Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy

Evaluation of low-cost water purification systems for Humanitarian Assistance and

Disaster Relief (HA/DR)
--Manuscript Draft--

Manuscript Number: CTEP-D-12-00109

Full Title: Evaluation of low-cost water purification systems for Humanitarian Assistance and
Disaster Relief (HA/DR)

Article Type: Original Research

Abstract: Following a natural disaster, access to safe drinking water by the affected population is
a high priority. Low-cost water purification systems, which can be used for both short-
term (immediate) and long-term (sustainable) response to serve the needs of the
affected communities, are ideal for these scenarios. The University of Hawaii (UH) has
developed three low-cost water purification technologies for use during Humanitarian
Assistance and Disaster Relief (HA/DR) missions. A UH team participated in joint USA
and partner nation training exercises, such as Crimson Viper 2010 and 2011,
organized by the Marine Corps Forces Pacific Experimentation Center (MEC) in
Sattahip, Thailand, to demonstrate the effectiveness of these technologies to purify
water from local sources. Three technologies were selected for Crimson Viper 2010: 1)
a backpack filter unit, 2) a bicycle-pump powered reverse osmosis (RO) unit, and 3) a
model slow-sand filtration unit. For Crimson Viper 2011, improved versions of the
backpack and RO units were deployed. This paper discusses and evaluates the results
obtained during the demonstration of the three technologies at these exercises.

