(ONT Melee cere: Ci mer Ta 19 oY @ CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM, & CENTRE OF MASS 1) IMPULSE-MOMENTUM THEOREM, AND CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM: = In chapter 2 we defined(but not used much) the momentum of a particle as p = mv, and wrote Newton's law in the form =F = dp/dt. This ‘general’ equation of Newton's second law can be written in another form called ‘impulse- momentum’ theorem P2-P, = S(ZF)dt The quantity on the right-hand side of this equation is known as the ‘linear impulse’, or simply ‘impulse’, of the net force =F during the time-interval considered. Thus, the change in momentum of a particle during a time interval is equal to the impulse during the same time interval. Specifically, if 2F = 0, then p = constt. A system’s momentum is the vector sum of the individual momenta of that system, P = Zp. Differentiating this with respect to time, we find: dP/dt = d(zp)/dt = X(dp/dt) = 2(2F) Write a comment... CcPre Lee Code Ceo Coma c aer|| T nr 0 Q The double summation on the right-hand side denotes the net of the net forces acting on the particles of the system. Furthermore, since internal forces cancel in pairs, so X(=F) is just the net ‘external’ force (the net force applied from ‘outside’ the system) on the system. xF = dP/dt This equation implies that the time derivative of a system’s momentum is equal to the net external force on the system. That is, a system’s momentum changes only if there's a net external force on the system. Internal forces cannot change the momentum of a system. Also, it follows from the above equation that the change in a system's momentum is equal to the impulse of the net external force, P, - P, = JrF dt. In the special case when the net external force is zero, P = constant. That is, the momentum of an isolated(no net external force) system remains constant. This is the law of conservation of momentum, one of the most fundamental laws of physics which is valid without exceptions. This law is more basic Write a comment... Cc5:17 PM (OPT ie mee CnC er Mra elt € Posts Ol than the Newton's laws, since it applies to subatomic and nuclear systems where the laws and even the language of Newtonian physics are hopelessly inadequate. One more thing, the momenta of individual parts of an isolated system may change. These changes, however, always happens so that the momentum increment of one part of the system is equal to the momentum decrease of another part of the system. Notice that, all of the above equations contain three independent rectangular component equations. e Impulsive motion: In some problems, a very large force may act during a very short time interval on an object. Such a force is called an ‘impulsive force’ and the resulting motion an ‘impulsive motion’. Impulse-momentum theorem is particularly effective in the impulsive motion. Any force which is not an impulsive force may be neglected. 'Nonimpulsive' forces include the weight of an object, the spring force, or any Write a comment... CcPr ete Code. (coe Coma c aer|| T 0 Q other force which is 'known' to be small compared with an impulsive force. Unknown reactions may or may not be impulsive, their impulse should therefore be included as long as it has not been proved negligible. One more thing, when a problem involves two or more objects, each object may be considered separately and the impulse- momentum theorem may be written for each object. 2) CENTRE OF MASS: => Any system possesses one remarkable point, called ‘centre of mass’, or ‘centre of inertia’, displaying a number of interesting properties. Its position relative to the origin of a frame is defined as R=Xmr/M or, with continuous mass, R = frdm/M It should be noted that, (1) both of these equations contain three independent equations for the three components of the centre-of-mass position. Write a comment... Cc5:17 PM (ORT me CCC mer ra elt € Posts Oh (2) to find the centre of mass of a system, each parts of the system can be treated as a particle located at its own centre of mass. (3) if a system has a line of symmetry, then its centre of mass lies on that line. That means, in case of more than one line of symmetry, centre of mass is the point of intersection of these lines. (4) asystem’s centre of mass coincides its ‘centre of gravity’ only when the gravity can be assumed uniform over the system. e Centre of mass of a pair of particles, uniform line, arc, circular sector, triangle, hemispherical shell, hemisphere, right circular conical shell, and solid cone. e Centre of mass in cut-out cases. Differentiating equation R = Zmr/M with respect to time, we get the velocity of the centre of mass, V=Zmv/M Write a comment... GIF Cc5:17 PM (ONT eC CC Mra elt € Posts Ol Since the quantity mv is the momentum of the system. We therefore have an important result that: "A system’s momentum is equal to the product of the mass of the system and the velocity of its centre of mass." P = mv = MV. Notice that, if net external force is zero, then V = constant, that is, :mAv = 0. Moreover, if V = 0, then AR = 0, that is, :mAr = 0. We can find the acceleration of the centre of mass by again differentiating the equation V = =mv/M with respect to time. A=Xma/M The quantity £ma(= ==F) is the net ‘external’ force on the system. We therefore get one of the most important equations of physics, xF =MA According to this equation, any system's centre of mass moves as if it were a particle of mass M, and all external forces on the system were applied to it. Notice that all of the above equations contain Write a comment... CcPr ete Coe (coe Cac er || Tn 0 Q three independent rectangular component equations. 