s application
of chenlicals in the gaseous phase that act ag.linst
pest organisnls. Currently. spices/spice products
are disinfected \vith phosphine or methyl
bromide fumigants ('1'able 2). Ethylene oxide is
used niainly for controlling the microtlora.
-18
1.Jhosphi11e
is a co]ourle:ss,illl1,\mllluble gas,
which in pure form is odourless. 13utit gives a
sme]!, similar to garlic due to the presence of
il-11purities \vhen generated from the
formulations. Phosphine is liberated from
a]uminium or magnesium phosphide
preparations when exposed to atmospheric
moisture. Phosphine as a fumigant has many
desirableproperties suchaseasein ha11dling,less
residue problems anu low cost (13ond,]~)84).
Reports indicate that pllosphine does 1101
affect lhe quality of spices and spice powders. A
d()sage of2 104 mulllllllum pllospl1i(le lablets ((j
lo 12 g) per lOI1l1eof commodity for nol less than
5 days has been use(! against spices ai1d spice
products. At the end of.fgmigatiol1 tll(' ';nspent
powder comprising mainly metal hydroxide and
some quantity of unr(~acted melall~hospllide can
be easily removed and disposed of after
dcactivati~n. l~ylindcr-bascd pl1osphinc
formlilatioll, i.e.. about 2-3% pllosphinc by
\vcighl in c.arLJ{)f!diQ'(ide is also 3vailabll' ill sol11C
collutrics such ,IS Australia and UK. I\l present
most of the sloled product insects including
L..\"erricor/le have been reported to 113v('
developed resistance to phosphi11c and lh(~
problem is !110reactlte in U1e tropical region.
~.1ethyl brolnidi~ is a highly poisonous.
colourless ~nd odourlcss g~lS. It is cllemically
stable, non-explosive, free from lire risks allli
llighly toxic,to a \'.'ide range of insl'cts. It is
mi.uketedin cylu1ders or in 0.5 to 1.5 Kg Ci.lnSwitll
or without chloropicrin at 2% w/\v. Methyl
bronlide is recommended for fumigilling: spices
alld spice lruxes generally at 24-48 g/lnJ willI all
exposure period of 24-48 hrs under 110rmi.11
atmospheric conditions. Thc gas is rcliltively l(~ss
effective thall clhyll~11Coxide i.lgiiillSl J11icrool's
(Bond 1984). It is particularly suitable f()r \'aCUUIII
fumigation of processed and packed products
ull:luding spil:c po\vders (Muthu allu M;ljumuer
1974).
}{eccntl",
.. tile coll1pound '1as 1'(~eJ)idl':llifietl
a~; a ..,erious ozone de! lelur \vill1 all OZOll,:
Depleting Polellliul (aDP) of 0.7 (UNI~P 1995).
I{l'peatcd lre.llmCl!t:., of spice jJrOdllct... with tl1('
fumigant (;auscs di~;coJouralion allu loss of

essential oils (Pruthi, 1980). Spices fumigated
under atmospheric conditions with methyl
hromicle at 90 g/m3 for 12 hr showed inorganic
hromicle residues cxcc(~ding the permissible
limits or25 ppm (r~eeves('t. al., 19/1!1).
J~thylcne oxide is an innammable, colourlcss
gas with irritating odour, which is detectable only
at hig" concentrations. It is supplied in cylinders
at 1:~1:11109: 1 admixture with carhon dioxide or
fr(~on 1,'as.Elhylcnc oxide i:; llSCOprimarily for
sterilisation of spices allhough during the
treC\tment insects are also controlled (Bond 1984).
Ethylcnc oxide is sllspcctcd carcinogen and it
forms chlorohydrin or bromoh):drin residues,
which arc also cal cinog(~nic. Hcl1cc the use of
cthylcllc oxide has bccn discontinllcd in mallY
developed nations.
In rare instances, cthyll~ne oxide fumigation
affected the volatile oil content of spites.