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1
Evaluation of low-cost water purification
2
3 systems for Humanitarian Assistance and
4
5
6 Disaster Relief (HA/DR)
7
8
9 Chittaranjan Ray1, Ashish Babbar2, Bunnie Yoneyama3, Lukas Sheild4, Benjamin
10
Respicio5, Cheryl Ishii6
11
12 1
13 Interim Director, Water Resource Research Center and Professor, Civil &
14 Environmental Engineering, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2540 Dole Street,
15 Holmes Hall 286, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822.
16
17 Ph: 808-956-9652
18 Fax: 808-956-5014
19
20 Email: cray@hawaii.edu
21 2
22 Lead Systems Engineer, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2800 Woodlawn Drive,
23 Suite 163, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822.
24 3
25 Research Associate, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2540 Dole Street, Holmes
26 Hall 285, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822.
27 4
28 Environmental Research Specialist, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2800
29 Woodlawn Drive, Suite 170, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822.
30 5
31
Scientific Instrument Technician, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2540 Dole
32 Street, Holmes Hall 180, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822.
33 6
34
Assistant Specialist, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2800 Woodlawn Drive,
35 Suite 162, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822.
36 Abstract Following a natural disaster, access to safe drinking water by the affected population is a
37
38 high priority. Low-cost water purification systems, which can be used for both short-term
39 (immediate) and long-term (sustainable) response to serve the needs of the affected communities,
40
41 are ideal for these scenarios. The University of Hawaii (UH) has developed three low-cost water
42 purification technologies for use during Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HA/DR)
43
44 missions. A UH team participated in joint USA and partner nation training exercises, such as
45 Crimson Viper 2010 and 2011, organized by the Marine Corps Forces Pacific Experimentation
46
47 Center (MEC) in Sattahip, Thailand, to demonstrate the effectiveness of these technologies to
48
purify water from local sources. Three technologies were selected for Crimson Viper 2010: 1) a
49
50 backpack filter unit, 2) a bicycle-pump powered reverse osmosis (RO) unit, and 3) a model slow-
51
sand filtration unit. For Crimson Viper 2011, improved versions of the backpack and RO units
52
53 were deployed. This paper discusses and evaluates the results obtained during the demonstration of
54
55 the three technologies at these exercises.
56
57 Keywords Water purification, Humanitarian assistance, Disaster relief, Slow
58
59 sand, Reverse osmosis
60
61
62
63 1
64
65
 Abbreviations APIX: Asia Pacific Information Exchange; DSTD: Defense Science Technology
1 Division; DR: Disaster Relief; FHA: Foreign
2
3 Humanitarian Assistance; HA: Humanitarian
4 Assistance; HTDV: Hawaii Technology Development
5
6 Venture; LED: Light Emitting Diode; MEC: Marine
7 Corps Forces Pacific Experimentation Center;
8
9 NADESCOM: National Development Support
10 Command; ONR: Office of Naval Research; PFC:
11
12 Perfluorochemicals; PICHTR: Pacific International
13 Center for High Technology Research; RO: Reverse
14
15 Osmosis; UH: University of Hawaii; USPACOM:
16
United States Pacific Command; UV: UltraViolet.
17
18
19
20
Introduction
21
22 The Asia Pacific Information Exchange (APIX) water purification project is
23
24 designed to develop and evaluate cost-effective water purification technologies in
25
26 support of Foreign Humanitarian Assistance (FHA) operations. The water
27
28 purification project focused on two FHA missions: Humanitarian Assistance (HA)
29
30 and Disaster Relief (DR). The APIX program is intended to benefit both the USA
31
32 and its partner nations such as Thailand and the Philippines. The University of
33 Hawaii (UH) demonstrated their water purification systems for HA/DR at a
34
35 technology exchange exercise (i.e., Crimson Viper) organized by the Marine
36
37 Corps Forces Pacific Experimentation Center (MEC), United States Pacific
38
39 Command (USPACOM).
40
41
42 Technology Requirements
43
44
45 The selected technology for water purification was expected to meet the following
46
47 criteria:
48
49 1. Technology should be applicable to the humanitarian phase of HA/DR and
50
51
should also support development activities. The proposed technology
52 should cover at least 60% to 70% of possible scenarios.
53
54 2. Equipment designed for the proposed technology should be easily
55
56 transportable by air and have the capability to be distributed with ease.
57
58 3. Proposed technology should be “low tech” and require minimal expertise
59
60 to operate.
61
62
63 2
64
65
 4. Technology should be easy to use so that the local population can be
1
2 trained quickly and efficiently on its use.
3
4
5. Technology should be weight and volume efficient.
5 6. Recipients of the water purification technology should have confidence the
6
7 drinking water is suitable for consumption based on taste, appearance,
8
9 packaging, and the purification process.
10
11
12 Technology Categories
13
14
15
The HA/DR technologies for this effort were divided into two broad categories:
16 1. Rapid and Immediate Response. These technologies can be deployed at
17
18 short notice and serve the needs of the communities soon after a disaster.
19
20 The systems under this category should have the following features:
21
22 a. Portable
23
24 b. Low cost
25
26
c. Light weight
27 d. Easy to use or requiring minimal training
28
29 e. Requiring minimal or no external power
30
31 2. Long-Term and Sustainable Response. These technologies can be
32
33 deployed after a disaster to provide long-term support to the community.
34
35 The systems in this category can also be used in humanitarian assistance
36
scenarios. The features for these systems include:
37
38 a. Ability to support a community or large population
39
40 b. Able to purify a large volume of water
41
42 c. Parts do not require frequent replacements
43
44 d. Does not require complex training to operate
45
46 e. Uses easily available power sources
47
48
Technology Exchange Exercises
49
50