3) THE CENTRE-OF-MASS FRAME: = A frame "translating" with the centre of mass is called the centre-of-mass frame. The CM frame is also called the zero-momentum frame, since a system’s momentum is always zero in this frame. When we want to examine the relative motion of objects of a system, it is most advisable to resort to the CM frame. The CM frame of an isolated system is inertial, while that of a non- isolated system is non-inertial. Since the velocity of a particle of a system can be written as the vector sum of the centre-of- mass velocity V, and the velocity v' of that particle relative to the centre of mass, the kinetic energy of the system can be written as, K = MV2/2 + Xmv'2/2 The first term MV7?/2, is the kinetic energy associated with centre-of-mass motion. The second term 2mv’72/2, called internal kinetic Write a comment... CcPr te Coie. (coe Camara || Tn a_i 0 Q energy, is the kinetic energy of the motion relative to the centre of mass. Above equation shows that the kinetic energy is minimum in the CM frame. Note that, when the net external force is zero, V is constant, and therefore, MV?/2 remains unchanged. This means, in case of an isolated system, only 2mv’'2/2 is available for conversion to other purposes. 4) COLLISION: > A collision is a brief, strong interaction between objects. Often the time of collision is so short that the objects don't move appreciably during the collision, and the interaction forces are so strong that the effect of external forces is negligible during the brief collision time. With external forces negligible, the momentum of the colliding system is conserved(however, the internal interaction forces alter the motions of the individual colliding objects), velocity of the centre of mass is constant, and the part MV?/2 of kinetic energy is locked. Write a comment... Cc5:16 PM (ORPrT meC C.CenCo mer Mla elt € Posts Ol If the internal forces are conservative, a part or all, of Xmv'2/2 is stored briefly as potential energy, and then released again by the time the collision is over. The total kinetic energy remains unchanged, and the collision is said to be ‘elastic’. If the internal forces are non-conservative, a part or all, of mv'2/2 is lost, and the collision is said to be ‘inelastic’. In a perfectly inelastic collision, all Zmv'?/2 is lost. @ Collision in One Dimension: When two objects collide "head-on", the interaction forces act along the same line as the striking motion, and the objects’ subsequent motion must therefore be along that same line. Conservation of momentum gives M,V,+MgV.=M,U,+MzU, —..... (A) Where the v's and u’s stand for ‘velocities’, and can therefore be positive or negative. If the masses and initial velocities are given, this equation gives one relation between the Write a comment... CcCa (ONT me CCC mer Tac elt € Posts Ol two unknowns v, and v,. Two find each of these unknowns, we need a second relation. The second relation comes from energy considerations. If the collision is elastic, the initial and final kinetic energies are equal, and we have, m,vV,? + m,v,? = m,u,? + m,u,? Now, the equations are sufficient to determine the final velocities of the two objects. However, with a slight rearrangement of these equation, we can write V2 7 Vy =~ (Uz ~ Uy) This equation shows that the relative velocity reverses after the collision. Moreover, it is often easiest to use this equation and momentum equation to find the final velocities, thus avoiding the quadratic terms in the kinetic energy equation. For perfectly inelastic collisions, the second relation between the final velocities is that they are equal to each other and to the velocity of the center of the mass. This result combined with the momentum conservation then gives Write a comment... CcPr ete Coe (coe Coma c aer|| T na 0 Q Vy = Va = (m,u, + m,U,)/(m, + m,) In general, a collision is somewhere between the extreme cases of elastic, in which case the relative velocities are reversed, and perfectly inelastic, in which case there is no relative velocity after the collision. The coefficient of restitution ‘e' is defined as the ratio of the relative velocity of recession and the relative velocity of approach: Vo7 Vy =-@(Up- Uy) wee (B) For an elastic collision e = 1, for a perfectly inelastic collision e = 0. It is important to note that: (1) when a very heavy object collide head-on with a very light one, the heavy object continues its motion approximately unchanged, and the equation of restitution is sufficient to find the velocity of the light object. This implies that, in a head-on ‘elastic’ collision of alight object and a stationary heavy object, the light object rebounds with no change in speed. And, if a heavy object collide head-on ‘elastically’ with a stationary light object, the Write a comment... CcPr ete Cole (Coe Conc ae || Tn a_i 0 Q light object rebounds with twice the speed of the heavy object. (2) in a head-on ‘elastic’ collision, the objects exchange velocities if they have equal masses. @ Collision in Three Dimensions: Analyzing a "glancing" collision requires the full vector statement of momentum conservation, along with the energy consideration. But these equations alone don't provide sufficient information to solve a problem. We need an additional piece of information such as the ‘impact parameter’ or the direction of motion of one of the two object after collision. It follows that, the velocity-component of each object perpendicular to the ‘line of impact’ remains unchanged, while the components along the line of impact satisfy equations similar to Eqs. (A) & (B). However, a perfectly inelastic collision presents no special difficulty, since the objects stick together, and move off with the velocity of the CM. Write a comment... Cc