Fumigation of cloves by ethylene oxide at dosages
of 550, 750, 1000 g/m3 for 6 hr at 20-25°C, the
volatile oil content was decreased by 1.7-2.2%
(Coretti and Inal1969). Vajdi and Pereira (1973)
observed a similar trend in black pepper and
allspice exposed for 16 hr (dosage not clear). The
treatment affected the colour of black pepper.
Morcover, ethylene cilloroh)'drin r(~sidue is
formed in treated spices (Gerhardt and Ladd-
l~ffio I ~)!!3).Kuruppu ct. rll., (1985) in their study
fotlnd tllat the anti ,xidativc properties of the
spices such as nlarjoram, nutmeg, paprika and
black pepper \\'crc not affected by ethylene oxide
trcatl11cnt. In addition to the use of these
fumigants whole spices like coriander seeds are
treated wilh sulfur dio;,ide for hl(;aching. There
is very little information about Ihc effect of
fumigi11ion on the physical and scnsoryqualities
of spices. The drawbacks of the fumigants
currently used for disinfestation and disinfection
of stored spices include residue problems, insect
resistance and adverse effect on environment.
Muthu et. at. (1984) has tested ethyl formate as
an effective fumigant for the disinfestation of
spices at a dosage of300 g/m3 for 72 hr.
Irradiation: Irradiation is being used in many
countries (1) for controlJingmicroorgnnisms and
insects in food products of.agricultural and
PESTOlOGY VOL. XXIII N.J. 12 DECEMBER 1999
animal origin. (2) to inhibit sprouting of tuber
and bulbs. (3) to deja)' rip,,'nin~ of fruIts and (1)
to extr:nd the shelf-life of food commodities
.(Thayer, 1990 and Sjoberg ct. a/. 1991). Irradiation
of fipic(~s becomes ('ssl'ntial as tllC)" arc
contalllinllted with spoilagl' organislns SlIl'hllS
microbes and insect pests (Pad"',11 DeslIi, et. a/.
1987).
.' ',bout 30 countries. including I!ldia. have
approved irradiation of spi('('s. allt! abollt 20
countries are already irr;:ldiating spices on a
commercial scale (Prasad, 1995). Gamma
irradiatioI) of \vhoJe and ground spices \vas
effective against insect infestation (Pad\val Desai.
('t. at, 1987) at 1 kGy. Spices stIch as coriander.
cumin, ;t!rmeric and l~hilJics treatet! by gamma
radiatioll at 10 k(;y .1nd storcc{ fur G months
proved to retain Goot! microbiological quality
(Almn et, 11/, 1992),
The effect of irrl1cJiation on the physical
appearance, chemical ~Jul1lity and sensory
chnractcristics has bC'cn c\al11inco b)' man)'
"v.orkers ffiachman & Gicszczynska 1973; B),tn N.
al., 1983; LCSCallOet. (II. 19':)i). In gl'ncral, no
adverse effect has been observed in spiCL j
irradiated at the recommended dosage of 10 kGy.
Nevcrthcles$, there i\rC a f(',,' rl'rort~ anollt
changes in the quality of ~piccs follo,ving
treatment rfuble 3).
19
 PESTOLOuY 'J~)t.. XXIii I~O. 1:? DECf.~A8ER 1999
For instance, iliC yi\.-,!rj of voli:1.tile oil
constituents in spice mixtures, \"Jhite pepper,
nutmeg and ginger increased after the irradiation
at 2,.25 kGy (Tjaberg. et. al. 1972 Bachman and
Gieszczynska 1973) and y-terpene content
increased in dried th}'me treated at 30 kGy
(Venskutonis et. al. 1996). Loss of major flavour
components such as aI1etho)e. anisaldehyde and
chavicol in anise, anisaldch)'de in fennel and
lP-pincnc and cll1eol in black pepper occurred
after 10-kGy irradiation (l-:araget. al. 1996).
In tile black pepper irradiation resulted in
conversion of mono terpene hydrocarbons to
fQrpelles. Lcscal1o ct. af., (1991) observed that tIle
pH of the ground ginger. turmeric and garlic
powder \\'as affected by irradiation treatment at
10-30 kG~'.