51 Under the APIX program, UH developed water purification systems for
52
53 demonstration at the following joint military exercises (i.e., Crimson Viper and
54
55 Balikatan).
56
57 1. Crimson Viper. A Thai-US technology collaboration experimentation
58 event, jointly sponsored by the USPACOM and the Royal Thai Defense
59
60 Science and Technology Division (DSTD). The mission of Crimson Viper
61
62
63 3
64
65
 is to provide technology developers access to Thailand’s unique
1
2 operational environment to conduct experiments and to test their
3
4
technologies.
5 2. Balikatan. A joint exercise between USPACOM and the Philippines
6
7 National Development Support Command (NADESCOM) to conduct
8
9 experimentation and testing of partner technologies.
10
11
12 UH Water Purification Systems
13
14
15 UH developed the following three water purification technologies, which were
16
17 demonstrated at the Crimson Viper 2010 exercise:
18
19 1. Slow sand filter system
20
21 2. Soda bottle based reverse osmosis (RO) system for fresh water
22 3. Backpack based multi-level filter system
23
24 The following two technologies were demonstrated at the Crimson Viper 2011:
25
26 1. Portable RO system for fresh water
27
28 2. Modified backpack based multi-level filter system
29
30 At Balikatan 2012, UH will demonstrate the following two technologies:
31
32 1. Modified slow sand filter
33 2. Portable RO system for fresh water
34
35
36 Crimson Viper 2010 Demonstration Systems
37
38
39 The UH water purification system demonstration was conducted at Sattahip Royal
40
41 Navy Base, Sattahip, Thailand. For the Crimson Viper 2010 exercise, two fresh
42
43 water sites within the base were selected for the system demonstration. Site #1
44 was a small pond inside the base. The water from the pond was purified for
45
46 drinking by the water plant located on base. Site #2 was a small lake surrounded
47
48 by plants near the Utapao Airbase where a slow sand filter was set up. Figure 1
49
50 shows the two demonstration sites at Crimson Viper 2010.
51
52
53 Slow sand filter system
54
55 A slow sand or “biosand” filter is a water filtration system that uses biological
56
57 activity in the sand to improve water quality without the addition of chemicals to
58
59 the water (Logsdon et al. 2002; Huisman and Wood 1974; Haarhoff and Cleasby
60
61 1991). A slow sand filter can operate as a self-sustainable technology without use
62
63 4
64
65
 of electricity or fuel. The UH slow sand filter consisted of a cylindrical container
1
2 0.90 m high, packed with approximately 0.15 m of gravel, and about 0.70 m of
3
4
silica sand (particle size between 0.20 mm and 0.35 mm). The source water to be
5 purified was supplied at the top of the column and was allowed to flow slowly
6
7 down (due to gravity) through the sand and gravel to the pipes on the bottom. The
8
9 sand bed was kept saturated by the continuous flow of source water through the
10
11 system.
12
13 Slow sand filters work by the formation of a gelatinous/bio layer called
14
15
“Schmutzdecke” on the top few millimeters of the sand layer (Huisman and Wood
16 1974). Pathogens in the water were captured in the filter media and acted upon by
17
18 the microorganisms present in the biolayer (Oasis Design1991).
19
20 The advantages of the slow sand filter included the following:
21
22 • Requires no electro/mechanical power or chemicals, minimal operator
23
24 training, and only periodic maintenance.
25
26
• Has a simple design and easy to construct from locally available materials.
27 • Removes over 99% of harmful bacteria from the water (Haarhoff and
28
29 Cleasby 1991).
30
31 • Capable of removing viruses and improving water clarity (Haarhoff and
32
33 Cleasby 1991).
34
35 The slow sand filter developed by UH for the Crimson Viper exercise had an
36 average flow rate of 27 L/day. Figure 2 shows the bench-scale slow sand filter
37
38 demonstrated at Crimson Viper 2010. The sand column for this system was an
39
40 acrylic cylinder. This system was easily scalable if a greater volume of finished
41
42 water was required. UH has also developed a scaled up version of this system
43
44 capable of filtering approximately 750 L/day, which will be demonstrated at the
45
46 Balikatan 2012 exercise in the Philippines. Figure 3 shows the prototype of this
47 scaled-up system. The UH system consists of two parts:
48
49 1. Front-end System. This section consisted of a slow sand filter that relies
50
51 on the Schmutzdecke to filter out particles of foreign matter that were then
52
53 metabolized by the bacteria, fungi, and protozoa in the Schmutzdecke
54
55 (Bellamy et al. 1985).
56
57
2. Tail-end System. This section consisted of a system that can help improve
58 the quality of water obtained from the sand filter by further removing
59
60
61
62
63 5
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 pathogens and volatile organic compounds. A UV light disinfection
1
2 system was used to achieve these results.
3
4
5 Soda bottle based reverse osmosis system
6
7 This system was based on a multiple stage RO procedure and demonstrated at
8
9 Crimson Viper 2010. Plastic soda bottles with a 2-L capacity, which can
10
11 withstand pressures up to 689.47 kPa, acted as both the feed and pressure vessel.
12
13 Provisions were made for air to be pumped into the bottle for pressurization. The
14
15
pressurization pump created enough pressure to force the water through the filters
16 and the outlet for collection.
17
18 In this system, the source water, poured into a plastic soda bottle, was
19
20 pressurized to 482.63 kPa using a bicycle pump. Due to the pressure, the source
21
22 water was forced out from the soda bottle to run through a series of filters. The
23
24 source water passed through a sediment filter followed by a carbon filter. Water
25
26
from the carbon filter then passed through an RO membrane filter. The filtered
27 water was then collected in a third soda bottle. The RO filter was washed at
28
29 periodic intervals to remove any sediment that may have been attached to the RO
30
31 membrane. Figure 4 shows the soda bottle-based RO system demonstrated at
32
33 Crimson Viper 2010.
34
35 The advantages of the soda bottle filter system were as follows:
36
• Easy to assemble and maintain by the local populace.
37
38 • Required minimum training to operate.
39
40 • Cost per liter of water produced was very low and the process required no
41
42 power input.
43
44 • Easily transportable and could be used in disaster relief scenarios.
45
46 • Depending on the source water quality, this system was capable of operating
47 for an extended duration without the need of filter replacements.
48
49 This system consisted of three different filters:
50
51 1. First Stage: Polypropylene sediment filter
52
53 • Osmonics 5-µm rating, Model #1-SED10
54
55 • Size: 10 in.
56
57 • Removed sediments and particles, including dust, rust, and organic
58 matter
59
60 • Cost: $9
61
62
63 6
64
65
 • Procured from APEC Water Systems Inc.
1
2 2. Second Stage: Carbon block filter
3
4
• KX Extruded 5-µm rating, Model #23-CAB10
5 • Size: 10 in.
6
7 • Removed chlorine, taste, odor, cloudiness, and color
8
9 • Cost: $15
10
11 • Procured from APEC Water Systems Inc.
12
13 3. Third Stage: Thin film composite RO membrane filter
14
15
• Dow Filtec Tw30-1812-75 RO membrane #114731
16 • Size: 11.75 in.
17
18 • Removed perfluorochemicals (PFC), bacteria and viruses (Olsen et al.
19
20 2008)
21
22 • Cost: $75
23
24 • Procured from WaterFiltersOnline.com
25
26
27
Backpack based multi-level filter
28
29 Demonstrated at Crimson Viper 2010, this system was a portable, lightweight
30
31 multiple filter system that could be used to purify water in several stages using
32
33 separate methods of purification. This system was a portable unit that could be
34
35 supplied and easily used in disaster relief scenarios. The system consisted of
36
modular, interchangeable filters that can be combined to provide water filtration.
37
38 The three stages of the filter included: a 5-µm spun polypropylene filter, a 0.5-µm
39
40 carbon block filter, and a UV light disinfection system. This was a modified
41
42 version of the Adaptive Water Treatment for Education and Research (WaTER)
43
44 laboratory system developed by Rice University (Boyle and Houchens 2008).
45
46 As the source water flowed through the filter stack, each filter acted to remove
47 specific contaminants such as large particulates, odor, and bacteria. The UV light
48
49 disinfection system operated on Li-Ion batteries that were charged using solar
50
51 panels. Figure 5 shows the backpack based multi-level filter system demonstrated
52
53 at Crimson Viper 2010.
54
55 The advantages of using a backpack filtration system included the following:
56
57 • One of the simplest and cheapest means of producing potable water.
58 • Used a hand pump to produce sufficient water for human survival.
59
60 • Did not require any external power source for operation.
61
62
63 7
64
65
 • As a modular system, the filters can be assembled based on the water quality
1
2 of the different source waters.
3
4
The backpack system consisted of three stages:
5 1. First Stage: Pentek spun polypropylene filter
6
7 • 5-µm rating, Model #P5-478
8
9 • Flow Rate: 7.56 L/min at 2.07 kPa
10
11 • Temperature Range: 4°C to 62°C
12
13 • Reduced particulates such as sand, dirt, rust, and sediment
14
15
• Cost: $3
16 • Procured from Filter Fast LLC.
17
18 2. Second Stage: Pentek carbon block filter
19
20 • 0.5-µm rating, Model #CBC-5
21
22 • Reduced bad taste, odor, and chlorine taste
23
24 • Cost: $10
25
26
• Procured from Filter Fast LLC.
27 3. Third Stage: AquaStar Plus UV treatment system
28
29 • Weight: 85 g (including batteries)
30
31 • Battery: 2 × Type 123 batteries
32
33 • Reduced bacteria, protozoa, and viruses
34
35 • Cost: $79
36 • Procured from Meridian Design Inc.
37
38 The backpack-based system used three solar panels, each capable of producing
39
40 a peak power of 1.3 watts. The solar panels were used to charge the batteries that
41
42 operated the UV light filtration system. The solar panels had the following
43
44 specifications:
45
46 • Dimensions: 188 × 85 × 5 mm
47 • Weight: 120 g
48
49 • Substrate type: 3 mm aluminum/plastic
50
51 • Cell type: Monocrystalline
52
53 • Cell efficiency: 17%
54
55 • Open circuit voltage: 12V
56
57
• Peak wattage: 1.3 watts
58 • Cost: $6 per panel
59
60 • Procured from Voltaic Systems
61
62
63 8
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 Separate housings enclosed each filtration system used in the backpack
1
2 system. The housings can be pressurized using a hand pump. The design allowed
3
4
water to be poured into the top of the stackable housings and dispensed at the
5 bottom into outlet cups.
6
7
8 Crimson Viper 2011 Demonstration Systems
9
10
11 For Crimson Viper 2011, the demonstration was also conducted at the Sattahip
12
13 Royal Navy Base, Thailand. Site #1 was a stream located within the base, which
14
15
received the base runoff as well as the “gray” water from the surrounding
16 buildings. Site #2 had a rainwater catchment system comprised of a concrete tank,
17
18 which was previously used to wash parachutes. Figure 6 shows the two
19
20 demonstration sites at Crimson Viper 2011.
21
22
23 Portable reverse osmosis system for fresh water
24
25
26
Based on the lessons learned from Crimson Viper 2010, a modified version of the
27 soda bottle based RO system was fabricated and tested for demonstration at
28
29 Crimson Viper 2011. To serve the needs of a larger number of end users, an RO
30
31 system capable of filtering 170 L/day of water was selected, with the addition of a
32
33 Steripen UV disinfection unit as the final stage of water purification. Although the
34
35 RO system provides sufficient potable water, UH included the UV disinfection
36
37
stage based on feedback received from the Thai military during Crimson Viper
38 2010. The comments from the local population indicated they felt it was safer to
39
40 drink UV treated water. Figure 7 shows the portable RO system demonstrated at
41
42 Crimson Viper 2011.
43
44 This system used RO to filter fresh water for HA/DR scenarios. The six stages
45
46 of filtration used to obtain purified water were:
47
1. First Stage: Polypropylene sediment filter
48
49 • Osmonics 5-µm rating, Model #1-SED10
50
51 • Size: 10 in.
52
53 • Removed sediments and particles including dust, rust, and organic
54
55 matter
56
57 • Cost: $9
58 • Procured from APEC Water Systems Inc.
59
60 2. Second Stage: Carbon block filter
61
62
63 9
64
65
 • KX Extruded 5-µm rating, Model #23-CAB10
1
2 • Size: 10 in.
3
4
• Removed chlorine, taste, odor, cloudiness, and color
5 • Cost: $15
6
7 • Procured from APEC Water Systems Inc.
8
9 3. Third Stage: Carbon block filter
10