(~olotlr pla}'s a vital roJ(' ill detcrmilling the
consum(~r acceptance of spices. Studies so far
have indic;llCd that the appearance and sensory
qualitil~S or irradial.~d spices/spice products
remain unaiJi:i::lea (Nar\'aiz et. al. 1989 Szabad
and Kiss; 1~J79J_C'Sc'".llO et. al., 1991 and !nal et.
al. 1975). Ncv!.'r!!lclrss, consumer una\varcness,
lack of\\'ell-dcfi1l(~d st:lndards, lack of significant
data on \\'holesom~nes$ of iuiJdi;.1ted foods. and
cost of tile process art' saine of the limiting
factors, affecting the \vide use of the process
('lnakur al1d SiI1~1),I ~)~5).
ileat TreatJnent : Insect disinfestation by heat
treatmentll;.lS bl'l'11 coJ\sidl'red since long time.
Ilo\Vt'\'l"!r. till' in.o;\llatillg ellt'ctof .o;picesin lJulk
greatly increases tht~ time requiicd for heat
treatment .\nd lhereforc is expensive.
Furthermore. the lrt~atment lime is criticalns
excess hl'a! l11ayafrt~ct the q\laJily of spice, for
examplt' colour ;lnd pungency in capsicum
(Go\rindarajan, 1985;. Faraget.n.l. (199G)ho\vever
noticed that in spices such as black pepper,
fennel. coriander, anise and turmeric heal
treatment at 70°C for 15 min did not affect the
quality ailli microI1i.t! load ,vas reduced p3rl!y.
St~rilisation of spice~ \\ ith pulsed steam, in
which actually the steam LuJldenses on the spice
particles, helped to elimin;1te microorgalusms
with millimllm adverse effects on flavour or
20
aroma (LeU("1992.).Sub.sequently, the sl)iceS1ICC(1
to be dried to eliminate moisture absorbed by thl'
steam treatment. l)ellI1e and Bugi (1993)
reported that pasteurisation of spices c()uld bl'
done by high frcqtl~llCY and microwaVl'
treatments as an alternative to irradiation ant!
fumigation. Following high frequency treatment
at 30KW, 27.12 MHz for 15:30 mill, loss in
essential oil content rIoted in ~rour.~1 C:IIll,."'fJn,
crushed white and blal-k pepper, caraway
(whole), and marjoram leaves. The loss \\"as murt'
in groulld spices than in whole ones.
TIlermal regulating methods gellerally cause
one or the other ullclesirable chan!~(~s in till'
treated products. I Iellce heat treatmellt can be
supplemented or combu1cd with other control
measures. Thakur and Siilgh (1995) suggested
that irradiation COUll! be used in comhination
\vith tile other In(~lhuds SllCh as cr~'ogenic
temperature, modificd atmosphere or vacuum
packing. However all these processes are labour
intensive. tinlC cOilsuming .1I1dexpensive.
A!ternates : Due to rc:.;idue pr()blcms,
regulatory restrictiol1S and consumer aversion
tow;lI"ds pesticides there is an mcreas(~demphasis
on non-chclnical methods of preserving food
commodities. The 11011nal composition of
atmospheric air i.e. 21% Ox)'!{cn, O.O3';J;)CO;! and
78gb nitrogen is altered ap!)ropriat(~ly for the
col..trol of insect Lind olhcr pests. Accordillg1y all
atmosphere containinl~ more than :j~)'}o CO;!
knO\Vll as carbon dioxide atmosphere a/ld the
atmosphere colttainillg less than 1'70oxy~ell i.e.
low oxygen .ltInosphere .ire lethal to insl'cls.
This modified atmosphere (MA) storag(! has
beell shoym to be promising in creatil)~ JetJIal
conditions for insects and fungi ill stored
commodity. This n1c:thod is already b('il)!~ used
to control insect infcstation in large-sl'alc grain
storage in AI\str,uia and IndoJ1esia (Anllis, 1987;
llipp et. ai., 1990). I-Iu\'.'l'ver, carbon dioxide-rich
atmosph(~re for storage of spices has n()t been
c:I(tensivel)' studied.