11 • KX Extruded 5-µm rating, Model #23-CAB10
12
13 • Size: 10 in.
14
15
• Removed residual chlorine, taste, and odor; improved RO membrane
16 efficiency and extended RO membrane life
17
18 • Cost: $15
19
20 • Procured from APEC Water Systems Inc.
21
22 4. Fourth Stage: High rejection thin film composite RO membrane
23
24 • Filmtec 0.0001-µm rating, Model #MEM-45
25
26
• Size: 10 in.
27 • Maximum operating temperature: 45°C
28
29 • Maximum feed flow rate: 7.6 L/min
30
31 • Removed Giardia cysts and Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria
32
33 • Cost: $65
34
35 • Procured from APEC Water Systems Inc.
36 5. Fifth Stage: Total polishing carbon filter
37
38 • Omnipure coconut shell refining carbon 5-µm rating, Model #5-TCR
39
40 • Removed any residual tastes and odors
41
42 • Cost: $15
43
44 • Procured from APEC Water Systems Inc.
45
46 6. Sixth Stage: Steripen UV disinfection system
47 • Weight: 471 g
48
49 • Battery: None; hand powered
50
51 • UV Lamp: 8,000 1 L treatments
52
53 • Removed bacteria, viruses, and protozoa
54
55 • Cost: $100
56
57
• Procured from Hydro-Photon Inc.
58 Figure 8 shows the filters used for this system. This system had two modes of
59
60 operation. If there was no external power source available, the source water can be
61
62
63 10
64
65
 fed through the system using a bicycle pump, which was included as part of the
1
2 system. The bicycle pump can be attached to the source water bottle and used to
3
4
pressurize the system to 344.73 kPa, which would allow the source water to pass
5 through the system. Alternatively, the system can be operated using a water pump
6
7 that draws power from a 12 V car battery. The car battery could then be charged
8
9 using a solar panel. This allowed the end user the flexibility to choose the mode of
10
11 system operation based on the available power source. The source water would
12
13 flow through the first five stages of filters, and the output water could then be
14
15
obtained at the faucet connected to the fifth stage. The water was then transferred
16 to the Steripen UV disinfection unit that was operated for 1.5 min using the crank
17
18 handle. The LEDs in the UV unit turned from red to green after 1.5 min to
19
20 indicate the water was ready for consumption.
21
22 The RO system is a compact system packaged in a Pelican carrying case,
23
24 which can be easily transported to the source water. The system was capable of
25
26
producing water at 136–170 L/day. This system could easily be scaled up to
27 produce around 340 L/day of water to serve the needs of a group of families
28
29 (small village). The peak production of 340 L could only be achieved if the unit
30
31 was operated continuously for a period of 24 h. To accomplish this, sufficient
32
33 manpower is required to operate the system, perform batch UV disinfection, and
34
35 store the treated water.
36 The specifications for the system included:
37
38 • System capacity: 136–170 L/day at 344.73 kPa to 413.68 kPa
39
40 • Feed water pH: 2.0–11.0
41
42 • Feed water pressure: 275.79 kPa to 689.47 kPa
43
44 • Feed water temperature: 4°C to 38°C
45
46 • Maximum total dissolved solids: 2,000 ppm
47 • System dimensions: 19 in. × 24 in. × 15 in.
48
49 • System package weight: ~ 18 kg
50
51 • Sediment filter replacement: 15,000 L
52
53 • Carbon filter replacement: 15,000 L
54
55 • RO membrane replacement: 60,000 L
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63 11
64
65
 Modified backpack based multi-level filter system
1
2
3
The lessons learned from Crimson Viper 2010 were used as a basis to modify and
4 fabricate the next iteration of the backpack based multi-level filter. The stacked
5
6 design of the backpack system described earlier caused leaking of water over time
7
8 from one filter compartment to the other. The UV disinfection unit was also
9
10 replaced with a hand-cranked system to eliminate the need for batteries. The
11
12 current iteration of the backpack system was designed while keeping these issues
13
14
in mind.
15 This system was a portable and lightweight water purification unit that used
16
17 different filters for each stage of water purification. Two different filters were
18
19 used in this system:
20
21 1. First Stage: Pentek spun polypropylene filter with the following
22
23 specifications:
24 • 5-µm rating, Model #P5-478
25
26 • Flow rate: 7.56 L/min at 2.07 kPa
27
28 • Temperature range: 4°C to 62°C
29
30 • Reduced sand, dirt, rust, and sediment
31
32 • Cost: $3
33
34 • Procured from Filter Fast LLC
35 2. Second Stage: Pentek carbon block filter with the following specifications:
36
37 • 0.5-µm rating, Model #CBC-5
38
39 • Removed bad taste, odor, and chlorine taste
40
41 • Cost: $10
42
43 • Procured from Filter Fast LLC
44
45
3. Third Stage: Steripen UV disinfection unit with the following
46 specifications:
47
48 • Weight: 471 g
49
50 • Battery: None; hand powered
51
52 • UV lamp: 8,000 1 L treatments
53
54 • Removed bacteria, viruses, and protozoa
55
56
• Cost: $100
57 • Procured from Hydro-Photon Inc.
58
59 Figure 9 shows the filters used in the modified backpack system. This system
60
61 can be operated using a bicycle pump to pressurize the system to 48.26–68.94
62
63 12
64
65
 kPa. Alternatively, the source water can be gravity fed to the system using a 3 ft
1
2 head. Hence, this system required no external power to operate.
3
4
The backpack system was a self-contained unit where all the components,
5 including filters, can easily fit in the backpack so the end user could carry the
6
7 technology to remote areas for deployment. The weight of the backpack system
8
9 was around 6.8 kg. This system would be ideal for providing potable drinking
10
11 water to an individual or a small group. This system was capable of producing 1 L
12
13 of drinking water in 5 min. Figure 10 shows the modified backpack based multi-
14
15
level system demonstrated at Crimson Viper 2011.
16
17
18 Results and Discussion
19
20
21 Water samples, both source water and output from the purification systems, were
22 tested at the Royal Thai Navy water laboratory at Sattahip Navy base in Thailand
23
24 for both the Crimson Viper 2010 and Crimson Viper 2011 exercises.
25
26
27 Crimson Viper 2010 Results
28
29
30 Soda bottle based reverse osmosis filter
31
32
33 Water from two sources within the Sattahip Navy base (Thailand) was used to test
34
35
the system performance. Tables 1 and 2 shows the quality of source water as well
36 as the output water from the soda bottle based RO filter demonstrated at Crimson
37
38 Viper 2010. Nine water quality parameters were tested for at Crimson Viper 2010.
39
40 The acceptable standards (set by the Thai military) for these parameters are also
41
42 shown in Tables 1 and 2. The data from the two sites using the soda bottle based
43
44 RO system showed that the product water met the acceptable drinking water
45
46
standards set by the Thai military.
47
48 Backpack based multi-level filter system
49
50
51 The results from testing the backpack system at Crimson Viper 2010 are shown in
52
53 Tables 3 and 4. The product water did not meet the coliform standard for Site #1.
54
55 UH assessed the reason for this and found that the stacked filter had some design
56
flaws. When the system was pressurized using a bicycle pump with too much air
57
58 space above, the source water overflowed from one compartment to the other, and
59
60 did not allow enough contact time with each filter. Also, the UV unit used in this
61
62
63 13
64
65
 system was in the bottom compartment, and after extended use, when the water
1
2 reached this compartment it penetrated into the electrical system of the UV unit
3
4
and caused malfunctioning. These drawbacks were used as the basis to redesign
5 the backpack system for Crimson Viper 2011.
6
7
8 Crimson Viper 2011 Results
9
10
11 Portable reverse osmosis filter for fresh water
12
13
14 The RO unit was modified to eliminate the need for plastic soda bottles. The
15
16 entire system was enclosed in a pelican case for easy transport. As noted earlier, a
17 batch UV disinfection unit was added as the sixth stage based on feedback from
18
19 the Thai military personnel during Crimson Viper 2010. They suggested that the
20
21 local population would trust the product water as potable if a UV disinfection
22
23 stage were added to the system.
24
25 The Royal Navy Water Lab personnel, at Sattahip Navy Base (Thailand),
26
27
analyzed the water samples and the Thai military water quality standards were
28 used as a baseline to evaluate the system performance. Tables 5 and 6 shows the
29
30 results for 14 water quality parameters for the source as well as the product water.
31
32 These 14 parameters were selected by the Thai military for testing during the
33
34 Crimson Viper 2011 exercise.
35
36 The data from the portable RO filter shows that the product water from this
37
38
system met all 14 standards set by the Thai military whether the source was
39 stream water or rainwater.
40
41
42 Modified backpack based multi-level filter system
43
44
45 UH modified the stacked backpack filter design after the demonstration at
46
47 Crimson Viper 2010 revealed design flaws. In the modified backpack system,
48
49
each filter compartment was separated to ensure water from one compartment did
50 not overflow and contaminate water in the compartment below. This also
51
52 encouraged more uniform pressurization. Tables 7 and 8 shows the results for 14
53
54 water quality parameters that were tested as part of this exercise for both the
55
56 stream water and rainwater.
57
58 The three water purification systems and their modifications discussed in this
59
60
paper presented a subset of low cost water purification systems that could be used
61 for HA/DR scenarios. Since HA/DR situations are unique, a single or combination
62
63 14
64
65
 of these systems may provide temporary solutions in obtaining potable drinking
1
2 water until capacity is rebuilt. UH is currently exploring replacing the hand
3
4
cranked UV unit with an inline UV system for the portable RO system. This will
5 allow continuous production of water instead of a system behaving as a batch
6
7 operation unit.
8
9
10 Acknowledgements Funding for this research was provided by Pacific International Center for
11 High Technology Research (PICHTR)/Hawaii Technology Development Venture (HTDV)
12
13 through the Office of Naval Research (ONR). The authors would like to acknowledge the United
14
States Pacific Command (USPACOM) and the Marine Corps Forces Pacific Experimentation
15
16 Center (MEC) for their support for this project.
17
18
19 References
20
21
22 Bellamy WD, Silverman GP, Hendricks DW, Logsdon GS (1985) Removing Giardia cysts with
23
24 slow sand filtration. J Am Water Works Assoc 77(2):52–60
25
26 Boyle PM, Houchens BC (2008) Hands-on water purification experiments using the adaptive
27
28 WaTER Laboratory for Undergraduate Education and K-12 Outreach. Proceedings of the
29
30 2008 ASME Fluids Engineering Division Summer Meeting, Jacksonville, FL, pp 107-116
31
32 Haarhoff J, Cleasby JL (1991) Biological and physical mechanisms in slow sand filtration.
33
34 American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, pp 19–68
35
36 Huisman L, Wood WE (1974) Slow sand filtration. World Health Organization, Geneva. ISBN
37
38 9241540370
39
40 Logsdon GS, Kohne R, Abel S, LaBonde S (2002) Slow sand filtration for small water systems. J
41
42 Environ Eng Sci 1:339–348
43
44 Oasis Design (1991) Slow sand filtration.
45
46 http://www.oasisdesign.net/water/treatment/slowsandfilter.htm
47
48 Olsen P, Paulson D (2008) Water science and marketing, LLC, Performance evaluation: Removal
49
50 of perfluorochemicals with point-of-use water treatment devices, final report prepared for the
51
52 state of Minnesota, Minnesota Department of Health
53
54
55
56
57 Figure Captions
58
59 Fig 1 Demonstration sites at Crimson Viper 2010
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61
62
63 15
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65
 Fig 2 Slow sand filter demonstrated at Crimson Viper 2010 and 2011
1
2 Fig 3 Slow sand filter to be demonstrated at Balikatan
3
4
5 Fig 4 Soda bottle based RO filter demonstrated at Crimson Viper 2010
6
7 Fig 5 Backpack based multi-level filter demonstrated at Crimson Viper 2010
8
9
10 Fig 6 Demonstration sites at Crimson Viper 2010
11
12 Fig 7 Portable RO system demonstrated at Crimson Viper 2011
13
14
15
Fig 8 Filters used for portable RO system
16
17 Fig 9 Filters used for modified backpack based multi-level filter
18
19 Fig 10 Modified backpack based multi-level filter demonstrated at Crimson Viper
20
21
22 2011
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24
25
26
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Table