CONCLUSION
Fu!11if~ants currently used for coJltrolling
 PESTOLOGY VOL. XXIII NO. 12 DECEMBER 1999

insects and r11icroorganisms in spices have
prohlcms such as insect resistance, residues,
c.lrcirl()r~cnicity and (~nvironm(~ntal hazards.
Irraui;rlion, though accepted by regul~tory
authorities, is nut widely used due to constraints
in terms of economic costs and consumer
acceptance. Carbon diox.ide treatment though
adopted for storage" and preservation of other
agrictlltural commndities, the technique is yet to
;", app~iec for tl)~ protection of spices. In general,
studies on pest control of spices are very limited,
COmlJared to other food commodities such as
cereals, pulses and oil seeds. Application of CO2-
rich atmospheres for disinfestation and
disil1f(~ction of stored spices needs .detailed
investigation.
TIJ(~authors thank Director, Cf'TnI [or IJis
encouragement.
1\1.:11I:lrl<(;r:,lIc 199~ (I\~rirllllllr:ll Prollllt't' (;r:lllill~
:11111Marking) spcciric:llions ror spirt's. Spiccs
I~o:lrd India.
AI:lm, M.K., Choudhury, N.A. nnd Youssmlr, Q.M.
(1992) Decontamin:ltion or spiccs by gamma
1':ldin/ion. Lctt/'r\, ill ,""plied Microhiolog.. 14 (5),
199-202.
Annis, P.C. (1987) to\v:ll'lis controlled ntmosphcre
dosngcsschcdnles: a I'cvie,v or current knmvledge.
In Procecdings ofthc 4th International ,,'orking
conrerence on stored product protection. Tel-
A,'iv. Israel, 128-149.
Ash"'ol'th, .f.R. (1993) The biology of LiI,t;oc!crllli1
Jl'rricorne .)IJllnral ofS;ore(1 Proc!lIct Re,\'cilrc!:
(4)291-303.
Rachm:ln, S. and Gicszc;~.vnska,.J. (1973) Sflldics on
somc microbial and chemic:11aspcctsofirradiatcd
~piccs. (In: Aspcct~ of introduction of food
irradiation in dcvcloping c()untric~) C()lIfcrcncc
procccdings pp.33-~I.
Bufani, O.K. (j98~) Spiccs :Inti pcsf prohlcms:
Cori:lntlcr. Pe.flicidt.'s 18(9) 15-17.
"yun, M.\V. K,vom, .r.ll. IIn!! Cho, 11.0. (IQ8J)
Stcrilis:ltwn an!! storllgr ofspicl's hy irradillt: '11.
I. Sfcrilis~tioll of po\vtlcrcd hot pcppcr pastc.
K()rel1l1 .'()rtrlltr! ()I fo()t! ,)('iCIICI.' a1lt! Tecl:rro!tlgr
15(4), J.~9-363.
Corcfli, K. :Inti In~J, T. (19li9) Rcsiduc Problcms in
cold stcrilis:lfinn of spkcs. F!ei~ch,,'irt~chalt -19(5),
599-609.
Dehnc, L.I. and nngi, K.N. (I °93) Paste!Jrisation of
spices by micrmv3ve arId high frequency. Food
MarketiflC afld Techn%!.'J 7 (5). 35-38.
Farag Z. S.E.A., Aziz. N.II. :Ind Ali. ,.\.1\1. (1996)
C()mp:lrin~ efrccts of \..'nshing. thcrmal
trcntmcnts alicl gamm:l irra<li:ltio!! quality of
spices. NahrltnK 40 (1). .:'2-36.
Gcrh:!r(lt -{J. and Ln<ld- F:flin -.J.C' (IQ.I\_') Ethylrne
oxitlr residurs in spirr~. f1rhl.h','irl,\'t'/r,'/t 6_'(-I).
606-608.
Govind:lraj:ln, V.S (1985) C:lp~icllm -production,
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