Table 1 Soda bottle based RO system results at site #1 (pond water), Crimson Viper 2010

Parameter Standarda Pond water baseline RO system

Turbidity (NTU) <5 13.4 0.29

pH range 6.5–8.5 7.4 6.0
Total dissolved solids (TDS) mg/L < 500 385 235
Hardness (CaCO3) mg/L < 100 120 50
Nitrate (NO3) mg/L <4 0.7 0.5
Sulphate (SO4) mg/L < 250 51 7
Electrical conductivity – 924 496
3
Total coliform bacteria (TCB) MPN/100 cm < 2.2 2,419.6 1.1
3
E. coli colonies/100 cm None 2 0
Note: NTU = nephelometric turbidity units, MPN = most probable number.
a
Refers to Thai military drinking water standard.

Table 2 Soda bottle based RO system results at site #2 (lake water), Crimson Viper 2010
Parameter Standarda Lake water baseline RO system

Turbidity (NTU) <5 12 0.14

pH range 6.5–8.5 7 6.0
Total dissolved solids (TDS) mg/L < 500 111.8 123.7
Hardness (CaCO3) mg/L < 100 120 120
Nitrate (NO3) mg/L <4 0.4 0.6
Sulphate (SO4) mg/L < 250 3 1
Electrical conductivity – 236 257
3
Total coliform bacteria (TCB) MPN/100 cm < 2.2 > 2,419.6 0
3
E. coli colonies/100 cm None 45.7 0
Note: NTU = nephelometric turbidity units, MPN = most probable number.
a
Refers to Thai military drinking water standard.
Table 3 Backpack based multi-level filter results at site #1 (pond water), Crimson Viper 2010

Parameter Standarda Pond water baseline Backpack

system

Turbidity (NTU) <5 13.4 3.32

pH range 6.5–8.5 7.4 6.5
Total dissolved solids (TDS) mg/L < 500 385 285
Hardness (CaCO3) mg/L < 100 120 120
Nitrate (NO3) mg/L <4 0.7 0.5
Sulphate (SO4) mg/L < 250 51 45
Electrical conductivity – 924 537
3
Total coliform bacteria (TCB) MPN/100 cm < 2.2 2,419.6 45.3
3
E. coli colonies/100 cm None 2 0
Note: NTU = nephelometric turbidity units, MPN = most probable number.
a
Refers to Thai military drinking water standard.

Table 4 Backpack based multi-level filter results at site #2 (lake water), Crimson Viper 2010

Parameter Standarda Lake water baseline Backpack

system

Turbidity (NTU) <5 12 1.75

pH range 6.5–8.5 7 6.5
Total dissolved solids (TDS) mg/L < 500 111.8 118.2
Hardness (CaCO3) mg/L < 100 120 120
Nitrate (NO3) mg/L <4 0.4 0.6
Sulphate (SO4) mg/L < 250 3 0
Electrical conductivity – 236 249
3
Total coliform bacteria (TCB) MPN/100 cm < 2.2 > 2,419.6 1
E. coli colonies/100 cm3 None 45.7 0
Note: NTU = nephelometric turbidity units, MPN = most probable number.
a
Refers to Thai military drinking water standard.
Table 5 Portable RO system results at site #1 (stream water), Crimson Viper 2011

Parameter Standarda Stream water baseline RO system

Color < 20 74 0
Odor None None None
Turbidity (NTU) <5 3.42 0.40
pH range 6.5–8.5 7.71 6.82
Total dissolved solids (TDS) mg/L < 500 1,064* 51.34
Hardness (CaCO3) mg/L < 100 256.7* 0
Chloride (Cl) mg/L < 250 268.5* 14.7
Nitrate (NO3) mg/L <4 0.2 0.8
Sulphate (SO4) mg/L < 250 76.09 0
Iron (Fe) mg/L < 0.3 0.09 0
Electrical conductivity – 1,504 81.42
3
Total bacterial count (TBC) colonies/cm – – –
3
Total coliform bacteria (TCB) MPN/100 cm < 2.2 > 200.5 0
E. coli colonies/100 cm3 None > 200.5 0
Note: NTU = nephelometric turbidity units, MPN = most probable number.
a
Refers to Thai military drinking water standard.
*The stream water had high salt content, because of this the TDS, hardness and chloride results for backpack did not meet the
standard as the backpack system is designed to purify fresh water only and is not designed to remove salts or ions.

Table 6 Portable RO system results at site #2 (rain water), Crimson Viper 2011
Parameter Standarda Rain water baseline RO system

Color < 20 7 0
Odor None None None
Turbidity (NTU) <5 1.21 0.29
pH range 6.5–8.5 7.21 6.50
Total dissolved solids (TDS) mg/L < 500 38.76 24.90
Hardness (CaCO3) mg/L < 100 0 0
Chloride (Cl) mg/L < 250 4.9 9.8
Nitrate (NO3) mg/L <4 0.5 0.2
Sulphate (SO4) mg/L < 250 0 0
Iron (Fe) mg/L < 0.3 0.01 0.02
Electrical conductivity – 61.20 39.27
3
Total bacterial count (TBC) colonies/cm – – –
3
Total coliform bacteria (TCB) MPN/100 cm < 2.2 > 200.5 0
3
E. coli colonies/100 cm None > 200.5 0
Note: NTU = nephelometric turbidity units, MPN = most probable number.
a
Refers to Thai military drinking water standard.
Table 7 Modified backpack based multi-level filter results at site #1 (stream water), Crimson Viper 2011

Parameter Standarda Stream water baseline Backpack

system

Color < 20 74 2
Odor None None None
Turbidity (NTU) <5 3.42 0.50
pH range 6.5–8.5 7.71 7.94
Total dissolved solids (TDS) mg/L < 500 1,064* 1,021
Hardness (CaCO3) mg/L < 100 256.7* 257.5
Chloride (Cl) mg/L < 250 268.5* 255.7
Nitrate (NO3) mg/L <4 0.2 0.6
Sulphate (SO4) mg/L < 250 76.09 77.01
Iron (Fe) mg/L < 0.3 0.09 0.02
Electrical conductivity – 1,504 1,449
Total bacterial count (TBC) colonies/cm3 – – –
3
Total coliform bacteria (TCB) MPN/100 cm < 2.2 > 200.5 0
3
E. coli colonies/100 cm None > 200.5 0
Note: NTU = nephelometric turbidity units, MPN = most probable number.
a
Refers to Thai military drinking water standard.
*The stream water had high salt content, because of this the TDS, hardness and chloride results for backpack did not meet the
standard as the backpack system is designed to purify fresh water only and is not designed to remove salts or ions.

Table 8 Modified backpack based multi-level filter results at site #2 (rain water), Crimson Viper 2011

Parameter Standarda Rain water baseline Backpack

system

Color < 20 7 0
Odor None None None
Turbidity (NTU) <5 1.21 0.78
pH range 6.5–8.5 7.21 8.69
Total dissolved solids (TDS) mg/L < 500 38.76 69.60
Hardness (CaCO3) mg/L < 100 0 0
Chloride (Cl) mg/L < 250 4.9 18.6
Nitrate (NO3) mg/L <4 0.5 0.6
Sulphate (SO4) mg/L < 250 0 0
Iron (Fe) mg/L < 0.3 0.01 0
Electrical conductivity – 61.20 109.5
3
Total bacterial count (TBC) colonies/cm – – –
3
Total coliform bacteria (TCB) MPN/100 cm < 2.2 > 200.5 0
3
E. coli colonies/100 cm None > 200.5 0
Note: NTU = nephelometric turbidity units, MPN = most probable number.
a
Refers to Thai military drinking water standard.